Psych 102 Week 7. Intelligence

One general factor of Intelligence that Charles Spearman believed

- G = single factor of intelligence -Could be measured and compared among individuals -Spearman focused on the commonalities among various intellectual abilities and deemphasized what made each unique -Aristotle held a similar view -Charles Spearman (1863-1945) was a psychologist and statistician. -He was famous for developing Factor Analysis. -Factor analysis is a statistical technique that analyzes the correlations amongst a large set of variables to identify clusters of variables. Examine how items/variables cluster together based on similarity -From his factor analysis of tests of mental abilities he concluded that there is one factor: g (general mental ability)

Recent attempts to provide simple definitions of creativity

-"Creativity can be thought of as the development of novel solutions that work" (Runco, 2004; from Johnson et al., 2012) -"the ability to realize something that is new and useful or meaningful within a certain social context" (Thys et al., 2013)

Creativity and Psychiatric Illness Early History

-"The poet has no invention in him until he has been inspired and is out of his senses" (Socrates, as quoted by Plato) -"No great genius has ever existed without a strain of madness" (Aristotle) -"Why is it that all those who have become eminent in philosophy, politics, poetry or the arts suffer from melancholy?" (Aristotle)

Quote from andreasen

-"When the associations flying through the brain self-organize to form a new idea, the result is creativity. But if they either fail to self-organize or if they self-organize to create an erroneous idea, the result is psychosis. Sometimes both occur in the same person, and the result is a creative person who is also psychotic. As [schizophrenic mathematician John] Nash, who inspired the film A Beautiful Mind once said, "the ideas I have about supernatural beings came to me the same way that my mathematical ideas did. So I took them both seriously".

Moderate intellectual disability

-10 percent of intellectually disabled population -Basic reading and writing skills; functional self-care skills;; requires some oversight

High IQs

-2 percent of the population falls into the highest spectrum of the bell curve -People are considered gifted if they have an IQ score of 130 or higher, or superior intelligence in a particular area -Long ago, popular belief suggested that people of high intelligence were maladjusted. This idea was disproven through a groundbreaking study of gifted children. -In 1921, Lewis Terman began a longitudinal study of over 1500 children with IQs over 135 (Terman, 1925). His findings showed that these children became well-educated, successful adults who were, in fact, well-adjusted. -Additionally, Terman's study showed that the subjects were above average in physical build and attractiveness, dispelling an earlier popular notion that highly intelligent people were "weaklings." Some people with very high IQs elect to join Mensa, an organization dedicated to identifying, researching, and fostering intelligence. -Members must have an IQ score in the top 2% of the population, and they may be required to pass other exams in their application to join the group.

Jamison Study (1989)

-47 British writers, high likelihood of them being treated for bipolar disorder or depression in particular -A lot of them were being treated with psychotherapy or medications for an affective illness

Severe intellectual disability

-5 percent of intellectually disabled population -Functional self-care skills; requires oversight of daily environment and activities

Mild intellectual disability

-85 percent of intellectually disabled population -3rd to 6th-grade skill level in reading, writing, and math -May be employed and live independently

Additional intelligences beyond the 8th

-9th = Existential, ability to grasp deep philosophical ideas -10th = humour intelligence -11th = memory intelligence

Vailidity

-Ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure -If you create a test that claims to measure aggressiveness you have to show that it does in fact measure that behaviour

Intrapersonal intelligence

-Ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behaviour and reach personal goals -Draws upon own feelings to guide behaviour -Realistically understand own weaknesses, strengths, and desires -Key component of personal success over time

Spatial intelligence

-Ability to perceive the relationship between objects and how they move in space -The person perceives visual-spatial world very accurately and can perform mental transformations on those perceptions. -Choreographer, sculptor, architect, aviator, sailor

Interpersonal intelligence

-Ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states of others -Individuals who are high in interpersonal intelligence discern and respond appropriately to the moods, need, and motivations of others. -Counsellor, social worker, salesperson, therapist

Crystallized intelligence

-Acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it -When you learn, remember, and recall information you use CRYSTALLIZED intelligence -You use crystallized intelligence in coursework by demonstrating that you have mastered information in a course -Helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems

Single intelligence to multiple intelligence

-Although g still exists, many people have expressed dissatisfaction with this unitary view of intelligence. So there's been a move towards the idea of multiple intelligences -There have been a variety of theories of multiple intelligences or mental abilities ranging from those which have just 2-3 categories to those that have 150.

Confounding variable in determining origins high intelligence

-Another challenge to determining origins of high intelligence is the confounding nature of our human social structures. -It is troubling to note that some ethnic groups perform better on IQ tests than others—and it is likely that the results do not have much to do with the quality of each ethnic group's intellect. -The same is true for socioeconomic status. =Children who live in poverty experience more pervasive, daily stress than children who do not worry about the basic needs of safety, shelter, and food. These worries can negatively affect how the brain functions and develops, causing a dip in IQ scores. -Mark Kishiyama and his colleagues determined that children living in poverty demonstrated reduced prefrontal brain functioning comparable to children with damage to the lateral prefrontal cortex

Biographical studies

-Another form of study that is being used to look at the relationship between, in particular bipolar disorder and creativity, since there is a long standing reported relationship between bipolar disorder and creativity -There have been many studies that are of this biographical nature And most of them report increased productivity during periods of mania or hypomania.

Average IQ

-Any IQ score that falls within one standard deviation above and below the mean (between 85 and 115) is considered average -82% of the population in this range

Environment + Genes and intelligence

-Both are important -Genetics may control the level of intelligence, but environmental influences provide stability and change to trigger manifestation of cognitive abilities -There are behaviours that support the development of intelligence, but the genetic component of high intelligence is also very important -As with all heritable traits, however, it is not always possible to isolate how and when high intelligence is passed on to the next generation.

Logical-mathematical intelligence

-Capable of seeing/discern numerical patterns, strong ability to use reason and logic -Ability to handle logical chains of reasoning -Scientist, mathematician

Dysgraphia

-Children with dysgraphia have a learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly. -The physical task of writing with a pen and paper is extremely challenging for the person. These children often have extreme difficulty putting their thoughts down on paper. -This difficulty is inconsistent with a person's IQ. -That is, based on the child's IQ and/or abilities in other areas, a child with dysgraphia should be able to write, but can't. -Children with dysgraphia may also have problems with spatial abilities. -Students with dysgraphia need academic accommodations to help them succeed in school. -These accommodations can provide students with alternative assessment opportunities to demonstrate what they know. -For example, a student with dysgraphia might be permitted to take an oral exam rather than a traditional paper-and-pencil test. -Treatment is usually provided by an occupational therapist, although there is some question as to how effective such treatment is

Analytical intelligence

-Closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations -Demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast e.g: analyzing historical context of a story, analyzing a math problem, studying the processes by which the body uses various minerals in different human systems .

Learning disabilities

-Cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading. -It should be pointed out that learning disabilities are not the same thing as intellectual disabilities. -Learning disabilities are considered specific neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or developmental disabilities. -A person with a language disability has difficulty understanding or using spoken language, whereas someone with a reading disability, such as dyslexia, has difficulty processing what he or she is reading. -Often, learning disabilities are not recognized until a child reaches school age. -One confounding aspect of learning disabilities is that they often affect children with average to above-average intelligence. At the same time, learning disabilities tend to exhibit comorbidity with other disorders, like attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). -Anywhere between 30-70% of individuals with diagnosed cases of ADHD also have some sort of learning disability

Emotional intelligence

-Combination of Gardner's Inter- and Intrapersonal intelligences -Encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways -High emotional intelligence = well-developed social skills -Some researchers argue that emotional intelligence is a better predictor of success than traditional intelligence, but emotional intelligence has been widely debated as there are many inconsistencies in the way it is described and defined, and also questions results of a studies on a subject that is difficult to measure and study emperically

Practical Intelligence

-Compared to "street smarts"/ common sense -You can find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences -Separate from IQ; individuals who have high practical intelligence may not have comparable scores in creative and analytical intelligence e.g: run away from gunshots = practical intelligence

Intelligence

-Complex characteristics of cognition -Many different theories try to explain what it is and how it works

Convergent thinking

-Convergent thinking: You narrow down a list of alternatives to converge on a single correct answer. -Multiple choice question

Francis Galton

-Cousin of Charles Darwin 1) Pioneer of modern statistics (correlation and regression) 2) Use of questionnaires and surveys 3) Initiator of the field of meteorology 4) Publisher of over 340 articles and books 5) Coining the term nature vs. nurture 6) Initiated modern forensic sciences 7) Interested in statistical study of the efficacy of prayer 8) Constructing a beauty map of the British Isles 9) Attempted to quantify boredom (not successful) 10) Coined the term "eugenics" and promoted it -also coined term nature vs nurutre

Qualities of creativity

-Creative insights are usually not "Eureka" experiences. They usually come from lots of hard work (1 part inspiration, 99 parts perspiration) and extensive knowledge in a subject matter.

Creativity

-Creativity is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities. -Very creative people often have intense knowledge about something, work on it for years, look at novel solutions, seek out the advice and help of other experts, and take risks. Although creativity is often associated with the arts, it is actually a vital form of intelligence that drives people in many disciplines to discover something new. -Creativity can be found in every area of life, from the way you decorate your residence to a new way of understanding how a cell works. -Creativity is often assessed as a function of one's ability to engage in divergent thinking. -Divergent thinking can be described as thinking "outside the box;" it allows an individual to arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem. -In contrast, convergent thinking describes the ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem (correct answer to standard questions that don't require creativity like tasks in school and standardized multiple choice tests for intelligence) -Creativity, although an individual strength, benefits from intercations with others -Difficult to measure objectively -It involves generating novel approaches to problems--that are both useful and appropriate to the context or problem.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)/ Weschler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale

-David Wechsler = a psychologist who spent part of his career working with World War 1 veterans -Combined several subtests from other intelligence tests used between 1880 and WW1 -Subtests tapped into a variety of verbal and nonverbal skills, because Wechsler believed that intelligence encompassed "the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment" -One of the most extensively used intelligence tests in the history of psychologists -The name was later changed to WAIS from the original name, and has been revised several times, but the aims of the test are virtually unchanged since its inception

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory

-Developed by Howard Gardner -The most prominent proponent of a non-unitary view of intelligence has been Howard Gardner, who has published many books on his theory of Multiple Intelligences. -Gardner has proposed that there are 8 autonomous human intelligences. -Each person possesses at least 8 intelligences and among these intelligences, a person typically excels in some and falters in others -Relatively new, needs additional reserach to better establish empirical support -Challenges the traditional idea of intelligence to include a wider variety of abilities, although it has been suggested that Gardner simply relabeled what other theorists called "cognitive styles" as "intelligences" -Devleloping a traditional meausre of Gardner's intelligences is extremely difficult -Gardner has found that people don't exclusively lie in one of the categories, but rather usually exhibit mixtures of the various types. -Linguisitic, Logical-mathematical, Musical, Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence, Spatial intelligence, Interpersonal intelligence, Intrapersonal intelligence, Naturalist intelligence

Dyslexia

-Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children. -An individual with dyslexia exhibits an inability to correctly process letters. -The neurological mechanism for sound processing does not work properly in someone with dyslexia. -As a result, dyslexic children may not understand sound-letter correspondence. -A child with dyslexia may mix up letters within words and sentences—letter reversals, such as those shown in Fig. 2, are a hallmark of this learning disability—or skip whole words while reading. -A dyslexic child may have difficulty spelling words correctly while writing. -Because of the disordered way that the brain processes letters and sound, learning to read is a frustrating experience. -Some dyslexic individuals cope by memorizing the shapes of most words, but they never actually learn to read

Fluid intelligence

-Encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems -Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence -Helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in daily life

Eugenics

-Eugenics = study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or human population by such means as discouraging reproduction by persons having genetic defects or presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits = NEGATIVE EUGENICS -Encouraging the reproduction by persons presumed to have inheritable, desirable traits = POSITIVE EUGENICS -As a social movement, eugenics reached its height of popularity in the early decades of the 20th century -By the end of World War 2, eugenics had been largely abandoned -Eugenics movement was in place for a long time, books called the Eugenics Qaurterly changed its name in 1969 to Social Biology -In Canada, for example, the eugenics movement was particularly prevalent in Alberta where the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta was enacted in 1928. And this focused on the sterilization of mentally deficient individuals as determined by the Alberta Eugenics Board.

Robert Yerkes

-Famous psychologists from the early part of the 20th century -Responsible for the first major implementation of intelligence testing during WW1 -Intelligence tests were administered by Yerkes and his colleagues to 1.75 million recruits -There were 3 versions of their test: 1) Army Alpha - a written test 2) Army Beta --a pictorial test 3) Individual Examination with Binet Scales -They generally administered in such a way that if a person could take the Army Alpha, they would take the Army Alpha. -If they were unable to take a written test, then they were take the Army Beta. I -f they were unable even to complete the Army Beta, they would take the individual examination with the Binet scales. Yerkes asserted that his tests "measure native intellectual ability." However, his tests had the consistent effect of rendering recent immigrants to the category of innate stupidity

Criticism to Gardner's theory

-First of all, it's often considered to be vague and difficult to test. -And this is, in part, because Gardner hasn't developed tests to measure his intelligences, so it is virtually impossible to falsify. -And if you recall, an important aspect of any scientific theory is that it should be falsifiable. -Other theories of multiple intelligences exist, and one very popular alternative one is the triarchic model of Robert Sternberg.

Why we need IQ testing

-For children who may seem to be experiencing learning difficulties or severe behavioural problems can be tested to determine if they are partly attributed to an IQ score different from the mean for her age group -Without IQ testing, children and adults needing extra support might not be identified effectively -IQ testing can be important in courts to determine if a defendant has special or extenuating circumstances that preclude him from participating in some way in a trial -People also use IQ testing results to seek disability benefits from the Social Security Administration -IQ tests have sometimes been used as arguments in support of insidious purposes, such as the eugenic movement

Intellectual disability

-Formerly known as mental retardation, the accepted term now is intellectual disability, and it has four subtypes: mild, moderate, severe, and profound -IQ below 70

Lower and middle class and Henry Goddard

-Goddard extended his idea of mental deficiency to the lower and middle classes: "The people who are doing the drudgery are, as a rule, in their proper places." "Democracy means that the people rule by selecting the wisest, most intelligent and most human to tell them what to do to be happy. Thus Democracy is a method for arriving at a truly benevolant aristocracy. "

Immigrants and Goddard

-Goddard was also responsible for preventing many "mentally defective" immigrants from entering the US. -Using the Binet's scale, he was particularly adept at eliminating individuals from certain countries and backgrounds: 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, 79% of Italians, and 87% of Russians. This seems to be for at least 2 reasons: 1) Translation of Binet scale was wrong and biased to certain individuals 2) He applied his version of the test (Binet scale) to individuals who could barely speak a word of English and were under much stress because they were trying to gain entry in the US and were being tested -Goddard felt that the feeble-minded should be prevented from entering the US, and that the ones present should be either institutionalized or kept from mating outside their own pedigree.

Bodily kinesthetic intelligence

-High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks -Handle objects skillfully and control bodily movements -Dancer, athlete, athletic coach, yoga instructor

Naturalist intelligence

-High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it -Ability to recognize and categorize objects and processes in nature -Biologist, ecologist, environmentalist

Superior IQ

-IQ score of above 130

Qualities of Binet's IQ test

-In 1908, Binet published a version of his test that was laterdeveloped into the IQ test. It had the following qualities: 1. The test began with the child being presented with the simplest items, and then progressed into more difficult items. 2. Each task was assigned an age level, so the last task the child could complete determined their "mental age." 3. Children who had a mental age that was sufficiently behind their chronological age could then be identified for special education. -Binet's test was not designed to identify children of superior ability but of those who are in need of extra support in education

Stern's arguments about Binet's mental age

-In 1912, W. Stern argued that Binet's mental age should be divided by the chronological age, rather than be subtracted from it (mental age/chronological age)(100%) = Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Personality and Creativity

-In a meta-analysis of many studies of the association between certain personality characteristics and creativity, Feist found that there are two core personality traits linked with creativity: 1. Independence. 2. Non-conformity. Creative people think for themselves and are not easily influenced by the opinions of others.

Depression and Anxiety and Creativity

-In general, studies of depressed and anxious individuals have tended to find little association between depression and/or anxiety and creativity (e.g., Silvia & Kimbrel, 2010).

Who are tests standardized against?

-In the US, the IQ test is standardized against a sample of about 2-6000 people that is (hoped) to be representative -In Canada the IQ test is standardized against a sample of Canadians because there are presumed to be cultural differences

Self-rating studies

-Individual measures/self-rate their own creativity -Do this in samples of individuals who have either a family history of a psychiatric condition or diagnosed with a psychiatric condition -The findings from these studies of self-ratings of creativity are generally mixed. -Some have found positive results. Some have found no effect.

IQ

-Intelligence Quotient -Describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence -Expensive to administer, must be done by a licensed psychologist

Intelligence in various cultures

-Intelligence can have different meaning and values in different cultures -Different cultures have different values e.g: In Irish families, hospitality and telling an entertaining story are marks of cultures. If you're a skilled storyteller, other members of Irish culture may consider you intelligent -Some cultures place a high value on working together as a collective, so group supersedes the importance of individual achievement. When you visit such a culture, how well you relate to the values of that culture exemplifies your cultural intelligence, sometimes referred to as cultural competence.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

-Intelligence is comprised of 3 parts 1) Practical 2) Creative 3) Analytical intelligence

Creative intelligence

-Inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation -Includes finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or producing a beautiful work of art or a short story -e.g: camping in woods, some friends realize you've forgotten your coffee pot, the person in your group that figures out one way to successfully brew coffee for everyone would be credited as having higher creative intelligence

Norming

-Involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups which produces norms, or referential scores, by which to interpret future scores -Norms are not expectations of what a given group should now, but a demonstration of what the group DOES know

Nature of the Question

-Is creativity related to mental illness? -There are many forms of creativity -There are many types of mental illness -Types of questions: •Do creative people tend to be mentally ill? •Do mentally ill people tend to be creative? •Do creativity variables and mental health variables covary? -The nature of the question has often yielded disparate findings: -For example, a study of clinical samples may find less creativity, but a study of creative samples may find more mental illness.

Arthur Jensen's theory

-Jensen had administered IQ tests to diverse groups of students, and his results led him to the conclusion that IQ is determined by genetics. -He also posited that intelligence was made up of two types of abilities: Level I and Level II. -In his theory, Level I is responsible for rote memorization, whereas Level II is responsible for conceptual and analytical abilities. -According to his findings, Level I remained consistent among the human race. -Level II, however, exhibited differences among ethnic groups -Jensen's most controversial conclusion was that Level II intelligence is prevalent among Asians, then Caucasians, then African Americans. Robert Williams was among those who called out racial bias in Jensen's results

Kyaga et al. Population-based studies

-Kyaga et al. (2011) examined the incidence of creative professions amongst ~300,000 Swedish individuals with various psychiatric diagnoses (i.e., unipolar depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia) and also amongst their relatives. -Odds ratio of greater than 1 means that a person is more likely to be in a creative profession that in some other profession and less than 1 means that the individual is less likely to be in a creative profession than some other profession -Individuals with schizophrenia, they are not more likely to be in a creative offspring but their siblings and offspring are -For people with Bipolar disorder, both themselves and their siblings and offspring are all at an increased likelihood to be involved in a creative profession -For individuals with depression, there is not much of a relationship for them being at an increased likelihood for being involved in a creative profession nor their siblings or offsprings -Strong relationship between bipolar disorder and creative professions and also a strong relationship between being a relation of someone with schizophrenia and being in a creative profession There is no evidence that depression is associated with creative professions. • There is no evidence that schizophrenia is associated with creative professions. • There is evidence that bipolar disorder is associated with creative professions. • Close relatives of schizophrenics and bipolar individuals are more likely to hold a creative profession.

learning disability vs intellectual/developmental disabilities

-Learning disabilities are strictly neurological in nature and are NOT related to intelligence levels

Profound intellectual disability

-Less than 1 percent of the intellectually disabled population -May be able to communicate verbally or nonverbally; requires intensive oversight

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale-

-Louis Terman, Stanford professor, modified Binet's work by standardizing the administration of the test and tested many different aged children to establish an average score for each age. He normed and standardized the test, which means that the test was administered consistently to a large enough representative sample of the population that the range of scores resulted in a bell curve -Norming and standardizing the test ensures that new scores are reliable -Updated version of test is still used today -Became benchmark upon which most, if not all, intelligence tests have been compared -"The invalid argument runs: we know the Stanford-Binet measures intelligence; therefore, any written test that correlates with Stanford-Binet also measures intelligence." (Gould, 1996) -It's problematic to use the Stanford-Binet as a benchmark for all intelligence tests

Tools to measure divergent thinking

-Many tasks and tools to measure 'divergent thinking.' • Remote Associates Task: Given three words and asked to find words that are associated with all three. • Rosch Category Inclusion Task: Must find categories that encompass different elements. • Unusual Uses Task: Must suggest as many uses for a common object in a set amount of time

Reliability

-Measurement consistency of any measurement technique -- like a psychological test

Personality Tests

-Measures aspects of personality, including motives, interests, values, and attitudes

Mental Ability Tests

-Most common type of psychological tests: a) achievement tests (test mastery of particular subjects) b) aptitude tests (assess specific types of mental abilities) SAT, GREs c) intelligence tests (measure general mental ability) IQ test

Other measures of creativity

-Moving (not removing) only one of the sticks, can you make the sum work out correctly? -In 2 minutes, how many uses can you think of for a bucket -How would you fix a lit candle to a wall-mounted cork board in such a way that the candle wax won't drip onto a table below, using just these materials?

Flynn effect

-Named after James Flynn, who was among the first to describe this trend, the Flynn effect refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last. -Flynn himself argues, however, that increased IQ scores do not necessarily mean that younger generations are more intelligent per se -As a part of the recalibration process, the WISC-V was given to thousands of children across the country, and children taking the test today are compared with their same-age peers

Low IQ

-Only 2.2% of the population has an IQ score below 70 -A score of 70 or below indicates significant cognitive delays, major deficits in adaptive functioning, and difficulty meeting "community standards of personal independence and social responsibility" when compared to same-aged peers -An individual in this IQ range would be considered to have an intellectual disability and exhibit deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour

Linguistic Intelligence

-Perceives different functions of language, different sounds and meanings of words, may easily learn multiple languages -Sensitivity to structures, semantics, and functions of language -Journalist, Novelist, Poet, Teacher

Theory of Intelligence

-Proposed by Raymond Cattell -Divided general intelligence into 2 components: 1) Crystallized Intelligence 2) Fluid Intelligence

Test norms

-Provide information about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores -Generally we talk about a persons score lying a certain number of standard deviations above the mean -Center = mean - you have 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations above and below the mean -Area under curve represents the proportion of individuals that would actually lie within one standard deviation

Henry Goddard

-Psychologist in the US, played a critical role in the import of the IQ test to the US -Coined the term moron -Imported the Binet scale to the U.S, but his uses for the Binet scale were much different from those for which it was intended: 1. Goddard regarded the scores as indicative of a single entity: Intelligence. 2. He wished to identify the morons to segregate them and prevent them from breeding. -In addition to "morons", Goddard extended his idea of mental deficiency to anyone who wasn't "highly intelligent". He called these individuals "feeble-minded"

Jensens conclusions --> controversy

-Racism -Many psychologists did believe in racial differences in IQ and cognitive ability - In fact, Rushton and Jensen (2005) reviewed three decades worth of research on the relationship between race and cognitive ability. -Jensen's belief in the inherited nature of intelligence and the validity of the IQ test to be the truest measure of intelligence are at the core of his conclusions. If, however, you believe that intelligence is more than Levels I and II, or that IQ tests do not control for socioeconomic and cultural differences among people, then perhaps you can dismiss Jensen's conclusions as a single window that looks out on the complicated and varied landscape of human intelligence.

Range of Reaction theory and intelligence

-Range of Reaction is the theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup. -According to this idea, your genetic potential is a fixed quantity, but whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood. -Interestingly, according to a longitudinal study of highly gifted individuals, it was found that "the two extremes of optimal and pathological experience are both represented disproportionately in the backgrounds of creative individuals"; however, those who experienced supportive family environments were more likely to report being happy

Binet

-Reliable intelligence testing (you may recall from earlier chapters that reliability refers to a test's ability to produce consistent results) began in earnest during the early 1900s with a researcher named Alfred Binet -Binet was asked by French government to develop an intelligence test for children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school -Included many verbally based tasks -Initially studied craniometry as a means of determining intelligence which involved measuring the size of a person's skull. But he quickly lost confidence in these anatomical measures and moved on -In 1904 Binet was commissioned by the French minister of public education to develop techniques for identifying those children whose lack of success in normal classrooms suggested a need for extra support -Binet created a test that consisted of a large number of tasks under the pretense that "it matters very little what the tests are so long as they are numerous"

The Bell Curve

-Results of intelligence tests follows a bell curve -Use a large sample size, or else it's less likely the bell curve will represent the wider population -When the bell curve is used in psychological testing, the graph demonstrates a normal distribution of a trait, in this case, intelligence, in the human population. Many human traits naturally follow the bell curve. (e.g: height) -A representative sample is a subset of the population that accurately represents the general population -If you have a representative sample, your data will probably form a natural bell curve (height, IQ) -The way that IQ scores are interpreted has stayed the same even though they have evolved -Average IQ score = 100 -Standard deviations = how data are dispersed in a population and gives context to large data sets -Bell curve uses the standard deviations to show how ALL scores are dispersed from the average score -In modern IQ testing, 1 SD is 15 points -Score of 85 would be "one standard deviation below the mean"

Brain areas and creativity

-Right hemisphere, frontal lobes, left hemisphere, occipital lobes -A lot except the brainstem

18th and 19th century creativity and psychiatric illness

-Romantic notions that psychological suffering was considered to be necessary for creativity -First scientific studies of the link between creativity and psychiatric illness were done by Cesare Lombroso -Lombroso proposed that creative genius is a form of hereditary madness

Causal explanations of psychiatric illness and creativity

-Since antiquity, different causal relationships have been proposed to explain the possible link between creativity and psychiatric illness: 1. Creative people are at heightened risk of psychiatric illness. 2. Psychiatric illness imparts creative abilities. 3. Both creative activity and psychiatric illness rely on some common gift/dysfunction.

Heritability of intelligence

-Some researchers believe that intelligence is a trait inherited from a persons parents -Researchers found that identical twins raised together and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher correlation between their IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins raised together -Reveals a genetic component to intelligence -Other psychologists believe that intelligence = shaped by child's developmental environment -If parents were to provide their children with intellectual stimuli from before they are born, it is likely that they would absorb the benefits of that stimulation, and it would be reflected in intelligence levels.

Psychological test

-Standardized measure of a person's behaviour -Generally used to measure individual differences in abilities, interests, personality traits, etc. -All psychological tests are standardized measures of a particular behaviour or set of behaviours

how to demonstrate construct validity

-Start with scale that you are trying to validate e.g: Extraversion scale --> want to figure out the degree to which scores on this scale correlate to other measures of extraversion on other established scale MMPI: Minnesota Multi-phasic Personality Inventory measures neuroticism and extraversion and you would expect that if your extraversion scale is valid, it would correlate strongly with extraversion measure of the MMPI (+ number, close to 1) and a low correlation with neuroticism (negative correlation)

Mental retardation

-Subaverage intellectual functioning -Limitations in adaptive skills -Mentally retarded persons frequently know the difference between right and wrong and are competent to stand trial. -Because of their impairments, however, by definition they have diminished capacities to understand and process information, to communicate, to abstract from mistakes and learn from experience, to engage in logical reasoning, to control impulses, and to understand others' reactions. -Their deficiencies do not warrant an exemption from criminal sanctions, but diminish their personal -Supreme Court ruled in a case that IQ scores cannot be used as a final determination of a prisoner's eligibility for the death penalty

Intelligence as a construct

-Summary term for a multitude of abstract human capabilities -Arithmetic skill, abstract reasoning, memory capabilities -Accordingly, and like many psychological constructs, it is an abstraction of many abstractions -It doesn't reflect a real entity in any sense (as is also true for each of the abstractions which it combines)

Lewis Terman

-Terman believed an IQ test could be used to sort people into social roles appropriate to their intelligence. And that such sorting would result in a just and efficient society. -He also believed that criminals could be identified with his test: "Not all criminals are feeble-minded, but all feeble-minded persons are at least potential criminals. That every feeble-minded woman is a potential prostitute would hardly be disputed by anyone...The feeble minded...are by definition a burden rather than an asset...because of their tendencies to become delinquent." -Whereas Goddard introduced the Binet scale to the US, Terman was the primary architect of its popularity and its revision to the IQ test. -Most importantly, Terman's revision of the Binet scale in 1916 extended its usage to the identification of "superior adults." not just inferior individuals

Termans standardization

-Terman standardized his new test so that "average" children would lie at the mean of the distribution for each age. IQ of average child = mental age/ chronological age x 100 percent -Terman also adjusted the variation amongst children so that the standard deviation was 15 at each chronological age -The mean is 100 for any particular age and the standard deviation is 15 for any particular age

WISC-V

-The WISC-V is composed of 14 subtests, which comprise five indices, which then render an IQ score. -The five indices are Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. -When the test is complete, individuals receive a score for each of the five indices and a Full Scale IQ score. -The method of scoring reflects the understanding that intelligence is comprised of multiple abilities in several cognitive realms and focuses on the mental processes that the child used to arrive at his or her answers to each test item. -Modern versions of tests tap into more than verbal competencies, but still lots about IQ tests under debate

3 intelligence tests credited to Wechsler

-The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth edition (WAIS-IV), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—IV (WPPSI-IV) -Widely used in schools and communities throughout the US, and are periodically normed and standardized as a means of recalibration -The periodic recalibrations have led to an interesting observation known as the Flynn effect

Improvement of the IQ test

-The content validity of the IQ test (its most commonly employed version is know as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)) has improved somewhat. Still, there are some clear problems... with culturally biased items -One alternative to WAIS is Raven's Progressive Matrices which is used quite a bit in the UK -Reliability has increased

Standardization

-The manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent

Error of Reification

-The persistent problem with many tests of intelligence is really that they still call themselves "tests of intelligence" -By naming the entity, we often come to believe that it exists. This is called an error of reification (the act of treating a named entity as if it were a concrete entity). -In addition, individuals have continued to use the results of "tests of intelligence" like the IQ test for either their own social agendas or to confirm their own beliefs.

Army beta

-The point of the Army Beta, in most cases, was to identify, given a particular picture, what is missing from that picture. And you can see from these examples that a lot of these picturesare of things that a recent immigrant may or may not be familiar with. -So for example, there is a picture of people bowling. And what's missing are the bowling balls. So unless you had some familiarity with the sport of bowling, you would not be able to answer this question.

Divergent Thinking

-There is some evidence that divergent thinking contributes to creative thinking -Try to generate as many solutions to the problem as possible. Try to think outside the box

Musical Intelligence

-Understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and tone; may play multiple instruments or perform as a vocalist -Composer, performer

Dreams/Daydreams and creativity

-Very few instances wherein dreams or daydreams spawned a creative idea

Nature of Creativity

-We all have a general sense of what creativity means. It involves generating novel approaches to problems--that are both useful and appropriate to the context or problem. -However, interesting and unique associations are not in themselves good examples of creativity: "Ideas are cheap." -There seem to be a number of qualities of the creative process. -Some of these qualities do not correspond to what we believe the creative process involves.

Andreasen Study (1987)

-Went to the Iowa Writers' Workshop and assessed the presence of various mood disorders and other types of disorders amongst the writers vs. a control group -Found that there was a statistically significant increased in likelihood of writers suffering from mood disorders and alcoholism

Possible mechanisms for the relationship between bipolar disorder and creativity

-• Personality factors exist in bipolar patients (e.g., greater impulsivity, greater openness to experience) that are present in those in creative professions. • Motivational factors exist in bipolar patients (e.g., drive, ambition) that are present in those in creative professions. • Positive emotions are known to open awareness to unattended information (better able to see 'the big picture') and enhance creativity

Ways to measure creativity

1) Assess creative accomplishments: Eminence and Achievement 2) Create occupations: Activities and Preferences 3) Measure Self-ratings 4) Baron-Walsh Art Scale: Measures preference for novel and complex figures 5) Tasks that measure divergent thinking (though note that tasks that measure divergent thinking don't necessarily correlate well with creative accomplishment)

Binet's interpretation of his own scale and design

1) Binet tried his best to extract the effects of learning from the test. He tried to avoid measuring skills that could have been learned in school or knowledge that could have been acquired in the child's environment 2) Did not consider the number to be an entity in itself. He did not even think it could be equated with intelligence, despite being an individual whose primary interest was the study of intelligence. He felt that this scale had only one clear practical purpose and that was to identify children who needed special help in school 3) He worried that it would lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy in schools "We are of the opinion that the most valuable use of our scale will not be its application to the normal pupils, but rather to those of inferior grades of intelligence" 4) He emphasized that if a child is identified as behind their age they should receive special training

Types of validity

1) Content validity -The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover e.g: want to measure psychopathy, and your question is do you like flowers? that would be an example of LOW CONTENT VALIDITY (not entirely obvious why you would ask this question that is designed to measure psychopathy) 2) Criterion-Related Validity -Estimated by correlating subjects scores on the measure with some independent measure of the same trait 3) Construct validity -The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct (e.g., creativity, or intelligence). This is particularly difficult to demonstrate experimentally (A concrete measure (e.g, a survey) of an abstract concept (e.g., love) that does a great job at getting at the concept it seeks to measure would have relatively high construct validity)

3 categories of mental deficiency in the 1900's

1) Idiots: Couldn't develop full speech and had mental ages below 3 2) Imbeciles: Individuals who could not master written language and had mental ages between 3 and 7 3) Morons: Individuals who function in society, but had mental ages between the ages of 8 to 12

2 broad categories of tests

1) Personality Tests 2) Mental ability Tests

How to standardize a test

1) Take a sample from the population and then use that sample to form the normal distribution

Types of reliability

1) Test-retest reliability - You measure each of your subjects at 2 separate times and then calculate a correlation coefficient for those score pairs Acceptable test-retest reliability coefficient is generally beween 0.7 - 1.0 2) Inter-rater reliability - Each of your subjects are measured by 2 different experimenters/observers. Then you calculate a correlation coefficient for those score pairs.

Example questions of Army alpha

1. Washington is to Adams as first is to..." 2. Crisco is a: (a) patent medicine, (b) disinfectant, (c) toothpaste, (d) food product 3. Christy Matheson is famous as a: (a) writer, (b) artist, (c) baseball player, (d) comedian -Clearly culturally biased

2 sorts of studies of creativity and psychiatric illness

Studies have generally been of two sorts: 1. Studies that assess psychiatric disorders in creative individuals--oftenthrough structured interviews or through retrospective analysis of journals and biographies. 2. Studies that have evaluated creativity in persons with known psychopathology

General Conclusions in creativity and psychiatric disorder

• Creativity is more apparent in those with milder forms of bipolar-spectrum illnesses (e.g., Bipolar II, Cyclothymia). -Generally, an individuals who is normal is in a state where they can generate original responses but if someone is in a defocused level of top down control, they are at an increased likelihood of generating original responses, but if they're in an impaired state (severe disorder) then they will be impaired in their production of original responses • Divergent thinking is not greater in those with bipolar disorder. • There is considerable variability as to whether bipolar individuals choose creative occupations; most don't

Possible mechanisms for the relationship between bipolar disorder and creativity

• Personality factors exist in bipolar patients (e.g., greater impulsivity, greater openness to experience) that are present in those in creative professions. These personality factors = present in creative professions • Motivational factors exist in bipolar patients (e.g., drive, ambition) that are present in those in creative professions. • Positive emotions are known to open awareness to unattended information (better able to see 'the big picture') and enhance creativity (Manic/hypomanic state in bipolar disorder)