Psych 120A: Midterm 1
Clifford Beers
-Described own mental collapse in A Mind That Found Itself -Began campaign for reform
Elements of abnormality include?
-Suffering, maladaptiveness, deviancy, violation of societal standards, social discomfort, irrationality and unpredictability, dangerousness
Historical Perspectives
1. Demonology and Superstition 2. Somatogenic perspective 3. The Dark ages 4. The Asylum Movement 5. Moral Treatment 6. The Mental Hygiene Movement
Common features of traumatic stress disorders
Avoidance behavior, re-experiencing the trauma, emotional distress, impaired functioning, heightened arousal, emotional numbing
How does culture affect what is considered abnormal?
Cultural factors influence: -presentation of disorders found worldwide -certain forms of highly culture-specific psychopathology
Lightner Witmer?
Established the first American psychological clinic at the Univ. or Pennsylvania
The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery
Made up of a number of subtests: 1. The Category Test 2. The Rhythm Test 3. The Tactual Performance Test
Describe 16th century establishment of asylums
Prisons or storage places with filthy conditions and cruel patient treatment
How are abnormal behaviors classified?
Using the DSM-5, which treats abnormal behaviors as signs or symptoms of underlying disorders or pathologies
Who established the first experimental psychological laboratory?
Wilhelm Wundt
Acute stress disorder
traumatic stress reaction in which the person shows a maladaptive pattern of behavior for a period of 3 days to one month following exposure to a traumatic event
Clinical Psychologists
• Hold a Ph.D. or a Psy.D (not scientist). • 4 years of graduate school, 1-year clinical internship, 1-year post-doctoral placement (boulder model) • Expertise in diagnosis, treatment, TESTING
Some Dangers associated with Classification
• Stigma • Alters client's own perception of his/her situation • Loss of information
Nineteenth-Century Views of Mental Disorders?
-Alienists gained control of asylums, who touted morality as important aspect to mental health -Used both moral management and physical treatments
Mesmerism
-All people possessed magnetic forces that could be used to influence the distribution of the magnetic fluid in other people, thus effecting cures -Discredited in Europe, but mesmerism was popular in United States
Cognitive behavioral perspective: define attributions and attributional style
-Attributions= process of assigning causes to things that happen -Attributional style= characteristic way in which person may tend to assign causes to good or bad events
DSM-5 definition of mental disorder
-Considered to reflect biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction in the individual -Clinically significant disturbance in behavior, emotional regulation or cognitive function -Associated with distress or disability
Impact of biological viewpoint
-Effect of drugs -Ambiguity in mental disorder definition -Effect CNS mediation
Later Greek & Roman thought?
-Egyptians proposed wide range of therapeutic measures -Galen (Roman physician) provided anatomy of NS; divided causes of disorders into physical and mental categories -Roman medicine focused on comfort
Define generalization vs. discrimination (reference to operant conditioning)
-Generalization= conditioned response can be evoked by other similar stimuli -Discrimination= learning to distinguish between similar stimuli
What does the cognitive-behavioral perspective focus on?
-How thoughts and information processing become distorted, leading to maladaptive emotion & behavior
Sociocultural viewpoint concerned with...?
-Impact of culture on mental disorder -Universality os some disorders -Prevalence rates across cultures -Norms across cultures -Parent-child attachment across cultures
What kind of effect does parenting style have on children?
-Inadequate parenting style can make children vulnerable to psychopathology -Parenting style dependent on parental psychopathology, parental warmth and control
Rapid urban growth linked to what 3 things?
-Increased violence -Higher rate of mental health illnesses -Homelessness
Psychodynamic perspective: Freud theorized that a person's behavior resulted from an interaction of what?
-Interaction of Id, Ego, and Superego -Id-->pleasure motivated -Ego--> mediates between id and superego, pleasure vs. reason -Superego--> reasonable thought, conscious
Describe the development of the classification system
-Kraepelin: Compendium der Psychiatrie, published in 1883. Certain symptoms occur together frequently enough to be considered separate mental disorders -Course of each disorder predictable and therefore outcome can be predicted
Disadvantages of classification
-Loss of individuality -Stigma and stereotyping -Self-concept impact
Early views of mental disorders in China
-Medicine based on natural causes of illness not supernatural: yin and yang are opposing forces that must be kept in balance to have good health
Biological Viewpoint: 4 categories of biological factors relevant to maladaptive behavior
-Neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities in brain -Genetic vulnerabilities -Temperament -Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
What are Freud's 5 psychosexual stages of development?
-Oral -Anal -Phallic -Latency -Genital >Each stage is characterized by a dominant mode of achieving sexual pleasure
Hippocrates' Early Medical Concepts
-Proposed mental disorders had natural causes -Categorizing disorder as mania, melancholia, or phrenitis -First to associate temperament with four humors and thought dreams could reveal aspects of personality
Why do we need to classify mental disorders?
-Provide nomenclature that allows information structuring -Have social and political implications -Classify disorders, not people
3 Psychological viewpoints
-Psychodynamic -Behavioral -Cognitive-behavioral
In the U.S., the lower the socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of mental disorders. Possible explanation?
-Reasons may include greater stressors, fewer resources for help -Unemployment is linked with higher vulnerability to psychopathology
Sigmund Freud role in psychological basis of mental disorder?
-Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) took the first major steps toward understanding psychological factors in mental disorders -His theories have evolved into the psychoanalytic perspective -Psychoanalysis emphasizes the inner dynamics of unconscious motives
Early philosophical conceptions of consciousness: PLATO
-Viewed psychological phenomena as responses of the whole organism -Emphasized individual differences and sociocultural influences -Discussed hospital care
Early philosophical conceptions of consciousness: ARISTOTLE
-Wrote lasting descriptions of consciousness -Thinking would help eliminate pain and attain pleasure -Rejected idea that mental illness was due to psychological factors
John B. Watson's theory on abnormal/maladaptive behavior?
-emphasized the study of overt behavior -Abnormal behavior was the product of unfortunate, inadvertent earlier conditioning and could be modified through reconditioning
Historical Perspectives: Demonology/Superstition & Somatogenic perspective
1. Demonology and Superstition: doctrine that evil can dwell in someone & control them → odd behavior treated w/ exorcism 2. The Somatogenic Perspective • Hippocrates was one of the first physicians and separated medicine from religion, magic, and superstition → father of modern medicine • Bodily fluid imbalances cause mental disorders • Notable b/c: this is the first modern diagnostic system and first time chemistry influences mental state → physicians rather than priests → nature rather than supernatural causes • Phlegm= lazy • Melancholy (black bile)= depression
How do we determine what abnormal behavior is? (Possible Definitions)
1. Statistical infrequency: rare, doesn't occur commonly → alot of exceptional traits & some pathologies are common (body image) 2. Violation of Norms: vary a great deal across cultures & vary by diff. segments of society (norms change) 3. Personal Distress/ Distress to others: prob- not all pathologies are distressing (schizoid) 4. Dysfunction 5. Disability- impairment in life area (cannot be used to define mental disorder b/c not all disorders involve disability e.g. binging) 6. Unexpectedness: something outside what is expected reaction prob- subjective
Some features of "good" science (5)
1. Testable hypotheses 2. Clear and precise hypotheses. 3. Replicable results: reliability 4. Informed by past research: you cant ignore the results of past research 5. Driven by theory: you have to have a theoretical model to guide your data
What are the different interview formats?
1. Unstructured interview= clinician adopts their own style of questioning, rather than standard formatting 2. Semistructured interview= clinician follows general outline of questions but is free to ask in any order and branch off in other directions 3. Structured interview= follows a preset series of questions in a particular order
Historical Perspectives: The Dark Ages & The Asylum movement
3. The Dark Ages • roman empire collapse and roman church becomes dominant power - return to belief in supernatural causes → ppl roamed hill sides or cared for by monks 4. The Asylum Movement • leprosy was a huge problem so government built hospitals for the lepers (they isolated them so they couldn't spread disease) 13th and 14th century leprosy decreases & the hospitals are empty → get turned into mental health hospitals • these hospitals are very inhumane and treatment went along w/ feudalism • St. Bethlaham called bedlam ("scene of wild uproar") ppl put on display • the French revolution was a really powerful event on human thought (INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS WERE NOT RECOGNIZED)
Historical Perspectives: Moral Treatment & Mental Hygiene
5. Moral treatment • Philip Pinal: movement for humanitraian treatment of people w/ mental illness in asylums (put in charge during revolution) • chnaged mindset: patients were sick ppl first- consistent w/ new egalitarian view of new french republic • thought ppl of lower class were still sub. to terror & straight jackets 6. The Mental Hygiene Movement • Dorothy dix → humane treatment in smaller facilities Moral Treatment: patient had close contact w/ staff (gave them consitent attention) and led relatively normal (or as close to) lives → both these movements (moral and mental hygiene) were failures (didn't have resources or training- small hospital = small staff so not enough ppl to give attention)
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
A prolonged maladaptive reaction to a traumatic event; cognitive-behavioral therapy has shown positive results as treatment [using extinction]
Humanitarian reform: America
Benjamin Rush--> pushed moral management in America (1841 to 1881) Dorothy Dix--> lobbied for better treatment for the mentally ill in asylums, caused growth of the mental hygiene movement
Different types of physiological measurements
EEG--> can study differences in brain waves CT scan--> x-ray beam aimed at head used to construct 3D image of brain to reveal structural abnormalities PET scan--> suggest differences in the metabolic processes of the brains fMRI--> specialized type of MRI that allows investigators to determine parts of the brain that are activated during particular tasks
Interpersonal perspective
Emphasis on social and cultural determinants of behavior
Attachment theory
Emphasizes early experiences with attachment figures as determinant of behavior in adolescence and adulthood
Object-relations theory
Focus on individuals' interactions with real and imagined other people (external and internal objects) and on the relationships that people experience between their external and internal objects
Neuropsychological assessment
Measurement of behavior or performance that may be indicative of underlying brain damage or defects
Cognitive assessment
Measurement of thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes that may be associated with emotional problems (ex. Automatic thoughts questionnaire or diary)
Interrater reliability
Observers/raters showing high level of agreement in their ratings
Humanitarian reform: France
Philippe Pinel--> unchained patients, placed them in sunny rooms and treated them with exercise and kindness
Projective tests
Psychological tests that present ambiguous stimuli onto which the examinee is thought to project his or her personality and unconscious motives (ex. Rorschach test aka inkblot test)
Ego psychology
Psychopathology develops when the ego does not function adequately to control or delay impulse gratification or does not make adequate use of defense mechanisms when faced with internal conflicts
Thematic Apperception Test
Respondents are asked to describe what is happening in each scene, what led up to it, what the characters are thinking and feeling, and what will happen next. -belief that patients will reveal underlying psychological needs and conflicts
Objective tests
Self-report personality tests that can be scored objectively and that are based on a research foundation. -often reveal info that might not be revealed during a clinical interview or by observing
Behavioral assessment
The approach to clinical assessment that focuses on the objective recording and description of problem behavior
Humanitarian reform: England
William Tuke-->established the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill. He treated with kindness and acceptance -In 1845, the Country Asylums Act was passed in England. Required every county to provide asylum to "paupers and lunatics"
Behavior rating scale
a checklist that provides information about the frequency, intensity, and range of problem behaviors
The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (neuropsychological test)
client is asked to copy geometric designs, and signs of possible brain damage include rotation of the figures, distortions in shape, and incorrect sizing of the figures in relation to one another
Test-retest reliability
giving an assement more than once to see if consistent, yielding same results
Sanism
the negative stereotyping of people who are identified as being mentally ill
Scales of the MMPI: Validity Scalesterm-56
• 500 T/F questions → load on different scales • L = Lie scale → extent to which you approach the test honestly • F = False scale → extent to which you approach the test honestly • K = defensiveness scale
Dimensions vs. Categories
• A categorical conceptualization is all-or-none. You either have a disorder or you do not. • A dimensional model assumes that a problem is distributed along a continuum with people having more or less of the relevant symptoms. • Is DSM IV categorical or dimensional? → It is easier assessment drives categorization → Reality is not categorical → Korro- serious fear of retracting appendages & loss of life force → Korro is reshaped by the cultural lense
The Public Health Model and Epidemiological Approaches
• A focus on associations between health problems and risk factors in the population as a whole. • Risk factors are conditions that, if present, make a particular negative outcome more likely. • its really expensive tho
Normative Group
• A representative group of individuals that can be used for comparative statements. • Test scores or observations are quantified relative to the normative group. → How you did towards the normative example • First MMPI started in the 1950's • MMPI 2- Univ. of Minnesota required to fill out data
Diathesis-Stress Models
• Abnormal behavior is a product of an interaction between a diathesis and a stressor. "Diathesis" is a fancy word for "vulnerability." • The vulnerability and stressor must both be present in order for the individual to experience an abnormal outcome. • Exposure to stressors WITHOUT the vulnerability will not predict negative outcomes.
4 Professionals That Treat Abnormal Behavior
• Clinical Psychologists • Psychiatrists • Social Workers • Marriage and Family Therapists/ Counselors/Mental Health Workers
Psychiatrists
• Completed medical school • Completed a psychiatric residency • Expertise in diagnosis, treatment, and medical interventions. • The only mental health professional qualified to PERSCRIBE (but this is changing) • Psychoanalyst: psychologist/psychiatrist who undergo freudian theory training and therapy
Random Assignment to the Rescue!
• Confounds: Anything that causes the experimental effect BESIDES the experimental manipulation. • Random assignment. Assignment to control or experimental group is random. → Gives you confidence that any differences between groups should be due only to the experimental manipulation.
Example of a Diathesis-Stress Model
• Diathesis = Genetically transmitted vulnerability • Stressor = Negative life events • Individual will become depressed ONLY if he/she has both genetic risk factors AND is exposed to negative life events. • Negative life events WITHOUT genetic factors will not produce depression. • Genetic factors WITHOUT negative life events will not produce depression.
Control and Experimental Groups
• Experimental group: Receives the experimental manipulation. • Control group: participates in the experiment but doesn't receive the experimental manipulation. • We include a control to help demonstrate that changes in the dependent variable reflect the experimental manipulation.
Features of an Experiment
• Experimental hypothesis. The research question to be answered. • Independent variable. The aspect of the experiment that is manipulated by the investigator. • Dependent variable. What the experimenter is trying to change. → Experimental effect is he change in the DV cause by experiment
Double-Blind Experiments
• Experimenter is kept blind to participant's condition (experimental or control). • Participant does not know what condition her or she is in. • Helps prevent experimenter-induced effects • experiments give you a high control but its hard to generalize/ ppl aren't in situations that are natural
Conflict and Psychopathology: Freud
• Freud believed that none of us are healthy b/c our structures are always in conflict so everyone can benefit from therapy • Conflicts occur between drives of the ID (libidinal energy) at each stage of development. • If a conflict is not resolved, the energy is "fixated." • Psychopathology can also result from an individual's anxiety regarding subconscious ID impulses (neurotic anxiety) • Instinct and underlying powerful drives dictate human behavior (subconscious level) • Freud used dream analysis, free association, transference, interpretation t to understand ppls ID by removing the need for superego and ego to work sub consciously (ex. While your sleeping your ID dreams without interruption from Super or Ego) • Ppl had issues w/ this though (fall of the paradigm) b/c it was very subjective and for it to be 'science' it has to be testable and falsifiable but you cant observe it (did not lend itself to science) • These practices also did not work
Freud Psychodynamic Perspectives
• Great man perspective: one man comes along and changes everything • Zeitgeist: no idea comes out of nowhere but has roots in previous • Frued was heavily influenced by Charles Darwin and evolution/instinct • Psychodynamic: A Hydraulic model, with life energy ("libido") flowing between different psychic structures (id, ego, superego) → ID: pure instinctual drive that you are born w/ and is hedonistic in that its all about pleasure and desires (seeks immediate gratification = Pleasure Principle) • When it doesn't get what it wants it copes w/ primary process thinking (fantasy/daydream) • The concept of psychodynamics is the interplay and conflict between these structures.
Rise of the Psychogenic Perspective
• Hysteria: loss of physical function w/out a real known cause • Hysteria emerges as a major mental health problem. • Anton Mesmer (Quack- he wasn't actually very scientific) uses a series of bizarre interventions, some of which are related to hypnotism, as a cure (and actually helped ppl which is why he is early hypnotist) • Jean-Martin Charcot conducts more scientific studies of hypnotism → prominence in society helped legitimize hypnosis as treatment • What aspects of their work (hypnosis) led to idea that disorders are psychological in origin? Hypnosis is psychological intervention b/c you are talking in an altered mental state (trance)- his assistants hypnotized healthy women and tricked charcot and when they brought her out of it he realized it was psychological
The Move Toward Etiological Classification: An Example
• In DSM IV, any disorder that involves fear/anxiety was labeled as an "Anxiety Disorder." • In DSM 5, fear-based disorders (like Phobia) are in a different category than Obsessive Compulsive Disorder because of presumed differences in neurochemistry. • PTSD has also been moved to a different category because it has a unique cause (trauma exposure).
Intelligence Tests
• Include a series of tasks that are designed to assess a variety of domains of cognitive functioning. • Most widely used are the Weschler and Stanford-Binet. • IQ is a score derived from intelligence tests. • Culturally- related ppl embedded in the culture are bound to do better on the test
What is the Relation between Reliability and Validity?
• Is it possible for a diagnostic category to be reliable but not valid? • Height is a reliable measure but it can be invalid • Validity requires reliability→ but reliability does not imply validity • Measure something w/out error • Is it possible for a diagnostic category to be valid but not reliable? • Any criminal fits into personality disorder
Active Learning
• It is t me for y u to go to bed. • Bandera: BoBo the doll expirement (Modeling) shows that you do not come to the world as a blank slate but that behavior can be observed and learned (this is the fall of behaviorism)
Conflict and Psychopathology: Locke
• John locke: Tableau Rosa- blank slate that nature writes • leads to the emergence of behaviorism • Behaviorism (if you cant see it, it can be science- only observable behavior) is a reaction against psychodynamic (human behavior is a reaction to the unobservable) theory
Emil Kraepelin and the return of the Somatogenic Perspective
• Kraepelin authored a psychiatry textbook and classification system. • His basic assumptions: → All disorders are distinct (Even if you have multiple disorders, they do not overlap, they are independent of each other) → All disorders have a unique biological cause (somatogenic perspective- hippocrates) → Clinical diagnosis is based on careful observation • grouping diseases together based on classification of syndrome — common patterns of symptoms over time • His textbook was rewritten and turned into the DSM III
The Law of Effect: Edward Thorndike
• Law of Effect: Behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated. • Behavior that is followed by consequences that are unpleasant or noxious to the organism will be discontinued. • So... If I initiate a behavior, and the behavior gets me "good stuff", I'll do the behavior again. → If I initiate a behavior, and the behavior gets me "bad stuff", you won't catch me doing that behavior again
Utility of the Case Study Approach
• Most familiar type of study • Describing a new or rare phenomena or some new method of treatment • rich description • can disprove but not prove hypothesis • Disconfirming aspects of phenomenon that are thought to be universal. • Facilitating development of hypotheses
Mental Disorder
• Occurs w/in the ind. • clinically sig. difficulties in thinking, feeling, behaving • dysfunction in processes that support mental functioning • NOT culturally specific reaction to an event (e.g. Death) • NOT primarily a result of social deviance or conflict w/ society
The Clinical Interview
• Often the first step in information gathering. Usually covers the following topics: 1. identifying data 2. description of presenting problems 3. psychosocial history 4. medical/psychiatric history 5. medical problems/ medication
B.F. Skinner
• Operant Conditioning • Principal of reinforcement: Stimuli evoke responses. If a response has the right sort of consequence, it will be repeated. (law of effect) • Stimulus → Response → Consequence • Note the focus on a stimulus as evocative of a response. • Positive Reinforcement: Desirable outcomes or rewards. → Example: A positive grade following days of studying for one of Dr. Schwartz' midterms. • Negative Reinforcement: Deletion of a negative stimuli. → Example: Aspirin relieving a headache. • Negative reinforcement is sometimes involved in escape conditioning. A behavior that allows an individual to escape from a negative situation will be learned. → Example: Your pet running away when he/she knows he is in trouble. • Punishment: Addition of a negative stimuli. → Example: A speeding ticket for driving fast. • Response Cost: you take away something good
Projective Tests
• Projective tests involve ambiguous stimuli that an individual is asked to interpret. • Projective hypothesis: Because the stimulus is not structured, an individual's responses will be based on subconscious processes. → Rorschach (best known) & TAT → Not the best measure of personality disorder
Psychological Testing
• Standardized procedures that are used to assess an individual's attributes, abilities, or level of functioning in some domain of interest. • Testing a structured series of tests → Ink, plot, IQ test, Meyers-briggs
Behavioral Assessment
• Structured observations or behavior problem checklists that give insight into relations between environment and behaviors. • Observations are expensive/ cant get into the situation • Overcome by using and informant embedded into the situation
Objective Tests
• Structured questionnaires or inventories. • MMPI- 500 T/F Questions • Wether they answer T/F is their answer & their answer is not up to our interpretation = objective • Questions tap different classes of symptoms of personality attributes. A profile of an individual's scores on each type of attribute can then be produced. • Standardization of scores
Reliability
• The CONSISTENCY of a measure of a diagnostic treatment or system • An assessment technique has internal consistency if the different parts of the test yield consistent results.
Stages of Psychosexual Development
• The battle b/w structures manifests in different areas if the fight b/w them is not resolved • ORAL STAGE (birth to about 18 months) Fixation on the mouth. • ANAL STAGE (18 months to about 3 years) Fixation on passing and retention of feces- Anal retentive: hyper focused on detail • PHALLIC STAGE (3 years to about 5 or 6 years) Fixation on genital stimulation. Oedipus/Electra complexes. • LATENCY STAGE (between ages 6 to 12) - ID impulses do not play a major role in stimulating behavior. • GENITAL STAGE (12 through adulthood) - Heterosexual interests predominate.
The Cognitive Paradigm: Schemas and Psychopathology
• The cognitive paradigm is born after behaviorism • The cognitive paradigm is that you have higher order cognitive structures called schemas (sets of rules and expectations that guide how you actively organize the data as its input) • different from biological b/c of schemas
Schemas and Psychopathology: Problems
• This starts to get back into the realm of not being able to test things (you cant test or observe a schema) • It does not incorporate a relationship w/ emotions • The fall of the cognitive paradigm has to do less with the absence of emotion but the rise of technology (b/c it's a shift back into what you can see and test)
Thomas Kuhn: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
• Thomas Kuhn was a philosopher and was interested in 'the philosophy of science' during a time when physics was going thru a shift from newton to quantum so he wrote about why the shift occurred and it has GREAT application to psychology • Paradigms guide all scientific inquiry and thought in a particular area • A paradigm is a guiding (or confining) set of assumptions (what you ask or what you think), theories, and methods (research tools) • All research and inquiry is guided by the dominant paradigm • Southpark clip vs. Zoloft commercial
Validity
• Validity is the degree to which a category is an accurate reflection of reality (ex. external validity: are lab results applicable to real world?)
Fall of a Paradigm
• When a paradigm fails to explain phenomena, a period of crisis occurs. • Eventually, the paradigm falls and is replaced by a new paradigm. • A new paradigm emerges and guides all thinking in the area. This paradigm will remain dominant until a new crisis occurs.
Behavior Genetics & The Neuron
• behavior genetics: how much does the variance in a trait in the population due to genetics • biological paradigm is being maintained by forces that aren't biological in nature → they call things a 'disease' so that we can de stigmatize and treat it • the biggest argument against the biological paradigm is reductionism: by looking at the parts you lose the sense of the whole (Reductionism: basic elements like neurons are organized into bigger structures and to reduce them takes away from what you are actually looking for) • Also hard to specify how genes and envio. reciprocally influence one another • genetic influence being manifested only under certain envio. conditions (poverty & IQ)
Some Important Statistics in Epidemiological Research
• epidemiology: study of distribution of disorders in a population - focuses on 3 features of a disorder: •Prevalence: Proportion of population that has the disorder at any given point in time. • Incidence: The number of new cases that appear within a certain period. • Lifetime Prevalence: Proportion of population who will encounter a certain condition at any point during their life.
Behavior Genetics: Methods
•Correlational Method • Family Method - Compare members of a family. See if behavioral similarity is related to genetic similarity. → collection of sample ppl= index cases / probands →data not always easy to interpret • Adoption Studies - Find related individuals, who were given up for adoption and have never lived together, and see how similar they are in terms of diagnosis. (shared vs. Not shared/unique envio.) • Twin Method - MZ are genetically identical. DZ share about 50%. Compare the degree to MZ vs. DZ both have the same sorts of disorder. → higher concordance for MZ than DZ means characteristic is heritable
Social Workers & Marriage and Family Therapists/ Counselors/Mental Health Workers
→ Social Workers • Have completed a M.S.W. with additional training and in psychiatric issues. • Expertise in treatment, often with a strong background in group and family therapy → Marriage and Family Therapists (MFT) / Counselors/Mental Health Workers • Have a variety of different degrees - such as M.F.C.C., M.A., or B.A. • Exact qualifications vary across setting.