PSYCH 250 EXAM 1 REVIEW

Definition of Theory:

*An orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior* -theories are tools -Ex. of theory utility: you are watching a 2 year old, the baby starts to cry, you could ignore the noise and play with toys so that she stops crying and joins you OR you can console her by saying that mom and dad will be back soon and set out a timer (concrete) for their return OR you can call your friend who watches her in daycare and ask how to make her stop crying/why she is (information with contacts) ... these are all different theories that may explain each choice!

Resilience (text pg. 8).

-->Research on *resilience* - the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development - is receiving increased attention as investigators look for ways to protect young people from the damaging effects of stressful life conditions. -This interest has been inspired by several long-term studies on the relationship of life stressors in childhood to competence and adjustment in adolescence and adulthood (Werner, 2013). -In each study, some some individuals were shielded from negative outcomes, whereas others had lasting problems. Four broad factors seemed to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events: 1. *Personal Characteristics*: High intelligence and socially valued talents (music, athletics), increase the chances that a child will have rewarding experiences in school and in the community that offsets the impact of a stressful home life. Temperament is particularly powerful. Children who have easygoing dispositions and who can readily inhibit negative emotions tend to have an optimistic outlook on life and a special capacity to adapt to change - qualities that elicit positive responses from others. Emotionally reactive and irritable children often tax the patience of people around them. 2. *A Warm Parental Relationship*: A close relationship with at least one parent who provides warmth, appropriately high expectations, monitoring of the child's activities, and an organized home environment *fosters resilience*. But this factor is not independent of children's personal characteristics. Children who are self-controlled, socially responsive, and and able to deal with change are easier to rear and more likely to enjoy positive relationships with parents and other people. Children develop more attractive dispositions as a result of parental warmth and attention. 3. *Social Support Outside the Immediate Family*: The most consistent asset of *resilient* children is a strong bond with a competent, caring adult. Associations with rule-abiding peers who value academic achievements are also linked to *resilience.* But children who have strong relationships with adults are far more likely to establish these supportive peer ties. 4. *Community Resources and Opportunities*: Community supports - supervision offered by neighborhood adults, high-quality child care centers, and public schools, convenient and affordable health car and social services, libraries, and recreation centers- foster both parents' and children's' wellbeing. Also, engaging in extracurricular activities at school and in religious youth groups / other organizations , teaches important social skills such as cooperation, leadership, and contributing to others' welfare. As participants acquire these competencies (joining teams), they gain in self reliance and self esteem, which offers opportunities to build meaningful relationships which further strengthens resilience. -Research on resilience highlights the complex connections between heredity and environment. Armed with positive characteristics that stem from native endowment, favorable rearing experiences can allow children to reduce stressful situations. -BUT when many risks pile up, they are increasingly difficult to overcome. To inoculate children against the negative effects of risk, interventions must not only reduce risks but also enhance children's protective relationships at home, in school and in the community

Definition of development:

-Development is *a process of age related changes across the lifespan; changes in growth, feelings, patterns of thinking* -process = ongoing, gradual changes unfold over time (i.e. height...)

The six substages of the sensorimotor stage and characteristics of each. -->Special terms: -circular reaction, -object permanence, -deferred imitation, -mental representation,

THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE -->*Principle component* = *the circular reaction* = (CR) = means by which infants build schemes by trying to repeat chance events caused by their own motor activity. -repeating novel, interesting things - circuit - do it over and over again SUBSTAGE 1- REFLEXIVE SCHEMES - birth to 1 month -*exercising reflexes, the building blocks of sensorimotor intelligence* -in this stage reflexes get stronger by exercise SUBSTAGE 2- PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS -1-4 months -oriented towards infants own body -circular reactions -your *own body only* -no voluntary control over muscles right now -you discover by chance cool things that your body does; events happen, by chance, "this is cool" --> so you do it again and again (i.e. sucking on hand) -infants try to repeat pleasurable / interesting events by chance the relate to their own body SUBSTAGE 3- SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS -4-8 months -repeat interesting or novel events in the environment -*objects AND body* -someone puts a rattle in your hands and you shake it --> "oh that's cool" --> so you do it again and; interacting with other things in the environment, not just your own body SUBTAGE 4- COORDINATION OF SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS: -8-12 months -infants organize and combine schemes to solve problems -for example, shake AND rattle -can engage in goal directed behavior -see beginnings of *OBJECT PERMANENCE* = the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. -at this age kids start to respond and know that the object is still there, however some parts are still incomplete -problems with A-not-B task (8-12 yr olds don't do well with this task: you show them a toy, then you move a blanket over the toy, they uncover it and find it, BUT THEN you move the toy under a second blanket and the child looks under the first blanket (wrong!)) -- they look in the first place not the second place SUBSTAGE 5- TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS -12 - 18 months -*experimenting* - *repeating acts/actions with variation* -ex: baby throwing a spoon, then mom picks it up and baby throws it again somewhere else etc... "what happens if I throw it here?"; pulls one diaper out of the box, sees that another pops up, COOL! --> continues to pull out another and another ... carrots in hair ... -"how does it work differently if I do it THIS way??" SUBSTAGE 6: THE FINAL GOAL: MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS -18 months - 2 yrs -this is the final achievement of the sensorimotor stage -CHARACTERISTICS AND ACCOMPLISHEMENTS: -->1. Represent the world in a symbolic, conceptual manner -->2. Able to create *mental representations* = internal images of objects, actions, and events (think what they did before that worked and then use that method again, instead of experimenting and trying a bunch of things) -->3. Using words and gestures as symbols to represent things (waving or saying "bye") -->4. *Deferred Imitation*: ability to reproduce the behavior of models no longer present (child can imitate something they saw yesterday that is no longer present) -->5. Changes in nature of play: from functional to pretend (make-believe)

Chapter 2: Biological and Environmental Foundations

The foundations of human development are: HEREDITY *and* ENVIRONMENT

experience-expectant brain growth vs. experience-dependent brain growth (text 98).

--> *experience-expectant brain growth:* -a type of brain development -refers to the young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to explore the environment, interact with people and hear language and other sounds --> *experience-dependent brain growth:*- -a type of brain development -occurs throughout our lives -it consists of additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures

Many consequences for the child - Effects on:

--> Discipline and parenting -stress reduces ability to parent effectively -single parent may provide less supervision --> Physical health status -low income kids are more exposed to lead, toxins, less healthcare, less meals per day and cannot focus --> Socioeconomic functioning -more behavioral and emotional issues with lower income -greater risk of displaying behavioral and emotional problems -risk for less positive peer relations, lower self-esteem, and increased anxiety --> Cognitive functioning -cognitive and verbal skills -negative academic outcomes (more dropouts) -diminished brain growth and development

Interaction between genes and environment. -->Terms: -gene-environment interaction, -passive genotype/environment correlation, -evocative genotype/environment correlation, -niche-picking/active influence, -epigenesis

--> GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION: -individuals, because of their different genetic makeups, will differ in their reactions to the environment -genes influence the environments to which we are exposed in 3 ways -it's the genes AND environment that interact to shape a person; BOTH --different genotypes in the same environment may experience different enrichment and thus have different range of reactions (weak natural habitat and phenotypic intelligence vs enriched natural habitat and phenotypic intelligence) Genetic Environmental Correlations (3)- -->PASSIVE GENOTYPE/ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: -parents provide environment influenced by own heredity -because they are genetically related, child may be predisposed to be responsive to this environment --dad likes football --> kid likes football -->EVOCATIVE GENOTYPE/ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: -different genetically based attributes evoke certain responses -if you evoke a happy response from baby then he will be more outgoing -->NICHE-PICKING/ACTIVE INFLUENCES: -individuals seek out environments most compatible with their genetic predisposition (active kids join sports and clubs, more older kids tend to pick actions and environments based on their genes) -Niche-picking is more central as children age --> EPIGENESIS: -development results from ongoing bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment

Newborn capacities: -reflexes (definition, role, examples), -sensory capacities. -->Term: visual acuity

--> *Definition of reflexes*: an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation. Organized behavior patterns that govern the newborn's movements. Reflexes are for survival, 27 inborn reflexes babies are born with; newborns are not born passive and organized. Ex: rooting, sucking, eye blink, withdrawal, babinski, moro (startled), palmer grasp, tonic neck, crawling, stepping, escape ... --> *Purpose*: provide newborns with adaptive responses to their environment before they can learn about the world -->*Characteristics/Nature*: 1. Some have survival value - e.g., rooting (find nipple), sucking - for feeding 2. Some are precursors of later motor skills - e.g., stepping reflex - stimulate muscles, nervous system (crawling) 3. Some are remains from earlier versions of Homo sapiens - e.g., moro reflex (a startle response where baby flails arms and longs if thinks being dropped) 4. Duration- most reflexes disappear during the first 6 months 5. Helpful for diagnosing early neurological problems NEWBORN SENSORY CAPACITES: -->TOUCH: -first sense to develop in utero -sensitivity to touch and pain are present at birth -helps stimulate physical and emotional development -->TASTE AND SMELL: -highly developed sense of taste in infants - like sweet or bitter (preference for breast milk bc tastes sweet) -able to communicate taste and odor preferences. some odor preferences are likely innate -attracted to odor of mother's lactating breast -->HEARING: -prefer complex sounds such as voices (babies are biologically prepared to respond to sounds of any language) -can distinguish almost all sounds in human language -can locate and orient to sounds at 2 months. slow. (2-3 second delay) -->VISION: -least mature of newborn senses (cannot focus eyes well; blurry) -*visual acuity*: fineness of discrimination; is very limited ; vision when first born is not good, blurry

Looking at the role of environment: The child's environment consists of many influences, such as:

family, peers and classmates, schools and teachers, neighborhood, towns and cities, *social class and socioeconomic status*, and *larger cultural context and cultural values*

Teratogens: -definition, -prevalence of birth defects, -4 factors that determine impact of teratogens

-*Definition*: any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period (alcohol, drugs, nicotine...) -Frequency of birth defects: 5-8% of live births are born with defects; mostly are the result of teratogens or environment in the prenatal period Impact of teratogens varies based on several factors: 1. DOSE - length and degree of exposure (larger doses over long periods of time = more negative effects) 2. GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS 3. PRESENCE OF OTHER FACTORS - ex: smoking *and* drinking *and* eating bad 4. TIME OF EXPOSURE - if in the first two weeks you are not too susceptible to teratogens, but during the *embryonic* period (2-8 weeks) if exposed to teratogens it can have *major structural abnormalities*, and then less effects if exposed during fetal period) What helps you have a healthy full term baby? -good health and fitness, balanced diet, gain 25 lbs, -->BIG predictor: 5 or more prenatal doctor visits

-video deficit effect (text 126)

-*poorer performance after viewing a video than a live demonstration* (baby learning from tv and video) -Learning Vocabulary from Educational DVDs •12-18 month old babies •4 groups: 1.Babies watched DVD alone 2.Babies watched DVD with parents 3.Parents taught babies target words (no video) 4.Control FINDINGS: -the children who viewed the dvd did not learn any more words from their monthlong exposure to it than did a control group. The highest level of learning occurred in a no-video condition in which parents tried to teach their children the same target words during everyday activities -- •Babies don't actually learn words from DVDs - they learn from their parents!•American Academy of Pediatrics recommends electronic media exposure only after age 2. •But watching educational videos can have some positive effects. -- Why do parents still buy these DVDs? •Why do you think parents believe there is an effect? •What is causing these "effects? "•Environmental influences •Creating an enriched, but not over-stimulating, environment

-intermodal perception (text 114)

-*we make sense of these running streams of light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information, perceiving them as integrated wholes* -infants perceive input from different sensory systems in a unified way by detecting amodal sensory properties - info that overlaps two or more sensory systems (sight and sound of a bouncing ball; face and voice of a speaking person) -within the first year and a half infants master a remarkable range of intermodal relationships

Basic components of inheritance and the genetic code: -genotype, -phenotype, -genes, -DNA, -chromosomes (function and nature), -autosomes vs. sex chromosomes, -allele, -homozygous vs. heterozygous, gametes

--> GENOTYPE: -genetic make up, set of inherited genes (heredity drives this; the DNA sequence that makes up an organism) --> PHENOTYPE: -the way an individual's genotype is expressed in observable characteristics/physical characteristics (height, intelligence, hair color ... these things depend on both heredity/genes and environment) --> GENE: -a segment of DNA along the length of the chromosomes - contains heredity instructions (blueprint) -->DNA: -active biochemical substance that programs the cells to manufacture vital protein substances; long double stranded molecule -->Chromosomes: -rodlike structures inside cell nucleus that store and transmit genetic information; 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell (46 total), including autosomes and sex chromosomes -->AUTOSOMES: -regular pairs of chromosomes, 22 of the 23 matching pairs; match in size, shape, and genetic function -->SEX CHROMOSOMES: -23rd pair of chromosomes that determines sex of the child. Female - XX, Male - XY -->Genes come in different forms knowns as ALLELES (one from mom, one from dad) --> HOMOZYGOUS: -alleles in the pair are the same (BB - you will get brown eyes if the ales are the same; dominant alleles) --> HETEROZYGOUS: -alleles in the pair differ (Ex: Bb, one dominant one recessive allele) --> GAMETES: SEX CELLS -sperm and ova -they combine to form one unique individual; hold 23 chromosomes each instead of 46

Stress of poverty weakens the family system- Families often confronted with multiple issues:

--> Inadequate housing and dangerous and unhealthy neighborhoods. -households with more defects, rodents, inadequate heat -more polluted environments; air, water toxins --> More household disruption, daily hassles, frequent crisis -exposed to greater levels of violence, family disruption, divorce -change residences more often (lots of instability) -greater instability in peer relationships -->Fewer neighborhood resources (parks, supermarkets) -more likely to attend schools that are inadequate -->Fewer cognitive enrichment opportunities, both at home and in their neighborhood

LEARNING THEORY 3. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory/Social Learning Theory (humans as cognitive beings, observational learning)

--> OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING/MODELING: -results from observing the behavior of other people -monkey see monkey do -Ex: watching bad habits and then doing them (little kids watch adults violently beat clown bobo doll and then they mimic the behavior; watching bad habits and then doing them - food w/ tv) --> HUMANS AS COGNITIVE BEINGS: -active processing of information from the environment plays a major role in learning --> COMPLEX PROCESS: -many factors govern decision making - e.g., who to model? (powerful, attractive, salient, similar) -anticipated outcomes - who gets reinforced? -do you have these skill sets? -Ex: at a wedding, people are dancing, modern dance ... you don't necessarily model and do what everyone else is doing, you keep looking and find someone like you in quality with similar skills getting praised for their JT dancing, so in return after seeing this you think you will get praised for it so you do it and follow him

General premises of Freud's psychosexual theory - role of drives & conflict

--> PREMISE: -Governed by motives and drives that are internal and often unconscious (beyond awareness) -Children move through stages in which they confront conflicts between inner needs and drives and external demands and expectations. -How conflicts are resolved determines psychological adjustment and personality -Freud got us looking at early child development dealing with the home and the parent ...

Nature of research designs

--> Research design: overall plan for your study -Are you measuring the naturally occurring relationship between two variables or are you manipulating a variable experimentally? --> Research methods: the tools you use to best answer your question e.g. observation, survey, standardized tests, physiological data.

Dimensions on which theories differ: organismic vs. mechanistic; continuous vs. discontinuous development; contributions of nature vs. nurture

--> Theories differ in their approaches to development: 1. *View of the developing person*- (how actively and passively involved in environment) --> ORGANISMIC theories: change stimulated from within the organism, active --> MECHANISTIC theories: change stimulated by environment, passive 2. *View of the course of development*- (manner in which developmental changes occur) --> CONTINUOUS development: gradually adding on more; development is a cumulative process, you have basic skills and knowledge and gradually add on to them with your experiences); same person gets bigger; upward curve --> DISCONTUNOUS development: stage; new understandings emerge at particular periods; stage = qualitative changes (big differences at different ages with new skills); each stage you develop into a NEW person; stairs 3. *View of the determinants of development*- (how much are we a result of biology and how much a result of our environment?) --> NATURE: genetic, inborn qualities --> NURTURE: learning and experience - both nature and nurture shape us, different theories emphasize one or the other more... but no one theory explains all of development and modern approaches draw on many theories (eclectic)

Strengths and weaknesses of three designs to measure developmental change (cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequential) - special terms: cohort effects *PEEP NOTES*

--> these three methods consider TIME SPAN Longitudinal: same group studied at different time points -long and expensive; the most widely discussed threat to the accuracy of longitudinal findings is cohort effects Cross sectional: different age groups studied at the same time point; big cohort effects (ex: "20 yr old group was the same pattern in 1945, 1960, and 1980") -cannot apply results to the individual level despite being more convenient Sequential: several age groups studied at multiple points in time; the investigator conducts several similar cross sectional or longitudinal studies, called sequences. May have the same problems as longitudinal and cross section studies, but the design itself helps identify difficulties COHORT EFFECTS: individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. Results based on one cohort may not be applied to people developing at other times.

Understand age-graded, history graded, & nonnormative influences.

-->*AGE-GRADED influences*- influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group (can be biological or environmental/cultural; ex: at age 1 you start speaking, age 16 you drive ...) -->*HISTORY-GRADED influences*- forces that influence the behavior and attitudes of individuals in a certain generation at a formative time in their lives (Ex: different generations handle different tasks, like parenting, differently with cultural and tech changes like how baby boomers deal with technology; other ex: academics, wars, technology advances, BIG COHORT AFFECTS) -->*NONNORMATIVE influences*- unusual occurrences that have a major impact on people's lives but are not applicable to many people. They involve unique turning points (timing, events) where it changes people's lives. These influences can have a BIG impact on a person's life, but do not affect lots of people. Ex: getting into a car accident at a young age, diagnosed with a disease, winning the lottery, the kid from class example with hyper pigmentation was affected greatly bc it made it him insecure; these things have huge impacts on life but don't happen to very many people, rarer)

General understanding of differences between gross motor skills vs. fine motor skills (text p. 106)

-->*Gross motor development* refers to control over actions that help infants get around in the environment, such as crawling, standing, and walking. -->*Fine-motor development* has to do with smaller movements, such as reaching and grasping -motor skills typically develop first -according to *dynamic systems theory of motor development* mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action. When motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend together, each operating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment

Consequences for and caregiving of pre-term infants (text 80)

-A preterm baby is cared for in a special Plexiglas-enclosed bed called an *isolette* -Temperature is carefully controlled because these babies cannot yet regulate their own body temperature effectively. To help protect the baby from infection, air is filtered before it enters the isolette -When a preterm infant is fed through a stomach tube, breathes with the aid of a respirator, and receives medication through an intravenous needle, the isolette can be very isolating indeed! SPECIAL INFANT STIMULATION: -in the right doses, certain kinds of stimulation can help preterm infants develop -in some intensive care nurseries, preterm babies rock in suspended hammocks or listen to soft music - experiences that promote faster weight gain, more predictable sleep patterns, and greater alertness -in one experiment extremely preterm newborns, born between the 25th and 32nd prenatal weeks, were exposed either to recordings of their mother's voice and heart beat for several hours each day or to routine hospital noise. At age 1 month, an ultrasound revealed that auditory areas of the brain had grown substantially larger in the maternal sounds group -Listening to womb-like, familiar rhythmic maternal sounds, as opposed to the unpredictable din of hospital equipment, promoted brain development

-Vygotsky's approach to infant cognition (text 133); -zone of proximal development (text)

-According to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, complex mental activities have their origins in social interaction. Through joint activities with more mature members of their society, children master activities and think in ways that have meaning in their culture --The *zone of proximal (or potential) development* refers to a range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can do with the help of more skilled partners -as adults guide and support the child in tasks that the child can master but are too challenging to do by themselves, the child joins in the interaction and picks up mental strategies -->as her competence increases the adult steps back and permitting the child to take more responsibility for the task... this form of teaching is known as SCAFFOLDING (the adult help), and it promotes learning at all ages. -there is a range between what the child can do alone and what the child can do with help from an adult (w scaffolding) - this is called the ZPD (the potential for development)

-Six benefits of breast milk over formula. -Reasons formula is considered (medical, historical, structural).

-Energy needs are twice those of adults, and eating is a big part of an infants day next to sleeping (20% of their caloric intake is devoted to growth) -Breast milk is recommended, for at least 6 months exclusively then 1 year with foods. *Several advantages/benefits for the baby*: 1. -->correct balance of fat and protein (higher fat content needed for brain development) 2. -->nutritional completeness (don't need to add any other food; non chemicals) 3. -->protection against disease; Result: breast fed babies have fewer respiratory and intestinal illnesses and fewer infections 4. -->more easily digestible; less constipation for baby 5. -->smoother transition to solid foods 6. -->often cheaper, more immediate, and safer --Advantage for mom: weight loss, breast cancer protection *Three reasons why formula is sometimes considered*: -MEDICAL reasons (nursing is difficult or not practical; mom on depression meds...) -HISTORICAL trends (people are slowly realizing breast milk is better) -SOCIETAL structures and barriers (going back to work, comfort in public feeding)

How genetic contribution is studied. -->Terms: -heritability estimates, -kinship studies, -concordance rates, -monozygotic vs. dizygotic twins, -behavioral genetics (text 53)

-Examining contributions of Genetic Inheritance to Behavior and Personality --> HERITABILITY ESTIMATES: -measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors. -CANNOT be applied to a single individual -NOT a precise statistic --personality traits (e.g., extraversion - rates .4-.5, schizophrenia .8, major depression .37, alcoholism .5-.6) -->Determined through KINSHIP STUDIES: -examine patterns of behavior and traits in family members, e.g., adoption studies, twins -->Investigate CONCORDANCE RATES: -percentage of instances in which both twins show a trait when it is present in one twin; expect differences based on twin status -->FRATERNAL OR DIZYGOTIC TWINS: 2 fertilized ova; share 50% of genes -->IDENTICAL OR MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: one zygote divides into 2 individuals; share 100% of genes (higher concordance rates) --> BEHAVIORAL GENETICS: -it is a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to this diversity in human traits and abilities

--> Special term: -fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (text 68).

-FASD is a term that encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure -children with FASD are given one of three diagnoses, which vary in severity: 1. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): -distinguished by ... a) slow physical growth b) pattern of three facial abnormalities (short eyelid openings, a thin upper lip, a smooth or flattened philtrum, or indentation running from the bottom of the nose to the center of the upper lip) c) brain injury, evident in a small head and impairment in at least three areas of functioning, for example - memory, language, and communication, attention span, and activity level (overactivity), planning and reasoning, motor coordination or social skills 2. Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (p-FAS): -characterized by ... a) two of the three facial abnormalities b) brain injury, again evident in at least three areas of impaired functioning. -Mothers of children with p-FAS generally drank alcohol in smaller quantities, and children's defects vary with the timing and length of alcohol exposure 3. Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopment Disorder (ARND): -in which at least three areas of mental functioning are impaired, despite typical physical growth and absence of facial abnormalities. -Again, prenatal alcohol exposure is less pervasive than in FAS

Tenets of Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

-Focuses on how culture is transmitted from generation to generation -Higher mental functions grow out of social interactions and dialogues (cooperative dialogues - we learn a lot by learning from others/experts in the culture - ZPD) -Cognitive development as a socially mediated process

-kangaroo care (text)

-In baby animals, touching the skin releases certain brain chemicals that support physical growth - effects believed to occur in humans as well. When preterm infants were massaged several times each day in the hospital, they gained weight faster and at the end of the first year were advanced in mental and motor development over preterm babies not given this stimulation. -In developing countries where hospitalization is not always possible, *skin to skin "kangaroo care"* is the most readily available intervention for promoting the recovery of preterm babies. -it involves placing the infant in a vertical position between the mother's breasts or next to the father's chest (under the parent's clothing) so the parent's body functions as a human incubator -Kangaroo skin to skin contact fosters improved oxygenation of the baby's body, temperature regulation, sleep, breastfeeding, alertness, and infant survival. Mothers and fathers practicing it feel more confident about caring for their fragile babies, interact more sensitively and affectionately, and feel more attached to them -Together, these factors may explain why preterm babies given many hours of kangaroo care in their early weeks, compared to those given little or no such care, develop more favorably during the first year and beyond. In one investigation that followed children born preterm until age 10, those who had experienced kangaroo care, compared with matched control, displayed a more adaptive cortisol stress response, better organized sleep, more favorable mother-child interaction, and enhanced cognitive development. Bc of its diverse benefits, most US hospital nurseries now offer kangaroo care to parents and preterm newborns.

General premises of information processing theory (3 box model),

-Information Processing = computer metaphor --> FEATURES: -human minds as symbol manipulating systems through which information flows - use computer analogies to model - focus on steps involved in mental activities -stimuli = input -behavior = output -NOT stagelike (where as Piaget is stages). -Looks at change as increases in children's knowledge base in a particular area. -NOT global changes in thinking. -very domain specific, how expertise groups in one area -Ex: kids become good at one thing, like Yu-Gi-Oh! cards; in complex ways the kid knows everything about this one thing and knows it in the domain ... however may not be able to recall days of week, when asked "idk?" -incoming information --> SENSORY MEMORY --> forgotten if not rehearsed --> if rehearsed several times --> goes to WORKING MEMORY --> forgotten if not practiced or deeply encoded --> if encoded semantically --> stored in LONG TERM MEMORY --> can later be retrieved and brought to working memory / short term memory when needed

-SIDS (text 85)

-Sudden Infant Death Syndrome -->the unexpected death, usually during the night, of an infant younger than 1 year of age that remains unexplained after thorough investigation -in industrialized nations, SIDS is the leading cause of infant mortality between 1 and 12 months, accounting for about 20% of these deaths in the US -victims usually show physical problems from the beginning (low birth weight...)

LEARNING THEORY 1. Watson and Traditional Behaviorism (stimulus-response associations)

-Watson started the American study of behaviorism -non-cognitive approach -directly observable stimulus-response associations -classical conditioning (parents can train/mold kids, UCS UR, CS CR) -->kids fear white coats because they associate / pair shots with a white lab coat at the Dr.

LEARNING THEORY 2. Skinner's Operant Conditioning (consequences of a behavior, reinforcement, punishment)

-focuses on consequences of behavior -Skinner mostly focused on animals -reward and punishment drive behavior -Reinforcement: increases the likelihood of behavior happening in the future --> positive: something + added (sticker) to inc. behavior --> negative: something unpleasant removed (seat belt noise) to inc. behavior -Punishment: decreases the likelihood of behavior happening in the future --> positive: add a spanking or ticket, add something bad to dec. behavior --> negative: take away something good to dec. behavior -- if you take away attention, they will increase the behavior to get the attention back

General patterns of genetic inheritance: -dominant-recessive, -incomplete dominance, -X-linked inheritance, -genomic imprinting, -polygenic inheritance, -mutation (text 40)

-how does genetic information get transmitted? --> DOMINANT-RECESSIVE: -dominant gene in pair overrides recessive gene (recessive gene is suppressed; Bb = brown eyes) --> INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE: -both the dominant and recessive allele are expressed (ex: sickle cell) --> X-LINKED INHERITANCE: -the recessive gene is carried on the X chromosome of the 23rd pair. Men are more prone to this trait / more expressed in men bc they only have one X chromosome (no back up like females do). WOMEN ARE PROTECTED, MEN ARE NOT. (ex: color blindness, hemophilia) --> GENOMIC IMPRINTING: - genes chemically marked or imprinted and will behave differently depending whether they came from mother or father (parent order MATTERS). Imprinted genes dominate over ones that are not imprinted. Ex: T1D father has it, but not mom, then the kid is more likely to have it; child cancers. --> POLYGENIC INHERITENCE: -multiple genes interact to produce a characteristic (intelligence, skin color) -->MUTATION: -*a sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA* -these are essentially harmful genes that can lead to the birth of a baby with a hereditary abnormality, and potentially death or substantial lifelong impaired physical and mental functioning -may affect only one or two genes, or it may involve many genes, as in some chromosomal disorders -some mutations occur spontaneously by chance, but others are caused by hazardous environmental agents

Text box: reproductive technologies (pro and cons... lots of controversy): -in vitro fertilization, -surrogate motherhood, -new frontiers (text 42-43)

-increasing numbers of individuals are turning to alternative methods of conception today: reproductive tech -->Donor Insemination: injection of sperm from a anonymous man into a woman -->*In Vitro Fertilization*: a woman is given hormones that stimulate the ripening of several ova. These are removed surgically and placed in a dish of nutrients, to which sperm are added. Once an ovum is fertilized and duplicated into several cells, it is injected into the mother's uterus. About 1% of all children in developed countries - 65,000 babies in the US- have been conceived through this technique annually; commonly used reproductive technology -usually used to treat women whose Fallopian tubes are permanently damaged ---Children conceived through these methods may be genetically unrelated to one or both of their parents ---In Vitro poses greater risks than natural conception to infant survival and healthy development -26% result in multiple births -->*Surrogate Motherhood*: -very controversial form of medically assisted conception -in this procedure, in vitro fertilization may be used to impregnate a woman (called a surrogate), with a couple's fertilized ovum. Alternatively, sperm from a man whose partner is infertile may be used to inseminate the surrogate, who agrees to turn the baby over to the father. The child is then adopted by his partner -most proceed smoothly and kids are well adjusted... but may exploit the financially needy women -->*New (Reproductive) Frontiers*: -Experts are debating the ethics of other reproductive options -Doctors have used donor ova from younger women in combination with in vitro fertilization to help postmenopausal women become pregnant -these cases magnify health risks to mother and baby and bring children into the world whose parents may not live to see them reach adulthood -today customers at donor banks can select ova or sperm on the basis of physical characteristics and even IQ -scientists are devising ways to alter the DNA of human ova, sperm, and embryos to protect against heredity disorders - techniques that could be used to engineer other desired characteristics -many worry that these practices are dangerous steps toward "Designer Babies" -in some countries laws are needed to regulate reproductive technologies -the ethical problems of surrogate motherhood are so complex that 13 US states and the District of Colombia sharply restrict or ban the practice

General premises of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory: nature of child, nature of change; -special terms: assimilation, accommodation.

-learning theory with a focus on cognition --> NATURE OF CHILD: -active, naive scientist - constructivist -children can actively construct and create by experiment and feedback (kids are NOT passive) --> NATURE OF CHANGE: -learning in stages (each stage qualitatively different) -seek equilibrium = balance between belief systems and information encountered in everyday world -- we start in a state of equilibrium, then new idea or experience is presented to us, then we are in disequilibrium, so adaptation occurs through either assimilation or accommodation and then we return back to a new equilibrium Processes of Change (2): --> ASSIMILATION: children incorporate new information into existing knowledge systems (keys shake ... so now when I see a rattle I shake it; kid knows dogs have four legs - his schema - now he detects a new visual stimulus, a cow, and uses his same classifications to categorize the new info into existing schemes --> aka he calls the cow "dog") -->ACCOMODATION: children change their existing knowledge systems/schemas to accommodate new information (small thing that flies = bird, now kid sees a crow, which is a bird BUT then he sees an emu and he must change his beliefs because it doesn't fit what he knows to be a bird; kid now sees cow NOT as a dog, but changes schemes to accommodate new info)

General premises of the ecological systems perspective; Bronfenbrenner's 5 systems

-theory that takes into account context and culture; more culture and interaction w kids -person develops within a multi-layered system of relationships -QUESTION: How are intrafamilial processes affected by extrafamilial conditions? -if parents work hard, the kids have a shared mentality and shared purpose to do the same that they have seen their parents do -our family teaches us how to act; how we act with our family is how we will act and treat others; brings the outside world in here -important: family faces and outside environment shape us 5 SYSTEMS: (overlapping) --> MICROSYSTEM: -person's immediate environment (innermost level, directional, parents, family, school; directly affected) -child, parent, siblings interconnected; home, religious setting, neighborhood, school --> MESOSYSTEM: -connections between Microsystems (bad day --> beat up someone at home) -home, religious setting, neighborhood, school --> affect actions and actions affect these factors in our environment --> EXOSYSTEM: -outside contexts that affect Microsystem (do not involve developing child directly but affect their micro and meso systems and affects them indirectly) -- school district problems -local industry, mass media, parents' workplace, local gov, school board -->MACROSYSTEM: -larger cultural laws, values, and customs (who works /stays home, gender beliefs) -dominant beliefs and ideologies --> CHRONOSYSTEM: -temporal component; change over life course and history (and how that affects us, not static)

Five assumptions of life-span perspective.

1. *Development is lifelong* - at all periods in the life course changes occur, there is no one dominant period of change 2. *Development is multidimensional* -MULTIPLE MECHANISMS : biological - genes, psychological, social forces - family, etc..) -MULTIPLE DOMAINS: (3 types of development, in order, affect each other and are intertwined): --> PHYSICAL development- motor skills, sexual development, brain, bones, and body --> COGNITIVE development- reasoning, thinking, memory, ways to store and use knowledge (must be physically developed before you can develop language!) --> PSYCHOSOCIAL development- social skills and interactions 3. *Development is multidirectional* -a joint expression of growth and decline (across AND within domains; as age increases some skills may decline while others improve... up and down) 4. *Development is highly plastic* -open to change / reroute -plasticity is consistent across all ages in terms of development 5. *Development is affected by multiple interacting influences* --> AGE-GRADED influences- influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group --> HISTORY-GRADED influences- forces that influence the behavior and attitudes of individuals in a certain generation at a formative time in their lives; BIG COHORT AFFECTS --> NONNORMATIVE influences- unusual occurrences that have a major impact on people's lives but are not applicable to many people. They involve unique turning points (timing, events) where it changes people's lives. These influences can have a BIG impact on a person's life, but do not affect lots of people.

Function of theory:

1. *Provide organizing framework for observations* 2. *Help produce hypotheses* (that can lead to predictions) 3. *Offer practical guidance* (on what to do / decide every day)

What Parents do to facilitate language development: 6 characteristics of Infant Directed Speech (IDS):

1. A high-pitched, exaggerated expression 2. Short sentences and phrases 3. Simplification -concrete, simple vocabulary. Labeling. -simplified words (go potty, boo boo) -avoidance of pronouns ("let mommy do that") -talking about the here and now 4. High proportion of questions and commands (where's daddy at? Point to your nose! ... lil Qs that help focus) 5. Repetition (see ball, roll ball, there's the ball!!) 6. Expansions (you expand their word to a full sentence)

Term: sensitive period (text)

A *sensitive period* is a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. However its boundaries are less well-defined than those of a critical period. Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce.

-Perinatal environment, -3 stages of childbirth (text 75):

A complex series of hormonal changes between mother and fetus initiates the process of labor/giving birth, which naturally divides into 3 stages: 1. *Dilation and effacement of the cervix*: -this is the LONGEST stage of labor, lasting an average of 12 to 14 hours with a first birth and 4 to 6 hours with later births. -Contractions of the uterus gradually become more frequent and powerful, causing the cervix, or uterine opening, to widen and thin to nothing, forming a clear channel from the uterus into the birth canal, or vagina 2. *Delivery of the baby*: -this stage is much shorter, lasting about 50 minutes for a first birth and 20 minutes later births -strong contractions of the uterus continue, but the mothers also feels a natural urge to squeeze and push with her abdominal muscles -as she does so with each contraction, she forces the baby down and out 3. *Delivery of the placenta*: -labor comes to an end with a few final contractions and pushes -these cause the placenta to separate from the wall of the uterus and be delivered in about 5 to 10 minutes

3 components of the personality according to Freud's psychosexual theory

A. Basic personality and psychological functioning is determined by: 1. *Id*: -present at birth (newborns are ALL id) -represents biological needs/desires -requires immediate gratification; unconscious needs -the id impulsively tries to satisfy these needs without giving attention to anything else -*devil* 2. *Ego*: -conscious, rational, problem solving part -emerges in early infancy -restricts id, masters and controls urges -ego figures out logical ways to do things and acts as a *mediator* between the id and superego 3. *Superego*: -moral and ethical component of personality -develops from ages 3 to 6 -includes conscience and ego - ideal -acts as the internalized all knowing parent -*angel* B. Personality development is determined by how parents manage child's early sexual and aggressive drives. Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital spaces; conflicts face inner/outer demands

Three theories of language development: -behaviorist, -nativist, -interactionist --> key concepts and limitations of each theory

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE: -language acquired through operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner- reward and reinforcement) and through imitation -baby: "Dada" --> parents: "yay!!" --> baby says it again because he got reinforced for it so he keeps doing it -*Problem*: unique verbal creations and errors (I gooed to store) ; babies make up their own words and sentences and verbs that don't make sense in reality NATIVIST PERSPECTIVE: -Noam Chomsky -all children possess an innate, biologically - based system for language acquisition called the language acquisition device (LAD) -LAD contains a set of rules common to *all* languages -->*Support*: -newborns prefer speech sounds and human voice -universal sequence of language milestones -evidence of sensitive periods (learning time) -observations of deaf children (they showed similar babbling - suggests innate LAD) -->*Problems*: -can't identify a single, underlying grammar system -early word combinations do not always follow grammatical rules -no anatomical evidence (no part of the brain that has the alleged language device) INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE -language achievements emerge (early) through an interaction of innate abilities and environmental influences -acknowledges environmental factors ... NOT all innate

Nature of body growth during infancy. -->Special terms: -cephalocaudal trend, -proximodistal trend

BODY GROWTH IN THE FIRST TWO YEARS: (body in the first two years grows more rapid than any other time in life, 75% growth by year 2) How do infants grow? 3 patterns: 1. Infants grow in spurts (height and weight spurts; extremely hungry at periods) 2. Infants plump up and fill out - baby fat 3. Infants grow unevenly (diff. body parts grow at different rates) 2 trends of uneven growth: CEPHALOCAUDAL TREND: -organized pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from *head to tail*; infants get control of head and chest before arms and legs PROXIMODISTAL TREND: -pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from *center of the body outward*; arms grow before hands and fingers, center before feet. (fine motor control - fingers - takes longer; fat crayons for young kids)

-How environment stimulates brain development. -Issues of timing and mechanism, upside and downside. -Sensitive periods in brain development;

Brain Stimulation and the environment: SEQUENCE OF BRAIN DEVELOPMENT VS QUALITY: -sequence of brain development is genetically programmed -*quality* of neural development is shaped by experiences -rich experiences (stimulation) produce rich brains TIMING IS IMPORTANT -believe that experience "wires" brain during periods of growth (*sensitive periods*) --> Sensitive periods open a window of opportunity where experiences have a greater impact on certain areas of brain development. During sensitive periods, the brain is most likely to strengthen important connections and eliminate unneeded ones in a specific part of the brain. These are periods of prime time for brain development; very important for nourishment and structural care. MECHANISM -repeated experiences - help knit neurons into circuits GENERAL DOWNSIDE AND UPSIDE OF EARLY PLASTICITY: -->Downside: under stimulation during critical years can have grave consequences; underdeveloped and smaller brains, e.g., Romanian orphans - vast growth differences of kids in orphans / adopted; the girl who was adopted had difficulties learning and showed lower brain activity in critical parts -->Upside: malleable early brain more likely to recover from strokes and injuries - compensation - early preschool programs can help overcome deficits QUALITY OF CAREGIVING HAS A BIG EFFECT: -->Caregiving Role: -Quality of caregiving has a big effect on brain development -Parental interactions and responses play a central role in setting up neural circuitry (e.g., playful interactions) -making eye contact with infant is important, you don't need fancy flashcards --overstimulation can be problematic (can overwhelm neural circuits and reduce infant growth)

Nature of infant brain development. -->Terms: -neuron, -synapses, -neurotransmitters (text 94), -synaptic pruning, -myelination, -glial cells (text), -cerebral cortex, -brain plasticity

Brain development in the first two years: -->NEURONS: -have nearly all existing neurons at birth -->BIG DEVELOPMENT (in infancy): -connections between neurons -amazing growth of neural fibers and synapses -experience and stimulation play key role; neurons continuously stimulated grow and strengthen synapses, but those that are seldom used lose connections and die/prune off or go back to an uncommitted state -eventual *synaptic pruning*: unused and unnecessary synapses are eliminated -->SYNAPSES: -spaces between neurons where the messages are transmitted; tiny gaps between neurons where fibers from different neurons come close together but do not touch -->NEUROTRANSMITTERS: -these are chemicals that contain/carry the message -neurons send messages to one another by releasing chemicals called *NTs*, which cross the synapse -->MYELINATION: -process in which neural fibers are coated with an insulated fatty sheath (*myelin*) ; fatty cells that provide nourishment for the neuron are called glial cells -*improves message transfer* -starts at 4 months and into adolescence -->GLIAL CELLS: -about half of the brain's volume is made up of glial cells, which are responsible for myelination, the coating of neural fibers with an insulating fatty sheath (called myelin) that improves efficiency of the message transfer -->GROWTH OF CEREBRAL CORTEX: -much of this growth takes place in the cerebral cortex - the largest brain structure (85% of the brain's weight, last part to stop growing) -baby is born with an unfinished brain -->BRAIN PLASTICITY: -brain is more plastic in the first two years than it will ever be; plasticity - brain's ability to reroute itself / change or re specialize other parts if a portion is damaged

-Perinatal environment, -changing notion of traditional childbirth, -concerns of medicalization of birth (impact of fetal monitoring machines, pain medication controversy, Cesareans)

CHANGING NOTION OF TRADITIONAL CHILDBIRTH: -the environment surrounding birth is changing (film clip example) -Past: home delivery, natural family event -Current: hospital, medical event --from 1930 to 1990 it has gone from 80% to 1% home delivery, women's knowledge and family participation has decreased CONCERNS ABOUT MEDICALIZATION OF CHILDBIRTH -Are we treating a natural process like a disease? -Episiotomies: surgical cuts to make opening bigger - needed for everyone? -*Fetal monitoring*: inhibits mobility (strapped to mom to see baby's heart beat) -->CONTROVERSY ABOUT PAIN MEDICATION -Prevalence: some form of pain meds are used in more than 80% of US births -Analgesics: relax mom and relieve pain- e.g., Demerol ... some crosses the placental barrieR, baby may also be sedated, weaker sucking when born -Regional Anesthesia: e.g., Epidural, may prolong labor and cause trouble with pushing (numbs waist down, may weaken contractions, could be safer than Demerol though) -->CESAREAN (C-SECTION) -Nature: surgical procedure - typically with regional anesthesia and the mother is awake -Why needed?: infant distress, medical emergencies, breech positions, failure to progress -Prevalence: 5.5% of births in 1970 were C-section, 32% of births in 2011 - most common form of major surgery now! --Why is high rate a problem? -major surgery - longer recovery period; harder to take care of baby and drive places etc... -expensive- possible financial strain (more expensive than vaginal birth) -could signify a spiral of medicalization -mother's psychological reaction can be quite negative (higher bp, stress too...)

Infant learning (104): -text sections on classical & operant conditioning,

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING -Newborn reflexes make *classical conditioning* possible in the young infant. In this form of learning, a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. Once the baby's nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior by itself. CC helps newborns anticipate what is about to happen next in the world. -Carolyn would stroke Caitlin's forehead before feeding her, and she noticed that each time she did this Caitlin made sucking movements. Caitlin had been classically conditioned 1. Before learning takes place, and *unconditioned stimulus (UCS)* must consistently produce a reflexive, or *unconditional response (UCR)*. In Caitlin's case, sweet breast milk (UCS) resulted in sucking (UCR) 2. To produce learning, a NEUTRAL STIMULUS that does not lead to the reflex is presented just before or at about the same time as the UCS. Carolyn stroked her forehead as each nursing period began. The stroking (*neutral stimulus*) was paired with the taste of milk (UCS). 3. If learning has occurred, the neutral stimulus by itself produces a response similar to the reflective response. The neutral stimulus is then called a *conditioned stimulus (CS)*, and the response it elicits is called a *conditioned response (CR)* We know that Caitlin has been classically conditioned because stroking her forehead outside the feeding situation (CS) results in sucking (CR). -->If the CS is presented alone enough times, without being paired with the UCS, the CR will no longer occur, an outcome called *extinction* (if she keeps stroking her forehead without feeding her then she will gradually stop sucking in response to stroking) -->young infants can be classically conditioned most easily when the association between two stimuli has survival value; fear is difficult to classically condition in young babies: until infants have the motor skills to escape unpleasant events, they have no biological need to form these associations OPERANT CONDITIONING -infants act, or *operate*, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again. -A stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response is called a *reinforcer.* -Removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response is called *punishment* -Ex: a sweet liquid reinforces the sucking response in newborns, where as a sour tasting fluid punishes newborns sucking response, causing them to stop sucking entirely -OC is a powerful tool in figuring out what stimuli babies can perceive and which ones they prefer; also plays a vital role in the formation of relationships -when the baby gazes into the adults eyes, the adult looks and smiles and then the infant looks and smiles back; the behavior of each partner reinforces the other and both continue their pleasurable interaction (contingent responsiveness contributes to infant caregiver attachment)

Key types of teratogens and general damage they cause: -prescription and nonprescription medications, -illegal drugs, -cigarette smoking, -alcohol, -radiation, -environmental pollution, -infectious disease.

COMMON EFFECTS: low birth weight (leading cause of infant death), prematurity, miscarriage, underdeveloped brain 7 common teratogens: -->*ILLEGAL DRUGS -baby born drug addicted with lasting problems, lower IQ -heroine, crack, meth... -->*TOBACCO/NICOTINE (cig smoking) -low birth weight if the mom smokes or if it's second hand -->*ALCOHOL -all types matter (unknown safe amount during pregnancy; definitely not heavy or regular use); FAS -->PRESSCRIPTION AND NONPRESCRIPTION MEDICATIONS -i.e. acutane, the acne drug, chemicals in drug may be safe for adult use but harmful to developing fetus -->RADIATION -->ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION -->INFECTIOUS DISEASES -e.g., German measles, HIV/AIDSs

- General contributions & limitations of psychoanalytic perspective (text pg. 12)

Contributions: -A strength is its emphasis on understanding the individual's unique life history. -Psychoanalytic theorists accept the clinical, or case study, method, which yields a detailed picture of the personality of a single person -This approach has also inspired a wealth of research on many aspects of emotional and social development, including infant caregiver attachment, aggression, sibling relationships, child-rearing practices, morality, gender roles, and adolescent identity Limitations: -This perspective is no longer in the mainstream of human development research -Psychoanalytic theorists were so strongly committed to in depth study of individuals that they failed to consider other methods -Many psychoanalytic, such as psychosexual stages and ego functioning, are too vague to be tested empirically --> Nevertheless, Erikson's broad outline of lifespan change captures key, optimal psychosocial attainments during each major period

-Contributions & limitations of Piaget's theory (text pg. 15).

Contributions: -Piaget convinced the field that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge -Besides investigating children's understanding of the physical world, Piaget explored their reasoning about the social world -His stages have sparked a wealth of research on children's conceptions of themselves, other people, and human relationships -Piaget's theory encouraged the development of educational philosophies and programs that emphasize discovery learning and direct contact with the environment Limitations: -His theory has been challenged; research indicates that Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers. When young children are given tasks scaled down in difficulty and relevant to their everyday experiences, their understanding appears closer to that of the older child and adult than Piaget assumed -children's performance on Piagetian problems can be improved with training - findings that call into question Piaget's assumption that discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best way to foster development -Critics also point out that Piaget's stage-wise account pays insufficient attention to social and cultural influences on development -lifespan theorists - challenging Piaget's conclusion that no new stages occur after adolescence - have proposed important transformation in adulthood

Information Processing Theory: developmental neuroscience (text 17), and ethology (text 17).

DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROSCIENCE -often places excessive emphasis on biological processes -->Over the past three decades, as information-processing research expanded, a new area of investigation arose called *developmental COGNITIVE neuroscience* -It brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns -->A complementary new area, *developmental SOCIAL neuroscience* is devoted to studying the relationship between changes in the brain and emotional and social development ETHOLOGY -->Ethology is concerned with *the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history* -imprinting: early following behavior of certain baby birds that ensures that the young will stay close to the mother and be fed and protected from danger; takes place during an early, restricted period of development -critical periods: a limited time span during which the individual is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of a stimulating environment

Newborn states: -sleep states (features of REM & non-REM sleep), -function of crying, -soothing techniques (e.g., swaddling);

Five different states of arousal = *degrees of sleep and wakefulness*: SLEEP -spend greatest amount of time in sleep, 16-18 hours (not consecutive) -sleep wake cycles shift to normal ish at around 6 months -Alternate between REM and non-REM sleep- -->REM = Rapid Eye Movement. In REM sleep, brain and body parts are active. 50% of newborn's sleep time (adult about 25%). Stimulation for brain. -->non-REM - body is quieter and brain waves are quieter CRYING -Amount: spend about 2-3 hours/day crying or on the verge -Function: babies communicate physical needs -3 types of cries (at least): basic (rhythmic, slow, I'm hungry), mad (more intense WAH), and pain (really high pitched scream, then silence and gasping) -Impact: stimulate strong feelings of arousal and discomfort -*Several ways to soothe a crying infant* -->Swaddling: baby burrito wrap -->Rocking -->Putting on shoulder -->Soft melody

2 Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic Developmental Theories:

Freud (psychosexual) and Erikson (psychosocial)

-habituation,

HABITUATION -Refers to *a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation* -Time spent looking at the stimulus, heart rate, respiration rate, and brain activist may all decline, indicating a loss of interest - once this has occurred, a new stimulus (a change in the environment) causes responsiveness to return to a high level, an increase called *recovery* -recovery to a new stimulus, or *novelty preference*, assessed infants' recent memory -when you return to a place you have not seen for a long time, instead of attending to novelty, you are likely to focus on familiar aspects "I've been here before!" -Like adults, infants *shift from a novelty preference to a familiarity preference* as more time intervenes between habituation and test phases in research; Babies recover to the familiar stimulus (first seen) rather than to a novel stimulus (different one seen second); by focusing on that shift researchers can use habituation to also assess *remote memory* - memory for stimuli to which infants were exposed weeks or months earlier

First linguistic milestones: -cooing, -babbling, -intonation, -first words (common types), -telegraphic speech; -holophrastic speech, -underextension; -overextension

How Infants Communicate: Early Communication: -Components of Prelinguistic Communication -->COOING: -vowel sounds (2 mo) -->BABBLING: -with consonants (6 mo) -->INTONATION: -changes in pitch (7 mo) -->LANGUAGE UNIVERSALISTS: -can distinguish and make all human sounds -->LANGUAGE SPECIALISTS: -can only hear and make languages they specialize in as they get older Nature of First Words: -typically at about 12 months an infant will say their first words --> COMMON TYPES: -mama, dada, objects, basic actions, please, thank u, no etc... -->TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH: -2 word utterances; ex: "go please" "no bed" "mommy stop" -->HOLOPHRASTIC SPEECH: -one word power plays; child uses single words to use different meanings / tones / gestures -ex: "momma" based on tone can be happy, sad, excited, or scared ... pika pika - has 2 errors ... -->OVEREXTENSION (error): -defining a word too broadly; a word is applied to a bigger set of objects than is appropriate -calling all meals dinner -->UNDEREXTENSION (error): -defining a word too narrowly; a word is applied to a smaller set of objects than appropriate -->VOCABULARY EXPLOSION: -aka *naming explosion* -vocabulary spurts between 18 and 24 months ; some but not all infants experience -starts out with about 1 word per week but then as infant grows and gets into spurts goes up to multiple words per week

General premises of Erikson's Psychosocial theory - similarities & differences between Freud's & Erikson's theories - ego identity

How does Erikson's theory differ from Freud's? --> Covers the Lifespan (Freud's view is that development is done at adolescence) --> Viewed personality development as a psychosocial process - roles of social interactions and culture (Freud viewed it as sexual) --> Emphasized psychosocial crisis / conflict - 8 stages - successful mastery of each stage results in a personality strength or virtue --> More emphasis on ego than on id *EGO IDENTITY*: a basic sense of who we are as individuals in terms of self-concept and self-image

-imitation

IMITATION -Babies come into the world with a primitive ability to learn through imitation : *by copying the behavior of another person* -infants often imitate facial expressions and mouthing movements much like adults do - by actively matching body movements they see with ones they feel themselves make -scientists have identified specialized cells in motor areas of the cerebral cortex in primates - called *mirror neurons* - that may underlie early imitative capacities; these neurons fire identically when a primate hears or sees an action and when it carries out that action on its own -infants use imitation to explore social world and learn from other people

Role of input and human interaction in language acquisition: -joint attention, -turn-taking, -preverbal gestures, and -infant-directed speech (six characteristics)

INTERACTIVE ACTIVITIES THAT FACILITATE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 1. JOINT ATTENTION- child attends to same object as caregiver, we both look at a bird together at the same time (me and mom) 2. TURN-TAKING- sounds, peekaboo, games; I make a sound, then you make a sound, understand to communicate) 3. PREVERBAL GESTURES- can communicate with gestures / pointing to interact

General understanding of the many ways in which culture shapes development. --> Terms: -collectivism vs. individualism (text 50); -developmental niche and its components.

Impact of Cultural Context/Cultural Values --> DEVELOPMENTAL NICHE (Super & Harkness): -the interaction of components that affects what goes on within the microsystem and determines the unique world of the child ... 3 components- 1. Culture shapes *multiple dimensions of our everyday physical and social settings*: -size and type of living space -sleeping and eating schedules and locations -social conditions (resources, people, material goods) -daily activities of children 2. Culture shapes *children and child rearing customs*: 3. Culture shapes *overall psychology of the caregivers*: -goals, expectations, morals -collectivism and individualism are two broad sets of values on which cultures and subcultures are commonly compared; these cultures are controversial in distinction because both sets of values exist in varying mixtures in most cultures --> COLLECTIVISM: -in these cultures, people stress groups goals over individual goals and value interdependent qualities, such as social harmony, obligations, and responsibility to others and collaborative endeavors --> INDIVIDUALISM: -in these cultures, people are largely concerned with their own personal needs and value independence - personal exploration, discovery, achievement, and choice in relationships

Mechanisms and premises of each of the 3 learning theories:

Learning Theories: --> PREMISE: -Environment controls behavior -Emphasize role of experience

Design and findings from Meaningful Differences - classic research example:

MEANINGFUL DIFFERENCES (Hart & Risley, 1995) - Book, study; "how many words do kids know?" ... based on gender, race, SES -Looked at associations between family interaction patterns and vocabulary growth rates -Sample: 42 American families, 25 white and 17 black; varying income levels -Method: observed and recorded speech to and from child - 1 hour each month for 2 years (from 13 to 36 months) -Assessed verbal accomplishments at age 3 and age 9-10 FINDINGS: --> Amount of talk to child during early years was a BIG predictor of later verbal intelligence, vocabulary at ages 3 & 9 -.77 and .78 (high + correlation) --> Factor most strongly associated with amount of talk was SES. Lower income parents spoke less to their children and in less sophisticated ways/words

**Text 130** topics on cognitions in infancy: -memory in infancy, -categorization, -infantile amnesia

MEMORY IN INFANCY: -retention in infants increases from one item at age 6 months to 2-4 items at 12 months -OC and habituation techniques, which grant babies more time to process information, provide windows into early long-term memory; both methods show that retention of visual events improves greatly with age -even after children forget an operant response, they only need a brief prompt to reinstate that memory -sometimes in habituation retention is much longer than in operant conditioning -by 10 months infants remember both novel actions and the features of objects involved in those actions equally well; this improved sensitivity to object appearance is fostered by infants increasing ability to manipulate objects, which helps them learn about objects observable properties -recognition: noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced --it is the simplest form of memory, all babies have to do is look whether a stimulus is identical or similar to a previous one -recall: (more challenging) involves remembering something not present --by the middle of the first year infants are capable of recall, which improves steadily with age; ability to find hidden objects and engage in deferred imitation --Babies have distinct short term and long term memories and display both recognition and recall; they acquire info quickly and retain it over time, doing so more effectively with age CATEGORIZATION: -->Even young infants can *categorize,* grouping similar objects and events into a single representation --categorization reduces the enormous amount of new information infants encounter every day, helping them learn and remember INFANTILE AMNESIA: -->most of us can retrieve few, if any, events that happened to use before age 2 to 3 (why older children and adults no longer recall their earliest experiences)

-Features of natural childbirth approach (classes, relaxation, coach), -doula, -birthing centers

Movement to return to the naturalness of childbirth; modern child birth alternatives: -->NATURAL OR PREPARED CHILDBIRTH: goals and benefits -e.g. Lamaze -Goal: to make hospital birth as comfortable and rewarding for mothers as possible -*Typical components*: classes, relaxation exercises, coach -Benefits: moms report feeling more in control with accurate knowledge -->USE OF DOULA -trained individual to provide continuous physical and emotional support to the mother (women who use Doula have more positive symptoms and less depression) -->BIRTHING CENTERS -combine intimacy of home birth with medical technology of hospital (more natural feel, less like a disease) -designed to accommodate entire delivery process (ONE room for all parts) -delivery typically performed by licensed midwife (not a doctor) -encourage participation. focus on family and mother's control

-Newborn's physical appearance, -physical condition, -Apgar scale

NEWBORN BABY'S APPEARANCE -->*Average dimensions*: 20 inches, 7.5 lbs; boys typically larger than girls at birth (weight range: 5.5-9.5) -->*Attractiveness*: often not at attractive best; red skin, puffy eyes and head, beer belly, pointy head ... -->*Babiness features*: have appeal (you want to pick up babies!); large forehead, chubby mouth/cheeks THE APGAR SCALE -used to assess the newborn's physical condition on 5 criteria, each rated from 0-2: heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflex irritability -Timing: ratings given at 1 and 5 minutes out of the womb -What do the #s mean: 7-10 score indicated good physical condition, 4-6 may be some issues that need to be looked into, and 3 or below signals an emergency; but even low scores can be revived by the doctor and made ok

Visual development in infancy, focused on depth perception, pattern perception, face perception. -->Special terms: -contrast sensitivity, -visual cliff demonstration,

PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY: A FOCUS ON VISION -vision is the last sense to reach full capacity; very immature when child is born -rapid maturation of eyes' and brain's visual centers (first month) -visual acuity reaches near-adult level by 6 months DEPTH PERCEPTION --> (def) the ability to judge the distance of objects from one another and from ourselves -When?: infants begin to acquire skill at about 2-3 months of age -Role of motion: motion provides much information about depth -Role of independent movement: independent (e.g. crawling) plays a vital role in its refinement. New level of brain organization? -->Gibson and Walk (1960) VISUAL CLIFF demonstration: -Can infants perceive depth/drop-offs? -Tested 36 infants, 6.5-14 months old -Children would not crawl across the "deep" side, only 3 of 36 tested would -more experienced crawlers detected the cliff -infants CAN sense depth; shown by the fact that most did not crawl over the glass even when mom was on the other side beckoning them PATTERN PERCEPTION: -Preferences: infants prefer patterned and complex stimuli over plain CONTRAST SENSITIVITY: -Principle that if babies can detect a difference in contrast between two patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast (big b/w squares pattern -more defined vs many tiny ones in an illusion- blob) FACE PERCEPTION (and preferences): --> Franz and looking chamber: -tested infants 10 hours old to 6 months; put pictures and stimuli overhead infants to see what colors and pictures they preferred to look at -infants show a clear preference for the human face -might be born with a "template" of the human face to aid our survival? -others argue for role of early experiences

Nature and impact of general factors affecting prenatal health/risk: -nutrition, -emotional stress, -maternal age.

PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES General Risk Factors (3): 1. MATERNAL NUTRITION: -what you eat the baby eats -malnutrition can damage central nervous system, leading to fewer brain cells and a lower brain weight -low birth weight linked to adult diseases; recommended that women gain 25-30 lbs and take a multivitamin 2. EMOTIONAL STRESS: -intense ... can be caused by natural disaster, divorce etc... -associated with miscarriage, low birth weight, premature -less oxygen and nutrients to fetus -stress hormone- increase heart rate and can heighten stress reactivity for later in life; when stress hormones are released they can be passed to baby 3. MATERNAL AGE: -complex relationship -greatest success rate for healthy baby -> moms in their 20s; risks for healthy women in their 30s are not that different -after 40, increased risk for infertility, miscarriage, chromosomal defects (e.g., Down's syndrome). As age of mother increases, the risk for Down's goes up a lot (common) -several concerns about adolescent moms (increased rates of prematurity and low birth weight).

-->Examples of paternal factors that matter.

Paternal Factors that matter: -Exposure to certain toxins can lead to abnormal sperm, leading to birth defects or low birth weight -Later paternal age associated with some birth defects and with autism -Offspring of men older than 40 years were 5.57 times more likely to have autism compared with offspring of men under 30 years of age -maternal age did not relate to autism

Piaget's sensorimotor stage and nature of cognition during this time. -->Special terms: -schemes, -adaptation, -assimilation, -accommodation, -organization,

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory: -we are all naive scientists thinking and learning and changing -->Nature of Sensorimotor Stage: -ages 0-2 -infants "think" and learn about the world through their 5 senses and their motor skills; use senses and motor skills to develop to the world -ex: using sucking *and* grasping SCHEMES: -psychological structures that help us organize experience --> How does cognitive change take place? (2 general processes) 1. ADAPTATION- -process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment -Adaptation consists of 2 processes... --> ASSIMILATION: -external world is interpreted through existing schemes -suck OR bang new things bc that is what you know how to do -you assimilate new things to your existing schemes and apply them to existing knowledge --> ACOMMODATION: --new schemes are created or old ones are adjusted to better fit the environment -carrying a book with one hand ... change schema to use two hands 2. ORGANIZATION- -internal process of rearranging and linking schemes -does NOT involve contact with the world -reorganizing your schemes

Two forms of language development: receptive and productive

Production vs. Comprehension: PRODUCTION: -what you can say back COMPREHENSION: -what you understand --- *RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE/COMPREHENSION > PRODUCTIVE LANGUAGE* --- -children can often understand and comprehend before they can say it; comprehension grows faster than production

-Example of deprivation from Romanian orphanages -- LOOK IN BOOK.

Romanian orphans - vast growth differences of kids in orphans / adopted; the girl who was adopted had difficulties learning and showed lower brain activity in critical parts -understimulation has negative effects on brain development ???

Findings of Crystal & Stevenson (1995) from lecture ("bad kid"):

Research example: What is a Bad Kid? (culture matters!) -Expected that perception of deviance, like perception of normalcy, would be influenced by sociocultural values -Surveyed 200+ 11th graders and their mothers in each of 3 locations: Minneapolis, Taipei Taiwan, and Sendai Japan -"Think of someone your child's age who you would consider to be a 'bad kid'. Describe what kind of person that would be." -Responses coded and placed into seven responses -Found cultural differences in types of responses % of moms naming specific attributes: US- mostly named substance abuse and interpersonal harmony (some self control, harming others...) Taiwan- mostly named society related and some substance abuse and interpersonal harmony ; harm to society mostly Japan- mostly interpersonal harmony, with some society related

Characteristics of common research methods: -systematic observation (naturalistic observation, structured observation) -self-report (clinical interview, structured interview, questionnaire) -clinical or case study method -ethnography. --> General strengths and limitations of each; recognize an example

SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION- --> 1. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: The researcher observes the behavior of interest in the field or natural setting -cannot control conditions under which participants are observed -->2. STRUCTURED (LAB) OBSERVATION: The researcher sets up a laboratory situation in a way that the behavior of interest will be evoked -may not yield observations typical of participants' behavior in everyday life SELF REPORT- Interviews - good way to get lots of in-depth information; Can obtain info in many different ways: in-person, phone, online -->1. CLINICAL INTERVIEW: flexible conversation, can probe deeper -may not result in accurate reporting of information and flexible procedures make comparing individual responses harder --> 2. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW: each participant is asked the same question in the same way -does not yield same depth of information as a clinical interview; responses are still subject to inaccurate reporting --QUESTIONNAIRE: SURVEY: good way to answer specific questions, particularly for large samples (tests) CLINICAL OR CASE STUDY METHOD- -It gives you detailed info about one individual -It is a combination of multiple methods (e.g. interview, observation, standardized tests, etc.) -It is often used in clinical settings -may be biased by researcher's theoretical preferences. findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant ETHNOGRAPHY- -Participant observation of a culture or distinct social group. By making extensive field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture's unique values and social processes --provides a more complete description than can be derived from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire --May be biased by researcher's values and theoretical preferences. Findings cannot be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied.

Socioeconomic status - measurement of, and general understanding of how poverty may affect families and its consequences for children

The impact of socioeconomic disadvantage: -How is socioeconomic status assessed? (3 factors) -->*Assessed by parental education, occupation prestige, and income* EXTENT OF POVERTY - -low income kids are exposed to more adverse situations -15% of Americans (46 million) live in poverty. Children are often among the poor. Often in single-parent families. --most commonly seen/more prone in minority families, women under 25, and elderly living alone -stress of poverty weakens the family system

-Updated views of infant cognition; -violation-of-expectation method; -core knowledge perspective

UPDATED PERSPECTIVES ON INFANT COGNITION: -Recent research indicates that infants display certain cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget believed (object permanence may be achieved sooner depending on the kid and environment...) -Perhaps Piaget relied too heavily on their displaying knowledge through movement -Cognitive development is likely gradual, continuous, uneven (not neat and stepwise, many different domains) -Expanded methods. New technique: *VIOLATION-OF-EXPECTATION METHOD*: use infant's heightened attention to or surprise at deviations to infer underlying beliefs -->Object permanence is the understanding that object continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard or touch. To investigate whether infants have objection permanence, Baillargeon, Spelke & Wasserman (1985) introduce a method called violation of expectation which can be used to test infants' object permanence --Violation expectation is a method which was focused on whether infants' understand the principle of that a solid object cannot move through the space which is occupied by the other solid object. To test the understanding of this principle of infants, Baillargeon, Spelke & Wasserman used a situation involving a visible and occluded object. If infants were surprised when the visible object pass through the space which is occupied by the occluded object, it would mean that infants have some kind of knowledge about the existence and location of the occluded object and it also provided evidence that suggest they have object permanence. - UK Essays CORE KNOWLEDGE PERSPECTIVE -->pg 125: according to this perspective, babies are born with a set of innate knowledge systems, or core domains of though. Each of these prewired understandings permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore supports early, rapid development.

General dynamics of conception; -developmental milestones in each of the 3 prenatal periods (germinal, embryonic, fetal) --> terms: -implantation, -blastocyst, -embryonic disk, -trophoblast, -amnion, -placenta, -umbilical cord, -neural tube, -trimester, -vernix, -lanugo, -age of viability

Understanding Conception- General Dynamics of Conception -Ovulation: approx. every 28 days -Ovum survives 24 hours (mature) -Sperm cells survive up to 5 or 6 days -Brief window (2 days before ovulation, day of, and up to 24 hours after...) -Fertilization: union of sperm and ovum; genetic material fuses Prenatal Development- 1. Period of the Zygote (*Germinal Period*) -Zygote: fertilized egg (time of rapid cell growth/division) -Duration: lasts about 2 weeks, from fertilization to implantation -Blastocyst: hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells (differentiation can occur) -Embryonic Disk: cells on inside - become new organism; inner ring of cells -Trophoblast: outer ring of cells - will develop into 3 life-support systems... -->Amnion- protective covering, encloses organism in amniotic fluid, a cushion and temperature regulator -->Placenta- a disc shaped mass of tissue - partial filter - permits food and oxygen to reach organism and waste products to be carried away (keeps out toxins, lets in good enzymes) -->Umbilical Cord- rope of tissue that connects placenta to developing organism - the anchor (small stalk --> 1-3 ft long) (2 arteries and a vein). -Germinal period ends with IMPLANTATION 7 to 9 days after fertilization (blastocyst burrows itself in uterus). 2. Period of the Embryo / *Embryonic Period* (2-8 weeks): -Rapid change and development: most rapid prenatal changes - groundwork for all body structures and internal organs is begun (rapid growth daily) -Embryonic disk folds to form 3 cell layers... -->Ectoderm: outermost layer of cells - nervous system, skin, sense organ -->Mesoderm: middle layer - muscles, skeleton, circulatory system -->Endoderm: inner layer - digestive system, lungs, glands -Neural Tube: primitive spinal cord and brain (NS develops fastest and earliest) -Developments during weeks 4-8: rapid development of body parts and systems (eyes, ears, jaw); inner organs mature; 3 life support systems mature and develop rapidly, about 1 in. by end) -Miscarriages: spontaneous abortions (common during embryonic period); about 15-20% of recognized pregnancies end with miscarriage; 90% occur by weeks 12 or 13 3. Period of the Fetus/*Fetal Period* (9th week to birth) -"growth and finishing phase" - developing organs increase rapidly in size and function) -Development discussed in terms of *trimesters* = 3 equal time periods in the 9 month prenatal period -Progress at end of *first trimester* (the third month): -->physical structures become more complete -->organs, muscles, nervous system, organize and connect -->behavioral changes in fetus (kicking, thumb sucking) -external genitals well-formed by 12th week -fetal heart beat audible with stethoscope -*Second trimester* (13-24 weeks): -->Fetal growth: mother can feel movements; nearly all brain's neurons produced by trimester's end (not many develop after second trimester) -->Vernix: white, cheesecake substance covers fetus and protects skin from becoming chapped in amniotic fluid -->lanugo: white, downy hair; helps vernix stick to skin -*Third trimester* (25-38 weeks): -->Age of Viability (22 to 26 weeks): age at which the fetus can first survive if born early; 50/50 chance after about 24 weeks. -->Body systems become more complete and prepare for outside world. What happens? **Brain matures extensively. Cerebral cortex enlarges. **Behavior becomes more organized (e.g., sleep patterns) **Fetus responds more clearly to sound in external world **8th month - layer of fat develops under skin **Preparations for delivery. Change position (to be head first). Lose coating.

2 contextual theories:

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory and Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

-Chief findings of ARTICLE 1: Morelli et al (1992) (also text p. 99!!!!)

What were the goals of this research? -->To examine the variability of infants' sleeping arrangements across cultures -->To examine the assumptions, values, and goals underlying these practices What were their research questions? -->What factors influence parents' decisions about child-rearing practices? -->How do parenting practices differ across cultures? -Research Design: qualitative, correlational -Research Method: self-report -Participants: 18 middle-class US families (Utah), 14 Highland Mayan families (Guatemala) -Procedure: Interviewed mothers in their homes, asked about sleeping arrangements by having mothers draw a map. Compared major themes in responses across groups. **FINDINGS** -->SLEEPING LOCATION: -Utah Families: Most shared a room at first, but 80% had own room by 6 months (co-sleeping is rare). -Mayan Families: 100% of moms co-slept through 1st year. -->NIGHT FEEDINGS: -Utah Families: Typically awake for night feedings. Often a source of stress. -Mayan Families: Nursed on demand. Did not notice having to feed at night bc baby was in the same bed as mom. -->BEDTIME ROUTINES: -Utah Families: Bedtime routines were significant part of the day. Most infants who slept alone used a favorite/transitional object. -Mayan Families: Babies fall asleep when sleepy with rest of family. Most nursed to sleep, only 1 had security object. Didn't need to use bedtime routines and transitional objects to get baby to fall asleep; no pajamas. -->What cultural values, beliefs, and fears about child development might influence parenting practices? (Mayans valued closeness and Americans valued independence and self reliance ) BOTH MAYAN AND US FAMILIES AGREED THAT THEY WANTED *HEALTHY* AND *WELL ADJUSTED BABIES*

-Research Design Terms: correlational design, correlation coefficient, field experiment, natural or quasi experiment, independent and dependent variables, random assignment

——> Correlational: Measuring the naturally occurring relationship between two variables; relationships can be positive, negative, or no relationship -study of the relationship between two or more variables -*Correlation coefficient*: a statistical value that describes how strongly variables are related -Values range from 0.00 to |1| -0.00 indicates no relationship -The closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship --> CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION! ——>Experimental: Manipulating one or more variables experimentally; manipulating an IV to elicit a reaction in a DV -->field experiment = natural observation --> natural or quasi experiment = quasi experiments are empirical studies used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on its target population *without random assignment* ... concerns about internal validity bc the treatment and control groups may not be comparable at the baseline -->independent variable: thing you manipulate in an experiment; what you want to test/study the effects of -->dependent variable: the thing you hold constant that does not change; this variable receives the IV and is affected --> random assignment: arbitrarily placing people into the experimental and control groups by computer generation, names in a hat, etc... each participant has a fair and random chance of being placed in each group