psych 201 exam
Different types of social psychology
evolutionary psychology is based on the premise that certain psychological processes and behavior patterns evolved over hundreds of thousands of years. cognitive psychology, which we discussed in the chapter Thinking, Language, and Intelligence. Social cognition refers to how we form impressions of other people, how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior, and how our behavior is affected by our attitudes
bulimia nervosa (which neurotransmitter with decreased brain activity?)
fear gaining weight. Intense preoccupation and dissatisfaction with their bodies are also apparent. However, people with bulimia stay within a normal weight range or may even be slightly overweight. Another difference is that people with bulimia usually recognize that they have an eating disorder.Anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder involve decreases in brain activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin (Bailer & Kaye, 2011; Kuikka & others, 2001). Disrupted brain chemistry may also contribute to the fact that eating disorders frequently co-occur with other psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder, substance abuse disorder, personality disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and anxiety disorders (Thompson & others, 2007; Swanson & others, 2011). While chemical imbalances may cause eating disorders, researchers are also studying whether they can result from eating disorders as well.
Biosocial Developmental Theory of Borderline Personality Disorder
has been proposed by Marsha Linehan (1993; Crowell & others, 2009). According to this view, borderline personality disorder is the outcome of a unique combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors. Some children are born with a biological temperament that is characterized by extreme emotional sensitivity, a tendency to be impulsive, and the tendency to experience negative emotions. Linehan believes that borderline personality disorder results when such a biologically vulnerable child is raised by caregivers who do not teach him how to control his impulses or help him learn how to understand, regulate, and appropriately express his emotions (Crowell & others, 2009). In some cases, Linehan believes, parents or caregivers actually shape and reinforce the child's pattern of frequent, intense emotional displays by their own behavior. For example, they may sometimes ignore a child's emotional outbursts and sometimes reinforce them. In Linehan's theory, a history of abuse and neglect may be present but is not a necessary ingredient in the toxic mix that produces borderline personality disorder. Despite the difficulties faced by people suffering from borderline personality disorder, treatments developed by Linehan and her colleagues have been shown to help patients to manage this mental illness (see Bohus & others, 2000).
What is epigenetics?
he study of the mechanisms that control gene expression and its effects on behavior and health
systematic desensitization
involves learning a new conditioned response (relaxation) that is incompatible with or inhibits the old conditioned response (fear and anxiety). Three basic steps are involved in systematic desensitization. First, the patient learns progressive relaxation, which involves successively relaxing one muscle group after another until a deep state of relaxation is achieved. Second, the behavior therapist helps the patient construct an anxiety hierarchy, sometimes called an exposure hierarchy, which is a list of anxiety-provoking images associated with the feared situation, arranged in a hierarchy from least to most anxiety-producing (see Figure 14.1). The patient also develops an image of a relaxing control scene, such as walking on a secluded beach on a sunny day. The third step involves the actual process of desensitization through exposure to feared experiences. While deeply relaxed, the patient imagines the least-threatening scene on the anxiety hierarchy. After he can maintain complete relaxation while imagining this scene, he moves to the next. If the patient begins to feel anxiety or tension, the behavior therapist guides him back to imagining the previous scene or the control scene. If necessary, the therapist helps the patient relax again, using the progressive relaxation technique.
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): Core symptoms and causes
is a disorder in which a person's life is dominated by repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions). Like PTSD, OCD is not classified as an anxiety disorder, but shares similar symptom patterns. Many people with obsessive-compulsive disorder have the irrational belief that failure to perform the ritual action will lead to a catastrophic or disastrous outcome (MacDonald & Davey, 2005). Research suggests that many people with OCD, especially those with checking or counting compulsions, are particularly prone to superstitious or "magical" thinking (Einstein & Menzies, 2004; Kingdon & others, 2012). Even though the person knows that her obsessions are irrational or her compulsions absurd, she is unable to resist their force. People may experience either obsessions or compulsions. More commonly, obsessions and compulsions are both present. Often, the obsessions and compulsions are linked in some way.Evidence suggests that biological factors are also involved in obsessive-compulsive disorder (Chamberlain & Fineberg, 2013). For example, OCD has been linked with broad deficits in the ability to manage cognitive processes such as attention (Snyder & others, 2014). This may, in turn, be linked to dysfunction in specific brain areas, such as those involved in the fight-or-flight response, and in the frontal lobes, which play a key role in our ability to think and plan ahead (Anderson & Savage, 2004; Pujol & others, 2011). Another brain area that has been implicated in OCD is the caudate nucleus, which is involved in regulating movements (Guehl & others, 2008; Maia & others, 2009). Dysfunctions in these brain areas might help account for the overwhelming sense of doubt and the lack of control over thoughts and actions that are experienced in OCD. Deficiencies in the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin have also been implicated in OCD. When treated with drugs that increase the availability of these substances in the brain, many patients with OCD experience a marked decrease in symptoms. Excess of the neurotransmitter glutamate has also been found to be associated with OCD symptoms
classical conditioning
is a process of learning associations between stimuli. Pavlov discovered was the first to be extensively studied in psychology. Thus, it's called classical conditioning (Hilgard & Marquis, 1940). It's also known as Pavlovian conditioning. Classical conditioning deals with behaviors that are elicited automatically by some stimulus. Elicit means "draw out" or "bring forth." That is, the stimulus doesn't produce a new behavior but rather causes an existing behavior to occur.
Token economy
is another example of the use of operant conditioning techniques to modify behavior. A token economy is a system for strengthening desired behaviors through positive reinforcement in a very structured environment. Basically, tokens or points are awarded as positive reinforcers for desirable behaviors and withheld or taken away for undesirable behaviors. The tokens can be exchanged for other reinforcers, such as special privileges. Token economies have been most successful in controlled environments in which the behavior of the client is under ongoing surveillance or supervision. Thus, token economies have been used in classrooms, inpatient psychiatric units, and group homes
punishment
punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future.
Learning
refers to a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience.
scientific method in psychology
refers to a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.
Motivation
refers to the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior. includes the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that act on or within you, initiating and directing your behavior. There are three basic characteristics commonly associated with motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
reflect an absence or reduction of normal functions, such as greatly reduced motivation, emotional expressiveness, or speech. Negative symptoms consist of marked deficits or decreases in behavioral or emotional functioning. One commonly seen negative symptom is referred to as diminished emotional expression or flat affect. Emotional responsiveness and facial expressions are reduced, and speech is slow and monotonous.
correlational research
research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists
Evidence provided by the Finnish Adoptive family study of Schizophrenia
researchers followed about 150 adopted individuals whose biological mothers had schizophrenia. The study also included a control group of about 180 adopted individuals whose biological mothers did not have schizophrenia. Tienari and his colleagues (1994, 2006; Wynne & others, 2006) found that adopted children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia had a much higher rate of schizophrenia than did the children in the control group. However, this was true only when the children were raised in an adoptive home that included psychologically disturbed members. As you can see in Figure 13.4, when children with a genetic background of schizophrenia were raised in a psychologically healthy adoptive family, they were no more likely than the control-group children to develop schizophrenia. Put simply, a healthy psychological environment may counteract a person's inherited vulnerability for schizophrenia. Conversely, a psychologically unhealthy family environment can act as a catalyst for the onset of schizophrenia, especially for those individuals with a genetic history of schizophrenia.
Tardive dyskinesia (TD)
A neurological syndrome characterized by repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements caused by the long-term use of certain drugs called neuroleptics used for psychiatric, gastrointestinal, and neurological disorders.
anxiety hierarchy
A rank-ordered list of what the client fears, starting with the least frightening and ending with the most frightening.
Why the DSM-5 is important to mental health professionals
DSM-5 stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, which was published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013. DSM-5 describes more than 260 specific psychological disorders, plus numerous additional conditions, like child physical abuse and educational problems—a grand total of 541 diagnostic categories (Blashfield & others, 2014). It provides codes for each disorder and includes the symptoms, the criteria that must be met to make a diagnosis, and the frequency, typical course, and risk factors for each disorder. It also includes issues related to gender and culture for each disorder. DSM-5 provides mental health professionals with both a common language for labeling disorders and comprehensive guidelines for diagnosing them.
Basic goals of psychology
Describe behavior, Explain behavior, Predict behavior, Control or influence behavior and mental processes
dissociative amnesia
Dissociative amnesia refers to the partial or total inability to recall important information that is not due to a medical condition, such as an illness, an injury, or a drug. Usually the person develops amnesia for personal events and information, rather than for general knowledge or skills. That is, the person may not be able to remember his wife's name but does remember how to read and who Martin Luther King, Jr., was. In most cases, dissociative amnesia is a response to stress, trauma, or an extremely distressing situation, such as combat, marital problems, or physical abuse
antisocial personality disorder
Often referred to as a psychopath or sociopath, the individual with antisocial personality disorder has the ability to lie, cheat, steal, and otherwise manipulate and harm other people. And when caught, the person shows little or no remorse for having caused pain, damage, or loss to others (Patrick, 2007). It's as though the person has no conscience or sense of guilt. This pattern of blatantly disregarding and violating the rights of others is the central feature of antisocial personality disorder (DSM-5, 2013). Although many people associate violence with antisocial personality disorder, a history of violence is not necessary for the diagnosis (DSM-5, 2013). In fact, there is a wide range of behaviors associated with antisocial personality disorder (Baskin-Sommers, 2016). There is even evidence that some psychopaths succeed in high-status, competitive professions such as in business or politics where a ruthless personality might be useful (Boddy & others, 2010; Lilienfeld & others, 2015). Researchers have also noted a relative lack of anxiety in these individuals, especially those most likely to harm others for their own benefit (De Brito & Hodgins, 2009; Neumann & others, 2013). Approximately 4 percent of the general population displays the characteristics of antisocial personality disorder, with men far outnumbering women (Grant & others, 2004).
Stressful life events as a predictor of recurring major depression
One significant negative event deserves special mention: the death of a loved one. Previous editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual stated that depression-like symptoms that might accompany grieving did not qualify as major depression unless those symptoms persisted for two months, rather than two weeks. The DSM-5 removes that special treatment for bereavement, based on the reasoning that bereavement is like any other psychosocial event that might trigger a depressive episode. While it is normal to feel a sense of loss and deep sadness when a close friend or family member dies, feelings of worthlessness, self-loathing, and the inability to anticipate happiness or pleasure may indicate that major depressive disorder may be present (DSM-5, 2013). Some people experience a chronic form of depression called persistent depressive disorder that is often less severe than major depressive disorder. Persistent depressive disorder may develop after some stressful event or trauma, such as the death of a parent in childhood (DSM-5, 2013). Although the person functions adequately, she has a chronic case of "the blues" that can continue for years.
How a phobia develops through operant conditioning
Operant conditioning can also be involved in the avoidance behavior that characterizes phobias. In Michelle's case, she quickly learned that she could reduce her anxiety and fear by avoiding dogs altogether. To use operant conditioning terms, her operant response of avoiding dogs is negatively reinforced by the relief from anxiety and fear that she experiences.
types of anxiety disorders
Phobias Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Panic disorder Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Positive symptoms include: (1) delusions, or false beliefs; (2) hallucinations, or false perceptions; (3) severely disorganized thought processes and speech; and (4) severely disorganized behavior.
How a phobia develops through classical conditioning
The development of some phobias can be explained in terms of basic learning principles (Craske & Waters, 2005). Classical conditioning may well be involved in the development of a specific phobia that can be traced back to some sort of traumatic event. In the chapter on learning, we saw how psychologist John Watson classically conditioned "Little Albert" to fear a tame lab rat that had been paired with loud noise. Following the conditioning, the infant's fear generalized to other furry objects. More recently, researchers demonstrated the role of classical conditioning in the development of phobias by pairing something new, like an invented cartoon character named Spardi, with something frightening, like a picture of a woman being mugged at knifepoint. Participants rated Spardi as more frightening in this circumstance than when the character was paired with something pleasant, like a picture of a sunset (Vriends & others, 2012). In much the same way, your author Sandy's neighbor Michelle has been extremely phobic of dogs ever since she was bitten by a German shepherd when she was four years old. In effect, Michelle developed a conditioned response (fear) to a conditioned stimulus (the German shepherd) that has generalized to similar stimuli—any dog.
Causes of Panic Disorder: Triple Vulnerability Model
The fluttering heartbeat or momentary dizziness that the average person barely notices signals disaster to the panic-prone. Researchers have suggested that this oversensitivity to physical arousal is one of three important factors in the development of panic disorder. This triple vulnerabilities model of panic states that a biological predisposition toward anxiety, a low sense of control over potentially life-threatening events, and an oversensitivity to physical sensations combine to make a person vulnerable to panic attacks
Neurotransmitters
The synaptic vesicles hold special chemical messengers manufactured by the neuron,
Physical development of the senses in infancy
Vision is the least developed sense at birth.
Where cognitive therapies believe that psychological problems originate from
are based on the assumption that psychological problems are due to maladaptive thinking. assume that the culprit is faulty thinking. The key assumption of the cognitive therapies could be put like this: Most people blame their unhappiness and problems on external events and situations, but the real cause of unhappiness is the way the person thinks about the events, not the events themselves.
Perspectives of Psychology
neuroscience, evolutionary, behavior genetics, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, social-cultural
Functions of the lobes of the brain
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Psychopathology
the scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders
Temperament (Chess and Thomas)
Easy child: Positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy and adapts easily to new experiences (40%) Difficult child: Reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change (10%) Slow-to-warm-up child: Low activity level, somewhat negative and displays low intensity of mood (15%) 35% of children don't fit the categories Easy babies readily adapt to new experiences, generally display positive moods and emotions, and have regular sleeping and eating patterns. Difficult babies tend to be intensely emotional, irritable and fussy, and prone to crying. They also tend to have irregular sleeping and eating patterns. Slow-to-warm-up babies have a low activity level, withdraw from new situations and people, and adapt to new experiences very gradually. After studying the same children from infancy through childhood, Thomas and Chess (1986) found that these broad patterns of temperamental qualities are remarkably stable.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization
Common effects of psychoactive drugs
1 Addiction is a broad term that refers to a condition in which a person feels psychologically and physically compelled to take a specific drug. People experience physical dependence when their body and brain chemistry have physically adapted to a drug. Many physically addictive drugs gradually produce drug tolerance, which means that increasing amounts of the drug are needed to gain the original, desired effect. 2 When a person becomes physically dependent on a drug, abstaining from the drug produces withdrawal symptoms—unpleasant physical reactions to the lack of the drug, plus an intense craving for it. Withdrawal symptoms are alleviated by taking the drug again. Often, the withdrawal symptoms are opposite to the drug's action. For example, withdrawing from stimulating drugs, like the caffeine in coffee, may produce depression and fatigue. Withdrawal from opioid painkillers may produce pain and discomfort.
Causes of Panic Disorder: catastrophic cognitions theory
According to the catastrophic cognitions theory, people with panic disorder are not only oversensitive to physical sensations, they also tend to catastrophize the meaning of their experience (Hinton & Hinton, 2009; Sandin & others, 2015). A few moments of increased heart rate after climbing a flight of stairs is misinterpreted as the warning signs of a heart attack. Such catastrophic misinterpretations simply add to the physiological arousal, creating a vicious circle in which the frightening symptoms intensify.
The ABC model of Albert Ellis
According to this model, when an Activating event (A) occurs, it is the person's Beliefs (B) about the event that cause emotional Consequences (C).
Which anxiety medication is not a benzodiazepine?
An antianxiety drug with the trade name Buspar has fewer side effects. Buspar is not a benzodiazepine, and it does not affect the neurotransmitter GABA. In fact, exactly how Buspar works is unclear, but it is believed to affect brain dopamine and serotonin levels (Davidson & others, 2009). Regardless, Buspar relieves anxiety while allowing the individual to maintain normal alertness. It does not cause the drowsiness and cognitive impairment that are associated with the benzodiazepines. And Buspar seems to have a very low risk of dependency and physical addiction.
Divisions of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Figure 9.1 understand what a chromosome, gene and DNA are
Each chromosome contains thousands of genes, and each gene is a unit of DNA instructions. Incredibly fine, the strands of DNA in a single human cell would be more than three inches long if unraveled. If the DNA present in one person were unraveled, it would stretch from Earth to Pluto and back—twice!
How drugs work in the brain
Each psychoactive drug has a distinct biological effect. Psychoactive drugs may influence many different bodily systems, but their consciousness-altering effects are primarily due to their effect on the brain. Typically, these drugs influence brain activity by altering synaptic transmission among neurons. As we discussed in Chapter 2, drugs affect synaptic transmission by increasing or decreasing neurotransmitter amounts or by blocking, mimicking, or influencing a particular neurotransmitter's effects. Chronic drug use can also produce long-term changes in brain structures and functions
anorexia nervosa (which neurotransmitter with decreased brain activity?)
First, the person refuses to maintain a minimally normal body weight, usually through restricting calories by eating very little food, but also often by burning calories, such as with excessive exercise. With a body weight that is significantly below normal, body mass index can drop to 12 or lower. Second, despite being dangerously underweight, the person with anorexia is intensely afraid of gaining weight or becoming fat. Third, she has a distorted perception about the size of her body. Although emaciated, she looks in the mirror and sees herself as fat or obese, denying the seriousness of her weight loss. The severe malnutrition caused by anorexia disrupts body chemistry in ways that are very similar to those caused by starvation. Basal metabolic rate decreases, as do blood levels of glucose, insulin, and leptin. Other hormonal levels drop, including the level of reproductive hormones. In women, reduced estrogen may result in the menstrual cycle stopping. In men, decreased testosterone disrupts sex drive and sexual function (Pinheiro & others, 2010). Because the ability to retain body heat is greatly diminished, people with severe anorexia often develop a soft, fine body hair called lanugo.
Teratogens
Harmful agents or substances that can cause abnormal development or birth defects
examples of classical conditioning
In Pavlov's (1904)original studies of digestion, the dogs salivated reflexively when food was placed on their tongues. But when the dogs began salivating in response to the sight of Pavlov or to the sound of his footsteps, a new, learned stimulus elicited the salivary response. Thus, in classical conditioning, a new stimulus-response sequence is learned. How does this kind of learning take place? Essentially, classical conditioning is a process of learning an association between two stimuli. Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sight of Pavlov) with an unlearned, natural stimulus (food in the mouth) that automatically elicits a reflexive response (the dog salivates). If the two stimuli (Pavlov + food) are repeatedly paired, eventually the neutral stimulus (Pavlov) elicits the same basic reflexive response as the natural stimulus (food)—even in the absence of the natural stimulus. So, when the dog in the laboratory started salivating at the sight of Pavlov before the food was placed on its tongue, it was because the dog had formed a new, learned associationbetween the sight of Pavlov and the food.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory, Drive Reduction Theory, Arousal Theory, Incentive Theory, Humanistic theory 1 instinct theories, people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of evolutionary programming. 2 drive theories asserted that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs, such as hunger or thirst. 3 Arousal theory is based on the observation that people experience both very high levels of arousal and very low levels of arousal as being quite unpleasant. 4 Incentive theories proposed that behavior is motivated by the "pull" of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition. 5 humanistic perspective, people are innately motivated to realize their highest personal potential. Although innate and universal, the motivation to strive toward your highest potential could be jeopardized by the absence of a supportive environment—personal, social, and cultural
Medication commonly used to treat Bipolar disorder
Lithium
Evidence from studies on schizophrenia looking at abnormal brain structures/ neurotransmitter substance abnormalities
Researchers have found that about half of the people with schizophrenia show abnormalities in brain structure or function (Bernard & Mittal, 2015; Haut & others, 2014). The most consistent finding has been the enlargement of the fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles, located deep within the brain. Other differences that have been found are a loss of gray matter tissue and lower overall volume of the brain. Researchers also have observed particular patterns of connections among brain structures in people with schizophrenia. For example, researchers found that people with schizophrenia as well as people at high risk for developing schizophrenia showed lower levels of connectivity between: (1) regions of the temporal lobes that are responsible for learning and memory, and (2) the parts of the brain responsible for hearing, language, and processing images (Haut & others, 2014). This pattern of decreased connectivity may account for the memory problems often experienced by people with schizophrenia. Although there is evidence that brain abnormalities are found in schizophrenia, such findings do not prove that brain abnormalities are the sole cause of schizophrenia. First, some people with schizophrenia do not show brain abnormalities. Second, the evidence is correlational. Researchers are still investigating whether differences in brain structures and activity are the cause or the consequence of schizophrenia. Third, the kinds of brain abnormalities seen in schizophrenia are also seen in other mental disorders. Rather than specifically causing schizophrenia, it's quite possible that brain abnormalities might contribute to psychological disorders in general. There are several hypotheses that attribute schizophrenia to imbalances in neurotransmitters. The oldest of these is the dopamine hypothesis, which attributes schizophrenia to excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. Two pieces of indirect evidence support this notion. First, antipsychotic drugs, such as Haldol, Thorazine, and Stelazine, reduce or block dopamine activity in the brain.These drugs reduce schizophrenic symptoms, especially positive symptoms, in many people. Second, drugs that enhance dopamine activity in the brain, such as amphetamines and cocaine, can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms in normal adults or increase symptoms in people who already have schizophrenia. However, there is also evidence that contradicts the dopamine hypothesis (Jucaite & Nyberg, 2012). For example, not all individuals who have schizophrenia experience a reduction of symptoms in response to the antipsychotic drugs that reduce dopamine activity in the brain. And for many patients, these drugs reduce some but not all schizophrenic symptoms, and tend to reduce positive symptoms more than negative symptoms (Kendler & Schaffner, 2011). One new theory is that some parts of the brain, such as the limbic system, may have too much dopamine, while other parts of the brain, such as the cortex, may have too little (Combs & Mueser, 2007; Kendler & Schaffner, 2011). There also is increasing evidence that imbalances in other neurotransmitters—glutamate and adenosine—are related to schizophrenia (Boison & others, 2012; Lau & others, 2013; Moghaddam & Javitt, 2011). Thus, the connection between neurotransmitters and schizophrenia symptoms remains unclear.
Schizophrenia twin studies
Second, family and twin studies have consistently shown that the more closely related a person is to someone who has schizophrenia, the greater the risk that she will be diagnosed with schizophrenia at some point in her lifetime. Ironically, some of the best evidence that points to genetic involvement in schizophrenia—the almost 50 percent risk rate for a person whose identical twin has schizophrenia—is the same evidence that underscores the importance of environmental factors (Gejman & others, 2010; Oh & Petronis, 2008). If schizophrenia were purely a matter of inherited maladaptive genes, then you would expect a risk rate much closer to 100 percent for monozygotic twins. Obviously, nongenetic factors must play a role in explaining why half of identical twins with a schizophrenic twin do not develop schizophrenia.
Critical Thinking Box: Does smoking cause major depressive disorder and other psychological disorders. What is a possible explanation for the high rate of smoking among those with mental illness?
So, one possible explanation is that people with a mental illness smoke as a form of self-medication. Notice that this explanation assumes that mental illness causespeople to smoke.
Findings of the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
The NCS-R results reconfirmed many of the findings of previous national surveys, including the finding that psychological disorders are much more prevalent than many people believe (Kessler & others, 2005c). Specifically, the NCS-R found that one out of four respondents (26 percent) reported experiencing the symptoms of a psychological disorder during the previous year (Kessler & others, 2005b). And almost one in two adults (46 percent) had experienced the symptoms of a psychological disorder at some point in their lives. The NCS-R and other surveys like it also reveal a high degree of comorbidity, which means that people diagnosed with one disorder are also frequently diagnosed with an additional disorder. In fact, about 46 percent of people with a mental illness have at least two at the same time. The NCS-R found that most people in the United States with the symptoms of a mental disorder (59 percent) received no treatment during the past year. And, the treatment provided was often inadequate, falling short of established treatment guidelines (Wang & others, 2005). These trends are shared globally, with several factors contributing to this unmet need for treatment, including lack of insurance, low income, and lack of access to mental health care.
Research findings on whether people with mental disorders are more violent than others
There is evidence that people with severe mental disorders who are experiencing extreme psychological symptoms, such as bizarre delusional ideas and hallucinated voices, do display a slightly higher level of violent and illegal behavior than do "normal" people (Bucci & others, 2013; Skeem & others, 2015). However, a person with a mental disorder who is not suffering from such symptoms is no more likely than an average person to be involved in violent or illegal behavior (Peterson & others, 2014).
Milgram and Asch Research
We also evaluate people in terms of how we expect them to act in a particular context. We pay attention to whether they violate social norms—the unwritten "rules," or expectations, for appropriate behavior in that particular social situation (Milgram, 1992). For example, sitting next to someone on a subway when there are empty seats available is a violation of a social norm. Such violations call attention from others, as in the cartoon on the right.
Steps in Beck's cognitive therapy and cognitive biases
What he found, however, was that depressed people have an extremely negative view of the past, present, and future (Beck & others, 1979). Rather than realistically evaluating their situation, depressed patients have developed a negative cognitive bias, consistently distorting their experiences in a negative way. Their negative perceptions of events and situations are shaped by deep-seated, self-deprecating beliefs, such as "I can't do anything right," "I'm worthless," or "I'm unlovable" (Beck, 1991). Beck's cognitive therapy essentially focuses on correcting the cognitive biases that underlie major depressive disorder and other psychological disorders. STEPS: The first step in CT is to help the client learn to recognize and monitor the automatic thoughts that occur without conscious effort or control. Because their perceptions are shaped by their negative cognitive biases, depressed people usually have automatic thoughts that reflect very negative interpretations of experience. In the second step of CT, the therapist helps the client learn how to empirically test the reality of the automatic thoughts that are so upsetting. For example, to test the belief that "I always say the wrong thing," the therapist might assign the person the task of initiating a conversation with three acquaintances and noting how often he actually said the wrong thing. Initially, the CT therapist models techniques for evaluating the accuracy of automatic thoughts, hoping to eventually teach the client to do the same on her own. The CT therapist also strives to create a therapeutic climate of collaboration that encourages the client to contribute to the evaluation of the logic and accuracy of automatic thoughts
Effectiveness of psychotherapy
When meta-analysis is used to summarize studies that compare people who receive psychotherapy treatment to no-treatment controls, researchers consistently arrive at the same conclusion: Psychotherapy is significantly more effective than no treatment. On average, the person who completes psychotherapy treatment is better off than about 80 percent of those in the untreated control group (Cooper, 2008; Lambert & Ogles, 2004). The benefits of psychotherapy usually become apparent in a relatively short time. As shown in Figure 14.4, approximately 50 percent of people show significant improvement by the eighth weekly session of psychotherapy. By the end of six months of weekly psychotherapy sessions, about 75 percent are significantly improved
synaptic transmission
When the action potential reaches the axon terminals, some of the synaptic vesicles "dock" on the axon terminal membrane and then release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap. These chemical messengers cross the synaptic gap and attach to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving or postsynaptic neuron. This journey across the synaptic gap takes just a few millionths of a second. The entire process of transmitting information at the synapse is called synaptic transmission.
Structure of a neuron
a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. 1 The cell body, also called the soma, contains structures that manufacture proteins and process nutrients, providing the energy the neuron needs to function. The cell body also contains the nucleus, which in turn contains the cell's genetic material—twisted strands of DNA called chromosomes. 2 Short branching fibers called dendrites extend from the cell bodies of most neurons. The term dendrite comes from a Greek word meaning "tree." And, the intricate branching of the dendrites does often resemble the branches of a tree. Dendrites receive messages from other neurons or specialized cells. Dendrites with many branches have a greater surface area, which increases the amount of information the neuron can receive. Some neurons have thousands of dendrites. 3 The axon is a single elongated tube that extends from the cell body in most, though not all, neurons. (Some neurons do not have axons.) Axons carry information from the neuron to other cells in the body, including other neurons, glands, and muscles. In contrast to the potentially large number of dendrites, a neuron has only one axon exiting from the cell body. However, many axons have branches near their tips that allow the neuron to communicate information to more than one target.
Schizophrenia: Hallucinations and Delusions
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression. 1 A delusion is a false belief that persists despite compelling contradictory evidence. Schizophrenic delusions are not simply unconventional or inaccurate beliefs. Rather, they are bizarre and far-fetched notions. 2 Among the most disturbing experiences in schizophrenia are hallucinations, which are false or distorted perceptions—usually voices or visual stimuli—that seem vividly real. The content of hallucinations is often tied to the person's delusional beliefs.
self-determination theory
abbreviated SDT, is a contemporary theory of motivation developed by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan (2012a, 2012b; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Much like Maslow's theory, SDT's premise is that people are actively growth oriented and that they move toward a unified sense of self and integration with others. And, it incorporates other researchers' work on the importance of social relationships, belongingness, competence, and achievement motivation.
Attachment research and Mary Ainsworth's research and findings
attachment relationships serve important functions throughout infancy and, indeed, the lifespan. Ideally, the parent or caregiver functions as a secure base for the infant, providing a sense of comfort and security—a safe haven from which the infant can explore and learn about the environment. According to attachment theory, an infant's ability to thrive physically and psychologically depends in large part on the quality of attachment. Best known for developing the Strange Situationprocedure to measure attachment, Mary Ainsworth originated the concept of the secure base. She was also the first researcher in the United States to make extensive, systematic, naturalistic observations of mother-infant interactions in their own homes. Her findings often surprised contemporary psychologists. For example, Ainsworth provided the first evidence demonstrating the importance of the caregiver's responsiveness to the infant's needs Insecure attachment seems to reflect an ambivalent or detached emotional relationship between an infant and his parents How do researchers measure attachment? The most commonly used procedure, called the Strange Situation, was devised by Ainsworth. The Strange Situation is typically used with infants who are between 1 and 2 years old (Ainsworth & others, 1978). In this technique, the baby and his mother are brought into an unfamiliar room with a variety of toys. A few minutes later, a stranger enters the room. The mother stays with the baby for a few moments and then departs, leaving the baby alone with the stranger. After a few minutes, the mother returns, spends a few minutes in the room, leaves, and returns again. Through a one-way window, observers record the infant's behavior throughout this sequence of separations and reunions. Psychologists assess attachment by observing the child's behavior toward his mother during the Strange Situation procedure. When his mother is present, the securely attached baby will use her as a "secure base" from which to explore the new environment, periodically returning to her side. He will show distress when his mother leaves the room and will greet her warmly when she returns. A securely attached baby is easily soothed by his mother
Perspectives of Psychology and their definition
behavioral- how we learn observable responses. behavior genetics- how much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences. cognitive- how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information. evolutionary- how the natural selection of traits promoted the survival of genes. neuroscience- how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences. psychodynamic- how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts. social-cultural- how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.
The most widely used drug
caffeine
function of neurons
cells that are highly specialized to receive and transmit information from one part of the body to another.
Piagets theory of development and stages (know examples and key terms) Fig Table 9.2
children progress through four distinct cognitive stages: the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7 to age 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins during adolescence and continues into adulthood. As a child advances to a new stage, his thinking is qualitatively different from that of the previous stage. In other words, each new stage represents a fundamental shift in how the child thinks and understands the world.
Temperament (Jerome Kagan's research)
classified temperament in terms of reactivity. High-reactive infants react intensely to new experiences, strangers, and novel objects. They tend to be tense, fearful, and inhibited. At the opposite pole are low-reactive infants, who tend to be calmer, uninhibited, and bolder. Sociable rather than shy, low-reactive infants are more likely to show interest than fear when exposed to new people, experiences, and objects. "Temperament is not destiny. Many experiences will affect high and low reactive infants as they grow up. Parents who encourage a more sociable, bold persona and discourage timidity will help their high reactive children develop a less-inhibited profile."
Genotype
consists of the chromosomes inherited from your biological parents
operant conditioning
deals with the learning of active, voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by their consequences.
Areas of Psychology
developmental,cognitive,personality ,social,industrial/organizational,counseling,clinical
What motivates eating behavior?
drive theory
What ECT is primarily used as a treatment for?
electroconvulsive therapy, or ECT, as a medical treatment for severe cases of major depressive disorder. Also known as electroshock therapy or shock therapy, electroconvulsive therapy involves using a brief burst of electric current to induce a seizure in the brain, much like an epileptic seizure.
borderline personality disorder
is characterized by impulsiveness and chronically unstable emotions, relationships, and self-image. Moods and emotions are intense, fluctuating, and extreme, often vastly out of proportion to the triggering incident, and seemingly uncontrollable. The person with borderline personality disorder unpredictably swings from one mood extreme to another. Inappropriate, intense, and often uncontrollable episodes of anger are another hallmark of this disorder
Pyschology
is defined as the science of behavior and mental processes, a definition that reflects psychology's origins and history.
developmental psychology
is the study of how people change over the lifespan.
experimental research
is used to show that one variable causes change in a second variable.
consciousness
is your immediate awareness of your internal states—your thoughts, sensations, memories—and the external world around you. refers to your immediate awareness of mental activity, internal sensations, and external stimuli.
types of mood disorders (causing factors and symptoms)
major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder p517-518-519
Mindfulness-based therapy
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) was developed to treat major depressive disorder, although it has been expanded to include other disorders
How do the newer antidepressant drugs target the brain?
several new antidepressants have been developed, including Serzone and Remeron. These antidepressants, called dual-action antidepressants, also affect serotonin levels, but their mechanism is somewhat different from that of the SSRIs. One promising new treatment is an experimental drug called ketamine (Loo, 2018; Singh & others, 2016). As discussed in the chapter on consciousness, ketamine is used in high doses as an anesthetic and called Special K when sold as a street drug. In one study, 71 percent of severely depressed patients who received intravenous ketamine saw a decrease in depressive symptoms within just one day, as compared with 0 percent of those taking placebo (Zarate & others, 2006). There were some serious side effects from ketamine, such as hallucinations. Although none lasted more than two hours, the side effects have spurred researchers to search for safer alternatives that act in similar ways to ketamine (Gerhard & others, 2016; Malinow, 2016; Zanos & others, 2016). THINK LIKE A SCIENTIST How would a "party drug" end up being prescribed for depression? Go to LaunchPad: Resources to Think Like a Scientistabout Ketamine. Despite its impressive effectiveness, ketamine is likely to be used only in emergency situations, in large part because its effects tend to last no more than a week. However, ketamine's fast response time means that seriously depressed people who visit the ER might be able to forgo inpatient treatment. During the time it takes for ketamine to wear off, more traditional antidepressants and psychotherapy might have time to start working. There also is evidence that the use of ketamine reduces suicide rates
Phenotype
the actual characteristics you display—results from the interaction of genetics and environmental factors.
What are the different periods of prenatal development?
the germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period The germinal period, also called the zygotic period, represents the first two weeks of prenatal development .embryonic period begins with week 3 and extends through week 8. During this time of rapid growth and intensive cell differentiation, the organs and major systems of the body form. The third month heralds the beginning of the fetal period—the final and longest stage of prenatal development. The main task during the next seven months is for body systems to grow and reach maturity in preparation for life outside the mother's body.
Dissociative Fugue Disorder
the person outwardly appears completely normal. However, the person is confused about her identity. While in the fugue state, she suddenly and inexplicably travels away from her home, wandering to other cities or even countries. In some cases, people in a fugue state adopt a completely new identity. As is true with other cases of amnesia, dissociative fugues are thought to be associated with traumatic events or stressful periods. However, it's unclear as to howa fugue state develops or why a person experiences a fugue state rather than other sorts of symptoms, such as simple anxiety or depression. Interestingly, when the person "awakens" from the fugue state, she may remember her past history but have amnesia for what occurred during the fugue state
Neuroscience/Biological Psychology
the scientific study of the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Neuroscience has become increasingly important in the field of psychology, impacting virtually every area of research
effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs
these drugs affect brain levels of dopamine and serotonin. The first atypical antipsychotics were clozapineand risperidone. More recent atypical antipsychotics include olanzapine, sertindole,and quetiapine. The atypical antipsychotics have several advantages over the older antipsychotic drugs (Advokat & others, 2014). First, the new drugs are less likely to cause movement-related side effects. That's because they do not block dopamine receptors in the movement areas of the brain. Instead, they more selectively target dopamine receptors in brain areas associated with psychotic symptoms. The atypical antipsychotics are also much more effective in treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia—apathy, social withdrawal, and flat emotions (Woo & others, 2009). The atypical antipsychotic medications sparked considerable hope for better therapeutic effects, fewer adverse reactions, and greater patient compliance. Although they were less likely to cause movement-related side effects, the second-generation antipsychotics caused some of the same side effects as the first-generation antipsychotics, including weight gain and cardiac problems. Equally important, large-scale studies have demonstrated that the newer antipsychotic medications do not produce greater improvements than the older traditional antipsychotics (Crossley & others, 2010). The effectiveness of antipsychotics in general is enhanced when patients also have access to individual psychotherapy, family therapy, and support with respect to pursuing education and employment
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Reinforcement schedule that leads to greatest resistance to extinction
variable ratio
How benzodiazepines produce their calming effects
which include the trade-name drugs Valium and Xanax. These antianxiety medications calm jittery feelings, relax the muscles, and promote sleep. They used to go by the name "tranquilizers" because of this effect. In general, the benzodiazepines produce their effects by increasing the level of GABA, a neurotransmitter that inhibits the transmission of nerve impulses in the brain and slows brain activity
