PSYCH 250 EXAM 3 REVIEW

text: adolescent STIs & pregnancy - rates, consequences (p. 311); gay, lesbian, bisexual youth (text p. 310)

Adolescent STIs- -15-24 have the highest rates of contracting STIS of all age groups -US: 1/5 sexually active teens contracts STI per year, gone up -most serious = HIV/AIDS. 1/4 of US cases are ages 13-24 -males who have sex w HIV + same sex partners are the most at risk and account for most cases of HIV/AIDS, 1/4 are due to heterosexual spread mostly F to M -twice as likely for a M to infect a F w any STI Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood- -625,000 (11,000 younger than 15) US teen girls pregnant in most recently reported yr 2016 (about 13% of those who had sex) -US rate of teen pregnancy higher than other industrialized countries, despite over 50% decline and lower teenage births now than 50 yrs ago -1/4 of teen pregs in US end in abortion -89% teen child births to unmarried females -very few teen moms give up infants for adoption; think baby will fill void, society accepts single teen moms more now Correlates and Consequences -life conditions and personal attributes jointly contribute to adolescent childbearing -teenage parents more likely to come from poverty stricken homes and have backgrounds of domestic violence and and abuse/neglect -lives tend to worsen after baby is born -teen moms less likely to finish hs, marry, or get a job -35% become pregnant again within 2 yrs, half deliver second baby -teen moms who do marry are more likely to divorce -reduced educational and occupational attainment for mothers and fathers persists into adulthood -no prenatal care in teen moms = baby complications = low birth weight: very common in teen births and baby development often comprised bc teen moms don't know as much and treat kids worse, perceive baby more difficult, more abusive ... often transfers to next gen -outcomes still vary widely, and those who finish hs, secure job, partner, stability, and avoid additional pregs will have less long term disruptions in her life and child's Gay, lesbian, bisexual youth - -Diff cultures vary on acceptance of sexual minorities, in the US attitudes towards LGBTQ have become more accepting but prejudice remains widespread -- makes forming a sexual identity harder for sexual minorities than for heterosexual teens -Many gay adolescents and adults move through a 3 phase sequence in coming out to themselves and others 1. Feeling Different: first sense of biologically determined gay sexual orientation appears ages 6-12; sexual questioning by age 10 2. Confusion: boys think they are gay at age 10 and know by 15, awareness for girls is later around 13-18; most experience inner struggles and change clubs and sports. Suicide attempts are unusually high among LGB young ppl 3. Self-Acceptance: by the end of adolescence most LGB teens accept their identity, but now must tell others. Coming out = emotional distress. Once teens est. a same sex sexual or romantic relationship, many come out to parents. Most parents are + or slightly negative and disbelieving (few severe rejection). Lower levels of fam support than heterosexuals. Positive reactions to coming out strengthen sexual identity. Contact w other LGB ppl is important Prevention strategies: -sex education, easy access to contraception's, employment opportunities After the fact... -schools that provide child care services and insurance increase educational success and prevent additional childbearing -more social support from fam, mentors, home visiting programs = less depression and more likely to finish school -father contact diminishes over time -children have better results when they have relations w both parents

adolescent body image - why body image is a focal concern, central findings of Jones et al., 2004, eating disorders (text pp. 306-307) -- *Adolescent Sexuality* (lecture and textpages 307-312)

BODY IMAGE: A FOCAL CONCERN -cognition and attitudes about physical appearance (*appearance = big predictor of self esteem*) -*AMAZING amount of growth* ; you are aware of it now, and you see changes in body growth!! -Yet adolescents are *now aware of changing body* -Adolescents as a *marginal group* - a group between cultures-within-*group conformity is important* -*mass media contribute by presenting one-dimensional images of attractiveness* - --Girls: curvy, thin, sexy, attractive --Boys: lean, muscular, attractive face -Adolescents are at an *increased risk of eating disorders*, such as ANOREXIA, and of STEROID abuse -Film Clip: Body Image is for Boys -multiple factors lead teens to internalize these narrow cultural ideas -body image is a focal concern: we see narrow body ideals in the media, which affect teens' perception of body image -in the film, 1972, 15% of men were dissatisfied with their bodies CENTRAL FINDINGS OF JONES ET. AL 2004: --> tested 4 factors among 780 7th -10th graders (BMI, magazine exposure, conversations with friends, peer criticism ... for girls, EVERYTHING was internalized and mattered!) --> *Appearance: Conversations with friends MATTERED the MOST* --similar results for boys, it is not just the media: MULTIPLE FACTORS -- *eating disorders (text pp. 306-307)*: -Girls who reach puberty early and grow up in homes where concern w weight and thinness is high are at risk for eating problems. -Body dissatisfaction and severe dieting are strong predictors of an eating disorder in adolescence -Disturbed eating is highest in Western nations -3 most serious eating disorders: anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorders --Anorexia Nervosa: -tragic eating disorder in which young people starve themselves because of a compulsive fear of getting fat; extreme distortion of body image -about 1 % of North American and western European teenage girls are affected -cases have increased sharply as thinness in media increased -African American girls at a lower risk than asian american, European american, and hispanic girls bc they have greater satisfaction w body image -boys account for 10-15% of anorexia cases; half of these are gay or bisexual young ppl who are uncomfortable w the bulky appearance or influenced by lean but muscular male body cultural idea -go on diets and strenuous exercise a lot bc they think they are too fat; lose 25-50% of their body weight -girls experience delayed menarche or disrupted cycles (need 15% body fat) -malnutrition -- pale skin, brittle nails, sensitive to cold, and small dark hairs ... can lead to kidney failure and heart shrinking and irreversible brain damage --> 5% die from the disorder - cultural and genetic influences, identical twins share the disorder -often excellent students and well behaved -"thin is beautiful" -maladaptive parent child relationships -treatment is difficult, ppl don't think they need help ; most successful is family therapy and medicine to reduce anxiety NT imbalance -less than 50% w anorexia recover fully -PERFECTIONISTS -see parents as controlling --Bulimia Nervosa: -young people, mainly girls but also gay and bi men, engage in binge eating, followed by compensatory efforts to avoid weight gain, such as deliberate vomiting, purging w laxatives, excessive exercise or fasting -late adolescence -more common than anorexia, affecting 2-4% of teen girls, only 5% of whom previously suffered from anorexia -not consistently linked to ethnicity -influenced by heredity -overweight, early menarche, increases risk -IMPULSIVE, sensation seeking -engage in petty shop lifting, alcohol abuse, and risky behavior -see parents as emotionally disengaged -feel depressed and guilt about eating style, some suicide -easier to treat than anorexia bc ppl want help : support groups, nutrition education, training in changing eating habits, and ant anxiety, antidepressants, appetite control meds --Binge Eating: -between 2-3% teen girls and close to 1% boys -binging at least once a week for three months or longer, without compensatory purging, exercise, or fasting -unrelated to ethnicity -leads to overweight and obesity -do not engage in prolonged dieting characteristics of anorexia and bulimia -associated w social adjustment difficulties -similar to bulimia, have emotional distress and suicidal thoughts -effective treatments resemble those used for bulimia -- *Adolescent Sexuality* (lecture and text pages 307-312): --with puberty, the production of androgens in both sexes leads to increased sex drive -improved cog capacities: perspective taking and self reflection Culture Impact - -sexuality is heavily influenced by young person's social context -sexual attitudes in NA are restrictive; parents rarely talk about sex; give no info and discourage it ; when young ppl become interested in sex only HALF report that they got info from parents -warm, open give and take discussion w parents = teens adopt parents views and understand sexual patterns, take less risks w sex -of tv shows that adolescents prefer, over 80% contain sexual content and most show no consequences or steps to be safe w sex -teens exposed to sexualized media content predicts increased sexual activity, pregnancy and harassment -adolescents who are prone to engage in sex early, CHOOSE to consume more sexualized media -42% had viewed online porn while surfing internet in last 12 months and 66% said they encountered it by accident and didn't want to see images -youths who were depressed or bullied had more encounters w porn -- more adjustment issues Characteristics of teens who have early sex - -nearly half of all adolescents had sex, but US youths are sexually active much earlier, a substantial minority by ages 15-16 -70% of sexually active teens report that they first had sex with a steady partner, most have 1-2 partners in hs, but 12% report 4 or more -linked to early and frequent teen sex: childhood impulsivity, early pubertal timing, parental divorce, large family, poor school performance, or sexually active friends ... growing up in economically disadvantaged homes -8% of AA population report having sex before age 13, compared to 4% of US population (due to poverty) Contraceptive use -contraception use has gone up in adolescents, but about 14% are still at risk for unintended pregnancy bc they were not consistent w use -self regulation is hard for teens, they are less likely to use a condom in new relationships where they feel high trust or love and are having sex often Sexual Orientation: -5% US hs students are gay, lesbian, or bi, and 2-3% unsure -Heredity makes an important contribution to sexual orientation: identical twins of both sexes are more likely than fraternal twins to share homosexual orientation so are biological relatives -homosexuality may be X linked -- more common on maternal side -certain genes can affect levels of prenatal sex hormones, which modify brain structures to induce homosexual feelings ... environmental factors can ALSO alter prenatal hormones! STIs -15-24 have the highest rates -US: 1/5 sexually active teens contracts STI per year, gone up -most serious = HIV/AIDS. 1/4 of US cases are ages 13-24 -males more at risk, same sex males most at risk, then female to male Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood -625,000 US teen girls pregnant in most recently reported yr (13% who had sex) -US rate of teen pregnancy higher than other industrialized countries, despite over 50% decline and lower teenage births now than 50 yrs ago -1/4 of teen pregs in US end in abortion -89% teen child births to unmarried females Correlates and Consequences -life conditions and personal attributes jointly contribute to adolescent childbearing -teenage parents more likely to come from poverty stricken homes -lives tend to worsen after baby is born -teen moms less likely to finish hs, marry, or get a job -35% become pregnant again within 2 yrs, half deliver -teen moms who do marry are more likely to divorce -reduced educational and occupational attainment for mothers and fathers persists into adulthood -low birth weight very common in teen births and baby development often comprised bc teen moms don't know as much and treat kids worse Prevention strategies: -sex education, easy access to contraception's, employment opportunities After the fact... -schools that provide child care services and insurance increase educational success and prevent additional childbearing -more social support from fam, mentors, home visiting programs = less depression and more likely to finish school -father contact diminishes over time -children have better results when they have relations w both parents

Two types of *physical* changes in Puberty:

overall body growth AND sexual maturation

adolescent friendships (text pp. 342-344)

-# of best friends declines from about 4 to 6 in early adolescence to 1 or 2 in adulthood -teens stress 3 characteristics of the nature of their friendships: INTIMACY (psychological closeness, most imp!!) which is supported by MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING of each other's values and feelings, and additionally more than younger children, teens want their best friends to be LOYAL - stick up for them and not leave them for someone else -they say friends are their most imp source of social support -SELF DISCLOSURE (sharing private thoughts) increases in adolescents between friends -the more similar friends become = the greater their friendship will last -cooperation and mutual affirmation increases, and negative interaction declines -adolescents are less possessive of their friends now Gender differences - -emotional closeness is more common between girls than boys -boys usually gather for an activity, where girls will just talk -the quality of boys' friendships is more variable -masculine stereotypes interfered with friend bonds of ethnic minority boys -hispanic boys were more likely than others to resist conforming to gender stereotypes --when friends focus on deeper thoughts and feelings, they tend to *coruminate* or repeatedly mull over problems and negative emotions, with girls doing so more than boys -CORRUMINATION while contributing to high friendship quality, also triggers anxiety and depression - more common in girls too -girls closest same sex friendships tend to be shorter lasting than boys' -73% of US 13-17 yr olds own or have access to a smartphone, additional 15% to a basic phone; 58% own or have access to tablet -these mobile devices serve as teens' PRIMARY route to the internet , 94% say they go online daily -texting is the preferred method of comm for teenage friends ... 30 texts per day -calling is second, then IM and Facebook -girls text and call friends more often than boys, and they more often use social media -boys are more avid gamers -online interactions contribute to friends' closeness and intimacy -social media is where teens meet new friends: 1/3 of US teens develop friends this way via mutual friends -girls form new friends more via social media and boys use online gaming more --risks of social media... sexual posts and jealousies over dating partners , misunderstandings -60% of US teen Facebook users keep profiles private and 70% are friends w parents -17% report contact from strangers that made them feel uncomfortable ... don't even care about third parties accessing info like email -1/4 of US teens using internet almost constantly with 30% sending more than 100 texts per day -very high social media use linked to unsatisfying face to face social experiences, boredom and depression -girls were more addicted to social media than boys and reported more impaired mental health Adjustment- -as long as adolescent friendships are high in trust, intimate sharing, and support and not characterized by relational aggression or attraction to antisocial behavior, they contribute to many aspects of psychological health and competence into early adulthood for several reasons: --close friendships give opps to explore the self and develop a deep understanding for another --close friendships provide foundation for future intimate relationships --close friendships help young ppl deal w stresses of adolescence --close friendships can improve attitudes and involvement toward school

adolescent depression; adolescent suicide (text p. 346-348)

Depression - -MOST COMMON psychological problem of adolescence -15-20% of US teens have had one or more major depressive episodes, 5% are chronically depressed -serious depression affects only 1-2% of children, who are less likely than teens to remain depressed at older ages -in industrialized nations, depression increase sharply from ages 12-16 -teenage girls are TWICE as likely as boys to report persistent depressed mood -->Factors: -moderately heritable, runs in families, may be sparked by neg life events -onset in girls is more closely related to hormonal changes of puberty than with age -GENETIC AND HORMONAL risk factors seem to sensitize the brain to react more strongly to stressful experiences -the short 5-HTTLPR gene is linked to adolescent depression but only in presence of negative life stressors, this gene environment interaction operates more consistently with girls than boys -->Gender differences- -"feminine" adolescents ruminate more and tend to be more depressed due to their gender typed coping styles -girls w androgynous or "masculine" gender identity show low rates of depressive symptoms -profound depression in teens can lead to suicidal thoughts ... Suicide - -US suicide rate jumps sharply at adolescence -third leading cause of death among american youths -international differences in suicide rates- us - intermediate -->Factors: -suicide is higher in boys, 4 to 1 -girls make more unsuccessful attempts and use methods like sleeping pills - revival more likely -boys choose techniques that lead to instant death - firearms or hanging -gender role expectations may contribute: less tolerance exists for feelings of helplessness and failed efforts in males than females -AA, Asian Am, and Hispanics have lower suicide rates than European Americans, but recently AA teen boys has risen -Native American youths commit suicide at rates two to six times national averages -LGBT youths at high risk too, attempting suicide 3x as often as other adolescents -those who have attempted report more fam conflict, problems in romantic relationships, and peer victimization --Suicide tends to occur in 2 types of young people: first group includes teens who are highly intelligent but solitary, withdrawn and unable to meet their own standards or those of imp ppl in their lives. second group, larger, show antisocial tendencies -family history of suicide, and likely to have stressful life events like poverty and divorce -why increases in teens? -- besides rise in depressed mood, improved ability to plan ahead is a major factor ,,, other cog changes -- belief in the personal fable leads depressed young ppl to conclude that no one could possibly understand their intense pain Prevention and Treatment: -parents and teachers must be trained to pick up signals -peer support groups and providing info on hotlines -once a teen takes steps toward suicide, staying w them and listening and expressing concern until prof help can be obtained is essential -treatments -- antidepressants to group therapy ... gun control? -teenage suicides often happen in clusters

LECTURE 13 TAKE AWAY - HOME MESSAGE:

A) Acknowledge power of media effects B) Steer youth to content that matches your values C) Encourage youth to be critical media consumers "we are educated ... audience" -Singhal and Rogers, 1999, p. 8

five developmental tasks of adolescence

--> these are UNIVERSAL 1. *Accept full-grown body and changes of puberty* 2. *Acquire adult ways of thinking (complex)* 3. *Develop more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes* 4. *Consolidate an identity (secure sense of who you are)* 5. *Attain greater independence from the family (emotionally, financially...)*

The social clock (text p. 388)

-all societies have some kind of *social clock* = age graded expectations for major life events such as beginning a first job, getting married, birth of first child, buying a home, and retiring -large departures from social clock events have become increasingly common -following a social clock of some kind seems to foster confidence and social stability bc it guarantees that young ppl will develop skills, engage in productive work, and gain in understanding of self and others -crafting a life of one's own is more risky and more prone to breakdown

cognitive & psychological impact of college experience (lecture & text p. 378)

-college students explore more academically and non, enhance self understanding and identity -personal and institutional factors contribute to college dropout, which is more common in less selective colleges and among ethnic minority students from low SES families -high risk students benefit from interventions that show concerns for them as individuals

-text box p. 390:

Childhood attachment patterns and adult romantic relationships: -research indicates that recollections of childhood attachment patterns predict romantic relationships in adulthood (internal working models - Bowlby - sets of expectations about attachment figures) -Secure Attachment - trusting and happy relationships -Avoidant Attachment - independence, mistrust of love partners, and anxiety about people getting too close -Resistant Attachment - desire for intense intimacy but fear person may not love them back, jealousy, emotional highs and lows, desperation -internal working models may be "updated" when adults w a history of unhappy love lives have a chance to form satisfying intimate ties

factors affecting pubertal timing - roles of genes, environment, socioemotional stress - adolescents' reactions to pubertal timing - effects of early & late maturation

FACTORS AFFECTING TIMING OF PUBERTY - -->*Timing is influenced by both genes AND environment* -about *2/3 of variation in age of puberty* is GENETIC (very strong genetic component) -see role of genes via TWIN STUDIES --Identical: 2 months difference --Fraternal: 12 months difference (on avg.) MULTIPLE aspects of environment contribute: -*nutrition, weight, dieting, exercise* -PSYCHOSOCIAL aspects: *links between earlier pubertal timing and stress* - divorce, father absence, family conflict --> Why might socioemotional stress matter? --EVOLUTIONARY MODEL: -*In a stressful home environment, it is adaptive to mature early, reproduce early* --PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS VARY BY SEX: -EARLY: *boys tend to fare better* than girls (muscular and tall --> status and sports) -LATER: *girls fare better than boys* (earlier girls feel very stressed and feel different) --later boys feel bad, since they have no muscles -- more psychological stress

General advances in adolescent thinking & 3 specific advances: 1) thinking about possibilities; 2) thinking through hypotheses - hypothetico-deductive reasoning; 3) thinking about abstract concepts

GENERAL ADVANCES IN LOGICAL THINKING - SHIFT TO FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING (more adult way of thinking, new reasoning.. Piaget called it formal operational stage) -- *Cognitive Development* (Formal Operational Thought) THREE ADVANCES IN ADOLESCENT THINKING: 1. *Thinking about possibilities* *("what if")*-*PROPOSITIONAL THOUGHT*: -adolescents are *able to evaluate logic of propositions WITHOUT referring to real-world circumstances* -can better handle the ABSTRACT and the HYPOTHETICAL -allows adolescents to *fantasize and speculate on a grander scale* -able to *consider range of alternatives in problem solving* (math and science) 2. *Thinking through hypotheses* *("If, then")*-*HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE REASONING*: -can think in logical ways -able to *formulate, test, evaluate hypotheses in an orderly fashion* -EXAMPLE: what makes pendulum swing faster? - (*Study*): weight, string, force -->Younger children - random selection -->Adolescents do this more *systematically* (concrete/pre op stages is where kids choose more randomly, but now in the formal operational adolescents choose systematically) ... for example, hanging weights AND pulling strings 3. *Thinking about abstract concepts* (e.g., love, faith, greed) -diff ways things could, should be, more critical, other possibilities!

types of love - Sternberg's triangular theory of love and its 3 components (text pp. 389-391)

Sternberg's *triangular theory of love* identifies three components - *passion, intimacy, and commitment* - that shift in emphasis as romantic relationships develop -Passion, the desire for sexual activity and romance, is the physical and psychological arousal component -Intimacy, is the emotional component, consisting of warm, tender, communication and caring self disclosure , plus a desire for the partner to reciprocate -Commitment, the cognitive component, leads partners to decide that they are in love and to maintain that love -at the beginning of a relationship, passionate love (sexual attraction) is strong.. *ROMANTIC LOVE* -gradually passions declines in favor of intimacy and commitment ... --*COMPANIONATE LOVE*: warm, trusting affection and valuing of others --*COMPASSIONATE LOVE*: concern for others well being, expressed through caring efforts to alleviate the others distress and promote the others' growth and flourishing -during the transitions, commitment may be the component of love that determines whether a relationship survives -constructive conflict resolution -men are less skilled at communicating in ways that foster intimacy and less effective in negotiating conflict

Klaus Riegel's view of adult cognition & nature of dialectical thought; William Perry's theory of epistemic cognition

RIEGEL AND PERRY: -->*DIALECTICAL OPERATIONS*: -(5th stage we proposed, AFTER Piaget's formal operational stage ...( -*Accept contradictions and integrate differing viewpoints into a larger conceptual understanding - understand pros and cons* --> Adults integrate and understand differences into *larger conceptual understanding* -Klaus Riegel -->*EPISTEMIC COGNITION*: (how we arrive at conclusions and thinking changes) -*Younger* - *knowledge as discrete, separate units* - DUALISTIC thinking (e.g., right and wrong, good and bad) -*Older* - *knowledge embedded in a framework* - RELATIVISTIC thinking - few absolute truths (more flexible thinking) -William Perry

sexual maturation - primary vs. secondary sexual characteristics, general changes, menarche, spermarche

SEXUAL MATURATION - 1. *Primary Sexual Characteristics*: -involve *reproductive organs* DIRECTLY (ova and testes get larger) 2. *Secondary Sexual Characteristics*: -EXTERNAL *physical changes that help distinguish males and females* (breasts, facial hair, hips widen, pubic her...) 3. *General Changes of Sexual Maturation*: -increases in levels of androgens and estrogens for girls and boys boys, but LEVELS are SEX-SPECIFIC -BOYS get MORE ANDROGENS like testosterone --> muscle growth, gains in body size, sex characteristics -GIRLS get MORE ESTROGENS --> cause breast and uterus to mature, fat to accumulate, regulate menstrual cycle --MENARCHE: *first menstruation* - occurs late in sequence, typically around age 12.5 (about 100 lbs, when female can first bear a child) --SPERMARCHE: *first onset of sperm development* ????, usually happens between ages 11-15???

other young adult lifestyles from text: singlehood, cohabitation, childlessness, divorce and remarriage

Singlehood - -not living with an intimate partner -increased in recent years among young adults -rate of never married Americans ages 25 and up has more than doubled since 1960 to 23% of men and 17% of women -more ppl today marry later or not at all, and divorce has added to # of single adults -most Americans will spend a substantial part of their adult lives single and 8-10% will stay that way -more young adult men than women are single bc they marry later -women far more likely to remain single for many years -women marry up and men marry down, so men w a high school diploma or less and highly educated women in prestigious careers are overrepresented among singles after age 30 -more than 1/3 of AAs 25 and older have not married -B and W marriage rates move closer together in late 30s and 40s --freedom and mobility --loneliness, dating grind, no sex, social life -single men have more physical and mental health problems than single women ; women have more social support in same sex friends -overall ppl over 35 who have always been single are content w their lives; not as happy as married ppl but more happy than recently widowed or divorced -many ppl go through a stressful period in early 30s, most of friends are married, society's marital clock, women reach biological deadline for pregnancy Cohabitation - -lifestyle of unmarried couples who have a sexually intimate relationship and who share a residence -esp dramatic rise in well educated, high SES young ppl -now the preferred method of entry into an intimate partnership, chosen by over 70% of couples age 30 and younger -higher rates in adults w failed marriages, about 1/3 of these households include children -over 60% approve -american cohabiters not as positive as those in W Europe -60% of American cohabiting unions break up within 3 yrs, only 6-16% dissolve in W Europe -less likely to engage or marry now -couples who do cohabit then marry are slightly at more risk for divorce -premarital cohabiting before 25 like early marriage, is associated w reduced readiness to select a compatible partner and forge a committed romantic bond -gay cohabiters are exceptions to the high risk of young break ups Childlessness - -childlessness among US women in mid forties increased from 10% in 1975 to to 20% in 2006, and then declined to 15% in 2014 -some are involuntarily childless due to lack of finding partner or fertility issues -some are voluntarily childless, usually highly educated, prestigious jobs, very committed to work, and are less traditional in gender role attitudes -recent decline is due to more educated career focused women eventually opting for parenthood -voluntarily childless adults are just as content w their lives as parents who have warm relationships w their children -childlessness seems to interfere w adjustment and life satisfaction only when it is beyond a person's control Divorce and Remarriage - -divorce rates have declined over past 2 decades due to marrying later and more cohabitation -42 - 45% of us marriages dissolve -most occur within 7 yrs of marriage and involve young children -common during transition to midlife when kids are adolescents - reduced period of marital satisfaction -nearly 60% of divorced adults remarry, but marital failure is even greater during the first few years of second marriages, 10% above that for first marriages -after divorce men have a harder time adjusting than women -ppl remarry on avg within 4 yrs of divorce, men sooner than women

transition to marriage - what people look for in partners, role of childhood attachment patterns

THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE - *Transition* = changes in which we restructure our lives or reorder our goals in response to changing experiences (having a baby, moving house/buying house, marriage...) --> *Marriage and parenthood* = 2 big transitions!!! -transitions can be inherently stressful when they are sudden, NOT when they are planned -- normal to go though WHEN TO MARRY? -Approx. *70% of Americans will marry at least ONCE in their lives* -*Waiting longer now* than in past years -1960: 20 yrs for women and 23 for men (average age) -TODAY: 27 yrs for women and 29 for men (increased education levels, more moving in, increased divorce rates ... reasons people wait longer today to marry) WHOM TO MARRY? - FACTORS AFFECTING MATE SELECTION -happier couples provide support and affection, forgive each other, laugh more... -->For adults 18-34 (Google Survey): -*Through mutual friends* (38.6%), out in a *social setting* (22.3%), through *work* (17.9%), *online* (9.4%) -- where people meet most often -*Selecting a mate*: -We tend to select mates *SIMILAR* to ourselves. *Compatibility*. (little support for opposites attract!!) --> What traits matter? -Both women and men prefer INTELLIGENT, HONEST, AND EMOTIONALLY STABLE partners who are attractive, with a "good" personality -Sex differences commonly reported: -*women* - good earning potential, ambition, intelligence (prefer same age) -*men* - physical attractiveness, domestic skills (prefer younger age) --But these sex differences are NOT universal across all contexts: -see cultural differences (preferences) -see differences in STATED preferences but fewer differences in real life choices assessed via *speed dating* - research methodology matters! -->Finkel and Eastwood - 08: -speed dating study -people actually preferred same type of people, M/F, different from preferences stated. -See differences based on short term vs long term relationships --> Short term versus long term relationship -Partner preferences (Stewart, Stinnett, and Rosenbald 2000) Dependence - LT Good Earning Capacity - LT Intelligence - LT Kindness / trustworthy/ honest = LT Physical attention - ST

"side effects" of new thinking abilities: imaginary audience, personal fable, sensitivity to hypocrisy, difficulty with everyday decision-making

*"Side effects" of new thinking abilities*: 1. SEE AN INTENSE PRE-OCCUPATION WITH THE SELF AND WITH PRESENTING SELF IN BEST LIGHT 2. TWO DISTORTIONS IN THE RELATION BETWEEN SELF AND - OTHERS (relations): a) *Heightened self-consciouseness* - IMAGINARY AUDIENCE = *erroneous belief that one's behavior is the subject of constant public attention* (you think everyone is focusing on you and you are obsessed w appearance) b) *Specialness* - PERSONAL FABLE = *erroneous belief that one's thoughts, feelings, and experiences are totally unique* 3. SENSITIVE TO HYPOCRISY - *often leads to argumentativeness* (idealism, criticism; breaking points down and arguing logic, debate..) - "fault finding critics" 4. DIFFICULTY W/ EVERYDAY DECISION-MAKING (from choosing clothes to picking a college)

four stages of identity formation: identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion

*4 STAGES OF IDENTITY FORMATION* (*James Marcia*) - -clinical interviews with adolescents, he asked questions about occupation, religion, and politics 1. *IDENTITY ACHEIVEMENT* = *completed the struggle*; *committed* to a set of *self chosen* values and goals 2. *IDENTITY MORATORIUM* (deal) = *holding pattern*;* NOT YET made commitments*; *midst of exploration* 3. *IDENTITY FORECLOSURE* = *pursuing goals chosen by others (parents or teachers)*; *commitment WITHOUT exploration* -Ex: kid does the premed path his family lays out for him, he follows the self-chosen path and doesn't explore other options 4. *IDENTITY DIFFUSION* = *NOT committed to particular values and goals*; *NOT actively exploring*, lack of clear direction Other issues and characteristics: --These are *NOT static* states --Adolescents often shift from *one status to another* until identity is achieved; *college often triggers increased exploration*

DOMAINS OF CONFLICT IN EARLY ADOLESCENCE:

*Allison and Schultz 2004* Method: -Surveyed 357 youth aged 11-14 -Indicated whether each of 40 issues had been discussed with parents during past month (13 themes; substance abuse, personal autonomy, hw/grades...) -Rated intensity of this discussion: 1 = calm, 2 = a little angry, 3 = angry --*noted*: (discussed more often) CARE OF ROOM - 75%, *HOUSEHOLD CHORES* - 79% (most common) --more INTENSE discussions: *lying/cursing, and making trouble* (most intense) : *1.94* - intensity -->hw and grades: 1.92 -->disruptive behavior: 1.95

FACTS about Depression in Adolescence: (when things don't go well, often results in teen delinquency or suicide ...)

-*Depression* is the MOST COMMON *psychological problem* of adolescence - *15-20% have had at least one depressive episode* -Characterized by *pervasive feelings of sadness, irritability, low self esteem, boredom, and inability to experience pleasure* -Depression INCREASES sharply between *ages 12-16 in industrialized nations* -Occurs *TWICE as often in girls* as in boys. WHY? --> *Biological changes of puberty*? More than this. --> *Coping strategies*? *Females more likely to RUMINATE* (replay problems over in head) --> Female *gender role that emphasizes passivity and dependence* (lack of voice)? --> *Negative body image*? (girls are more insecure...) --CAUSES? -Linked both to BIOLOGICAL factors (heredity and NT levels), *and* to ENVIRONMENTAL factors (loss, stressful events)

biological aging -theories from text (pp. 355-357) & special terms: telomeres, free radicals

--Biological aging is the *SUM of MANY CAUSES working on different levels*, some operating at the level of DNA others at the level of cells, and still others at the level of tissues, organs, and the whole organism Aging at the level of DNA and Body Cells: -2 types: 1) those that emphasize the *programmed effects of specific genes* 2) those that emphasize the *cumulative effects of random events* that damage genetic and cellular material -longevity is a family trait - people whose parents had long lives tend to live longer themselves, supported in identical twins too ... but heritability of longevity is low .15 to .5 .. rather than ingesting longevity directly, ppl probably inherit risk and protective factors which influence their chances of dying earlier or later --One "*genetic programming*" THEORY proposes the existence of "aging genes" that control biological changes, such as deterioration of body cells -->With each cell division, a special type of DNA called *telomeres* - located at the ends of chromosomes, serving as a "Cap" to protect the ends from destruction - shortens. Eventually, so little remains that the cells no longer duplicate at all (when cell can no longer divide called a senescent) -telomeres safeguard the stability of your cells and shorten w each division -certain life circumstances compromise longevity and shorten telomeres -- as they shorten = more disease progression and earlier death; longer will protect cells -some diseases, stress, and smoking or poor nutrition or low birth weight shorten telomeres in white blood cells -- more likely to die -physical activity and eating healthy make telomeres longer --"*random events*" THEORY - DNA in body cells is gradually damaged through spontaneous or externally caused mutations -one hypothesized cause of age related DNA and cellular abnormalities is the release of *free radicals* - naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen -genes for longevity may work by defending against free radicals -although free radical damage increases with age, no clear evidence indicates that it triggers bio aging, rather it may at time contribute to longevity Aging at the level of tissue and organs: -- *Cross linkage theory of aging*: over time, protein fibers that make up the body's connective tissue form bonds, or links, with one another. When these normally separate fibers cross - link, tissue becomes less elastic, leading to many negative outcomes (loss of skin flexibility and other organs, clouding of lens of eye, clogging of arteries, and kidney damage) -cross linking can be reduced by external factors, like regular exercise and healthy diet -gradual failure of endocrine system is another route to aging - disruption in hormone levels -deterioration in immune system functioning contributes to many conditions of aging as well (more susceptible to disease)

takeaways:

-4 primary sexual socialization agents: parents, peers, media and schools. -These messages are frequently "gendered" and heteronormative. -Sexual socialization is a product of culture

*LECTURE 15*: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD

-Adulthood: --early: 18-39, marry, have children --middle: 40-55 --late: 60+ -*"Emerging adulthood"* is in the beginning of the early adulthood stage, not a teen and not an adult

Parent Teen Conflict: THE LARGER CONTEXT

-Continual turmoil is RARE --> MOST teens: --*admire and love parents* --*rely* on parents for advice --*embrace* many of parents' *values* --*feel loved* by parents -*20%* say TOP CONCERN is *NOT* ENOUGH TIME with parents! -*QUALITY of parent-child relationship is consistent predictor of teen mental health* -*Disagreements lessen* in late adolescence and *relationships become harmonious*

CHANGES IN COGNITION THAT RESULT FROM THE *COLLEGE EXPERIENCE* (and notes from the film clip "Seniors"):

-EXAMPLES: "Seniors" - Four Years in Retrospect ; movie, Stanford college kids, Debbi and Cheng -Improves verbal and quantitative skills and knowledge of specific areas -Improves oral and written communication skills -Improves various aspects of problem-solving --better applying reason and evidence (to problems with no clear answer) --identifying strengths and weaknesses (of complex issues) --aware of multiple perspectives and truths - relativism -See revisions in attitudes and values -Foster concern with individual rights and human welfare - enlightenment: makes you aware of societal views -Develop greater self understanding, enhanced self esteem, and a firmer sense of identity -Prepares students to be lifelong learners

*LECTURE 12: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE*

-ages 12-18 -teens//puberty//angst -adolescence = period of growth, changes to a particular time/culture and universal components

becoming an adult - *READING 6* (Arnett, 2000) - What/when is stage of emerging adulthood?

-ages 18-25 -emerging adulthood exists only in cultures that allow young people a prolonged period of independent role exploration during the late teens and twenties -this period is neither adolescence nor adulthood, distinct from both -having left the dependency of adolescence but not yet having endured the responsibilities normative in adulthood, emerging adults often explore a variety of possible life directions in *love, work, and worldviews* --love : more intimate and serious --work: more focused on preparation for adult work roles --worldview: develop own beliefs, religious -most volitional years of life -culturally constructed -identity exploration -Erikson commented on the *prolonged adolescence* of many industrialized nations, and on *psychosocial moratorium* granted to ppl in such societies -Levinson called 13-17 the *novice phase* -Keniston (best known theory) , his application of "youth" was problematic, "tension between self and society", war -emerging adulthood is *distinct demographically* -emerging adults have the highest rates of residential changes -high degree of demographic diversity and instability, reflecting on change and exploration; not bound to roles -the characteristic that mattered most to emerging adults in their subjective sense of attaining adulthood are not demographic transitions but individualistic qualities of character: *accepting responsibility for one's self and making independent decisions, and becoming financially independent* -parenthood = adulthood, according to emerging adults -identity vs role confusion ?? -identity achievement is rarely reached by the end of hs --Perry: emerging adults often enter college with a worldview they have learned, but a college education leads to a variety of different world views -high rates of risk behavior --for american emerging adults, physical proximity to parents is *inversely* related to the quality of relationships with them --in European studies, emerging adults who remain at home tend to be happier with their living situations than those who have left home --> for both, *autonomy* and *relatedness* are complementary rather than opposing dimensions of their relationships with their parents -"the forgotten half" - non college bound youths in America -in emerging adulthood there is little that is normative, a lot is changing. The heterogeneity of this period represents a warning and an opportunity for hose who wish to study this age period. -EMERGING ADULTHOOD IS RESTRICTED TO CERTAIN CULTURES AND CERTAIN TIMES -->not a universal period, only in cultures that postpone the entry into adult roles until well past late teens -->most found in countries highly industrialized --> minority cultures may have cultural practices that lead to a shortened period of emerging adulthood or none at all; ex: Mormon belief of of prohibiting premarital sex and large fams ... limitations in education or occupation .. minorities are less likely to experience 18-25 as a period of independence bc less access to resources -->young pppl in middle class or above and ppl in urban areas of countries like china and India are more likely to experience emerging adulthood (rarely in rural areas) -more affluent areas Contributing factors to emerging adulthood: -higher education, more school attendance -marrying later -college, exploring -changes in time of parenthood -kids moving out sooner -settling into a career -decline in typical puberty age -social change: growth of high school attendance conclusion: -emerging adulthood is a distinct period of life course for people in industrialized societies -love, work , worldview choices change -volitional period of life -change -some may be limited to exploration -recognize the heterogeneity of the period ; distinguishing characteristics -age of possibilities

heterosexual and sexual minority attitudes and behavior discussed in text (pp. 365-368)

-at end of teen years, nearly 70% of US young ppl have had sex, by age 25 nearly all have , and the link between sexual activity and economic disadvantage apparent in adolescence has diminished Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior- -similar to each other -more opportunities for new partners -3 factors affect frequency of sex: Age, whether people are cohabiting or married, and how long the coupe has been together -sex increases through 20s and 30s as people cohabit (live together and have sex without being married) or marry then. declines as demands of daily life intensify -as number of sex partners increases sexual satisfaction declines sharply -a history of unfavorable relationships and sexual experiences increases the risk of sexual dysfunction -- women more problems Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior- -overall, more than half of US adults favor allowing same sex couples to marry legally -acceptance is greatest among highly educated people who are low in religiosity -3.8% of US men and women identify as LGBT -many don't reveal sexual orientation on surveys == limited data -same as heterosexual, seek out similar partners in age, background, etc... -sex is higher for gay than lesbian couples -sexual minorities tend to live near large cities -19% of US women have endured rape in their life, about 45% of women have experienced other sexual coercion -2% men have been rape victims and 23% other forms of coercion

typical problems and conflicts in transition to parenthood (text p. 398)

-for most new parents the arrival of a baby does not cause significant marital strain, traditional gender roles at first -solid marriages remain so, but. troubled marriages become even more distressed after childbirth -in dual earner marriages, the larger the difference in men's and women';s caregiving responsibilities, the greater. the decline in marital satisfaction after chidbirth, esp for women -sharing caregiving predicts greater parental happiness and sensitivity to baby -postponing childbearing until late 20s or 30s eases the transition to parenthood -- couples can strengthen relationship, men more excited to be dads and willing to participate -when favorable work policies exist for parents, more gratifying family life (unpaid leave)

Text perspectives on emerging adulthood: exploration, cultural variation, risk & resilience, validity as a distinct period (pp. 381-386)

-the transition to adult roles had become so delayed and prolonged that it has spawned a new transitional period extending from the late teens to the mid to late twenties, called *emerging adulthood* -Arnett: emerging adulthood is a distinct period between adolescence and adulthood defined by 5 features - feeling in between (neither adolescent nor adult), identity exploration (especially in love, work, and worldview), self focused (not self centered but lacking obligations to others), instability (frequent changes in living arrangements, relationships, education and work), and possibilities (able to choose among multiple life directions). -during college years young ppl refine identity in breadth and depth -dual cycle model -personal agency -pluralistic orientation Cultural Variation -emerging adulthood more common in industrialized nations w more resources -emerging adulthood - strong association w higher education and SES condition Risk and Resilience- -supportive family, school and community environments are crucial just as they were at earlier ages

concerns and criticisms of Levinson's seasons of life theory :

1. *Relevance of patterns to today's youth? - cohort effects?* 2. *Few non-college educated and low income men and women in samples* 3. *Possible inaccurate memories - retrospective* 4. *Rigidity of stages* (might be more variety today, more fluid age stages than he laid out ...)

predictors of marital satisfaction

10 FACTORS PREDICTING MARITAL SATISFACTION: 1. *Communication of emotion* 2. *Homogamy - similarity of values and interests* (more likely to succeed when partners are similar in social class, $, background, and see eye to eye 3. *Age of marriage - after 23 = more success / stability* (most consistent predictor of marital stability!!) 4. *Length of courtship* (6 months best on average, or more) 5. *Timing of first pregnancy* (better to get pregnant after the first year of marriage, more success) 6. *Warm and positive relationship to extended family* (get along with the in laws = less conflict and choosing) 7. *Stable marital patterns in extended family* (models of support) 8. *Financial and employment security* 9. *Personality characteristics* (emotionally positive and good conflict resolution skills = helps success of marriage) 10. *Expectations and myths about marriage* (have an understanding) -3,4,5 are logistical

academic achievement (text pp. 321-324) - role of child-rearing practices, parent-school partnerships, peers, classroom learning

Academic Achievement- -+ educational environments fam and school lead to personal traits that support achievement, like intelligence and confidence in abilities, desire to succeed, and high educational aspirations -improving an unfavorable environment though can foster resilience among poorly performing young ppl. Child Rearing Styles- -authoritative parenting is linked to higher grades and achievement test scores among teens varying widely in SES --> mastery oriented attributions -authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved are associated with poorer achievement and declines in academic performance Parent School Partnerships- -high achieving students typically have parents who remain invested in their teenager's education -parents in depleted, high risk neighborhood tend to report higher levels of academic involvement with their teenagers at home ; they convey value of education to teens more despite daily stressors interfering (stronger home-school links can relieve some of this stress) -strengthening relationships between parents and teachers and school involvement Peer Influences- -teens who's parents value achievement generally choose friends who share those values (peer support depends on on peer culture and surrounding social order) -study predicted higher grades among European - American and Hispanic students, but not among Asians and AAs. Asian culture values stress respect for family and teacher expectations over close peer ties. Discriminatory treatment by teachers and peers often result in AA teen stereotypes of "non intelligent" which triggers anxiety and achievement and associations with peers not interested in school, and increase problem behaviors -schools that build close networks of support between teachers and peers can prevent these negative outcomes -"media multitasking" = risk to achievement Classroom Learning Experiences- -wide variability in quality of instruction has contributed to increasing numbers of seniors who graduate from high school deficient in basic academic skills -Although achievement gap separating AA, Hispanic, and Native American students from white students has declined since 70s, mastery of reading, writing, math and science by low SES ethnic minority students remains disappointing ;; too often young ppl attend underfunded schools w out of date equipment -by middle school many low SES minority students have been placed on a low academic track, they are "locked out" of advanced courses in later grades -- lower quality curriculum, less stimulating classroom experiences -- lower self esteem and less effort -High school students are separated into academic and vocational tracks in virtually all industrialized nations. In China, Japan and most western European countries , students' placement is determined by a national exam which establishes future possibilities -in the US students who are not assigned to a college prep track or who do poorly in hs can still attend college -- many young ppl in the end do NOT benefit from the more open US system! -by adolescence, SES differences in quality of education and academic achievement are greater in the US than in most other industrialized countries AND the US has a higher percentage of young people who see themselves as educational failures and drop out of high school

comparison of the nature & impact of sexual communication from parents & peers (Ward lab findings)

COMPARISON OF SEXUAL COMMUNICATION ACROSS SOURCES - LESSONS LEARNED (SUMMARY SLIDE): WARD LAB FINDINGS -what do we tell kids to have a healthy sexual approach? -level of exposure differs by issue: Sex and gendered --> more in teens (sexual communication varies by discourse) -*Parents and peers differ in the nature of the sexual themes and messages conveyed* --PARENTS: *relational, abstinence* --PEERS: *sex-positive, gendered, relational* -*Different messages have different contributions to sexual health and risk behaviors* -MOST BENEFICIAL: *parental relational and parental sex - positive discourses* -MORE TROUBLING: *parental abstinence, peer gendered discourses* A CLOSER EXAMINATION OF THE SEXUAL CONTENT ON TV - CLASSIC STUDY: WARD (1995) - -media as sexual educators? American youth spends 7hrs/day on media... media can amuse, inspire, and fulfill METHOD: -Analyzed *3 episodes* of each of the 12 *most popular programs among children and teens* (adolescents) -Focused on *verbal messages about sexuality* -Dialogue *coded* using a list of 17 *themes about sexuality common in our culture* -Focused on *interactions* (btw. characters; Fresh Prince v Simpsons..) GENERAL FINDINGS: -*overall, 29% of Interactions contained messages about sexuality!* (varied by show, about 1/3; Blossom 58.8%, Martin 49%, Fresh Prince 37%...) -themes included things like procreation, men supposed to want sex, women valued for sexual appeal... -->TOP THREE THEMES: 1. *Dating is a game/competition (12%)* 2. *Men are supposed to want sex (10%)* 3. *Women are valued for sexual appeal (12%)*

changes in self-concept and self-esteem in adolescence (text pp. 330-331)

Changes in self concept- -in describing themselves, adolescents unify separate traits ("smart" and "curious") into more abstract descriptors ("intelligent") -often contradictory generalizations at first. Ex: 12 to 14 yr olds may say they are "extroverts" and "introverts" -"which is the real me"? -cognitive changes enable teens to combine their traits into an organized system -their use of qualifiers reveals an increasing awareness that psychological qualities can vary from one situation to the next -teens place more emphasis on social virtues such as being friendly, considerate, kind and cooperative -among older adolescents personal and moral values also appear as key themes --as young ppl review their views of themselves to include enduring beliefs and plans, they move toward the unity of self that is central to identity development Changes in self esteem- -teens add several new dimensions of self evaluation - close friendship, romantic appeal, and job competence - to those of middle childhood; self esteem continues to differentiate in teen yrs -though some teens experience temporary declines in self esteem after school transitions, self esteem RISES from mid to late adolescence for most young people , who report feeling especially good about their peer relationships, physical appearance and athletic capabilities -an increasing sense of mastery - feeling competent and in control of ones life - strongly predicted the rise in self esteem -older adolescents are better able to to discount the importance of doing well in areas they feel inadequate -teens who are off time in pubertal dev, drug users, and fail in school feel poorly about themselves -adolescent girls score lower than boys in overall sense of self worth, though difference is slight -girls feel less positively about they physical appearance, athletics skills and less competent in math and science ... BUT girls continue to outscore boys on self esteem dimensions of language arts, close friendship, and social acceptance -authoritative parenting continues to predict stable, favorable self esteem, as does encouragement from teachers -teens w parents who are critical and insulting have highly unstable and low self esteem -peer acceptance can have a protected effect on general self esteem for teens experiencing low parental warmth and approval -teens exposed to highly negative parents tend to rely excessively on peers to affirm self worth - a risk factor for adjustment difficulties

general nature of dating and early sexual experiences, rates of teenage sexual activity, STIs

DATING AND EARLY SEXUAL EXPERIENCES: -AGES: start dating at *13-14* *(girls)* and *14-15* *(boys)* -EARLY DATING: often starts in *groups* -for many, early dating is based on a *superficial intimacy* rather than a genuine closeness -SEXUAL INITIATION: during ages *15-19*, a majority become *sexually active* - CONCERNS ABOUT RISKS AND CONSEQUENCES: --*inconsistent use of protection* and contraception --*adolescents have HIGHEST STI rate of all age groups* - *1 in 5-6* sexually active teens contracts one each year --*614,000 teen pregnancies* in 2010

peak of physical development and health - how this is manifested; body reaching its full form

EARLY ADULTHOOD: TIME OF PEAK PHYSICAL FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH (early 20s): -*Prime of Life concerning physiological development* (bodies are STRONGEST, peak athletic performance) -*Physical strength* generally INCREASES during the 20s, PEAKS around 30, then DECLINES -*Athletic skill* PEAKS between 30&40 -*All body systems function at optimum level* - overall HEALTHY STATE (95% of people in 20s/30s rated healthy ... only 5% said poor / fair) -*Death from disease is RARE*, (mostly accidents) -*Body has reached full form*. *In 20s see*: -->GROWTH in *muscles* -->INCREASES in *fat* -->WEIGHT typically *increases* (women have full breasts developed and men have full muscles) 6-16 F and 8-18 M, age where max height is reached

biological aging - definition, general nature - physical changes of aging, both in functioning of internal body systems (general nature) & physical appearance -

EARLY ADULTHOOD: TIME WHEN BIOLOGICAL AGING BEGINS DURING PEAK - -*Biological Aging* = genetically influenced declines in the functioning of organs and systems that are universal among humans -*General nature of biological aging*: -->Process of decline is ASYNCHRONOUS (different across people, age, and body) -->*Large differences across individuals in rate and course of aging* -->AGING DUE TO MANY FACTORS: --*Genetics* --*Lifestyle choices* (smoking, drinking) --*Living environment* (city with toxins vs urban farm air) --*Historical period* (time periods) -->CAUSES? -Biological aging is the *SUM of MANY CAUSES working on different levels* -Does body *just wear out*? This is an OVERSIMPLIFICATION! (look at some theories in the text...), body taking wear and tear actually HELPS the body and promotes longer life ... PHYSICAL CHANGES OF AGING (20s and 30s): ---*Gradual changes in functioning of internal body systems* - -Examples: --*Heart and Lung* functioning DECLINE (under exertion) --Gradual MUSCLE LOSS and change in MOTOR performance (lose 2% per decade, gradually, if keep up practice) --*Reproductive capacity* DECLINES, especially 35+ ... Women: 30+, Men: 40+ (older ovum and weaker sperm) --Takes LONGER to *adapt and recover* (moving --> sore, losing sleep --> harder as you age = stress!) ---*Changes in physical appearance* (first seen in skin) - -Gradual LOSS of *collagen* (connective skin tissue) - THINNER, less flexible skin, wrinkles, sagging (face, droopy eye, double chin) -*Other parts of body wrinkle and sag* -*Gray hair begins to emerge around 30* - DECREASE in *# of pigment producing cells* - THINNER hair

media and adolescent sexuality from Ward lab findings

FINDINGS FROM WARD LAB RESEARCH TESTING IMPACT OF MEDIA SEXUAL CONTENT ON VIEWERS (SUMMARY SLIDE)- -*Both correlational and experimental data indicate that MEDIA use DOES play a role in shaping student's attitudes about sexual relationships* RELATED TO: -->Holding *stereotypical notions* about female and male sexual roles -->More *traditional gender role attitudes* -->A stronger *acceptance of recreational attitudes about sex* (game-playing, casual) -->*Both exposure AND viewer involvement* (viewing to learn, identification) are important mechanisms -Endorsing these gendered sexual scripts affects sexual health: -->For *men*, linked to *increased # of sexual partners* -For *women*, linked to *diminished sexual agency* -->For *men*, linked to *increased dating aggression* --surveys and experiments... music videos --> affects and beliefs --sexual scripts affect women/men's sexual beliefs (affects and agency)

gender differences in sexual scripts and early sexual experiences

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN EARLY DATING AND SEXUAL EXPERIENCES (larger scripts): -*Male Sexual Scripts*: --*EXPECTED to be interested in SEX*; part of being a man (having sex = manhood, reflection) --*EXPECTED to take the INITIATIVE * --*EXPECTED to focus on WOMEN'S APPEARANCE* --ACCEPTANCE/IDEALIZATION of NON-RELATIONAL SEX* -*Female Sexual Scripts*: --*EXPECTED to be LESS interested in SEX, MORE interested in LOVE and relationships*("good girl" vs "bad girl") (having sex = morality reflection) --*RESPONSIBLE ones and LIMIT-SETTERS* --*LITTLE emphasis on OWN DESIRE; GOAL IS TO BE DESIRABLE* -->How do these scripts affect early sexual experiences? -Boys' first sexual experience = SCORING (achievement) -Girls' first sexual experience often tied to FEELINGS OF LOVE & INTIMACY --gender scripts can be very constraining and narrow

Labouvie-Vief's view of adult cognition - integration of objective, analytic thought and subjective thought

GISELA LABOUVIE-VIEF (*PRAGMATIC THOUGHT*) --*need subjective* parts ... only logic will not arrive at the correct answers -*Employing only traditional models may be maladaptive* (think about intuitions and experiences) -*Subjective feelings and personal experiences must be integrated with objective, analytic thought*

lifestyle factors that affect aging: nature & impact of health & fitness, smoking, and drinking; findings from Schulenberg's work on binge drinking

IMPACT OF LIFESTYLE CHOICES ON HEALTH: SMOKING AND BINGE DRINKING -smoking kills more Americans than alcohol, car accidents, etc.. combined (46 mil smokers in 2009, 20% adults smoke) -->Smoking and its CONSEQUENCES: -*Single biggest contributor to health problems* -Related to *480,000 deaths each year* (CDC) -Approx. *90%* of smokers *start before age 21* -Quitting at ANY POINT can have enormous *health benefits* -->Dynamics of Binge Drinking: -Definitions: --Men: 5 or more drinks in a 2 hour period --Women: 4 or more drinks in a 2 hour period -Prevalence: --Of 17,500 undergrads surveyed, *44% reported being binge drinkers* --2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health - *26.9% of adults engaged in binge drinking in the past month*, *37.9% of college students age 18-22 reported binge drinking in the past month* --> Binge drinking CONSEQUENCES: -frequent binge drinking is an important HEALTH COMPROMISING BEHAVIOR (higher hangovers, miss class, blackout, and do something u regret) -at age 19-24 men peaked and at age 18-24 women peaked for binge drinking -*Patterns* (including work of *Schulenberg* et. al) : --once a binge drinker, always a binge drinker? Do these patterns persist or is this mostly a life-stage issue? --> Work by John Schulenberg and colleagues followed 6,852 youths from age 18 to 24 (have you drank more than 5 drinks consecutively in the last 2 weeks? -- 1-5 times have binged, mean = 2) -->*FINDINGS*: -*Sample means don't tell full story* -*Identified 6 patterns of binge drinking* Other study on binge patterns... -->What distinguished chronic (6.8%) from decreased (11.7%)? --Decreased were more likely to: -Have relatively more concrete plans for the future -Express more dissatisfaction with the present -Express a lower desire to drink and to get drunk

text box p. 333

Identity development among ethnic minority adolescents: --*ethnic identity*: a sense of ethnic group membership and the attitudes, beliefs, and feelings associated with that membership -for teens who are minorities, ethnic identity is central to the quest for identity --*acculturative stress*: psychological distress resulting from conflict between the minority and the host culture -when immigrant parents restrict their teens through fear that assimilation into society will undermine their cultural traditions, teens often rebel and reject aspects of their ethnic background -discrimination can also interfere with forming a + ethnic identity -those with low ethnic pride showed a sharp drop in self esteem -with age many minority young people strengthen their ethnic identity, not all -families that teach teens to disprove stereotypes and teach values and languages and tradition, teens are more likely to develop favorable ethnic identity -interacting w same ethnicity peers is vital -strong secure ethnic identity --> higher self esteem -*bicultural identity:* by exploring and adopting values from both the adolescent's subculture and the dominant culture -- these teens can attain identity in other domains too!

WHAT IS THE NATURE OF ADULT THOUGHT...

LOGICAL, like a scientist --adults more ABSTRACT reasoning, need to consider situational constraints and circumstances --Ex: John and Mary (drinking, leave w kids?) (adolescence in formal operational) -How does thinking change in early adulthood? -dont need to change schema, can nuance reasoning !!

marital roles, traditional vs. egalitarian marriage,

MAKING IT WORK - MARITAL ROLES: *Types of Marriages*: 1. TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE: -clear division of husband's and wife's role -male as head of household, breadwinner -female as caregiver and homemaker 2. EGALITARIAN MARRIAGE: -husband and wife relate as equals -power and authority are shared (between work and home) --more common in same sex marriages Beliefs about marriage QUIZ: --What predicts marital satisfaction? (T or F?) 1. in most marriages having a child improves satisfaction for both partners 2. best single predictor = quality of sex life 3. husband's marital satisfaction lower if wife is employed full time vs when she stays home full time 4. "if spouse loves me, then he/she should know what will make me happy" 5. spouse should love me no matter how I behave 6. maintaining romantic love = key to happiness over the lifespan THESE ARE ALL FALSE STATEMENTS ABOUT MARRIAGE!! ^^^

Kohlberg's 3 broad levels of moral reasoning, how assessed, critiques of his approach & conclusion

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: KOHLBERG -shifts in moral reasoning -chief researcher: Lawrence Kohlberg -hypothetical situations -- what would you do? --> The *Heinz Dilemma* - sick woman dying, overcharged drug needed to live, husband doesn't have enough money to afford it, so he breaks into the store and steals the drug to save her life ... is this moral? Yes or NO? Why?? --> *Focused on reasoning and explanations for moral choices* --> Based on *interviews with 10-16 yr old boys*. He formulated *stages of moral reasoning*. KOHLBERG'S 3 BROAD LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING (6 stages): 1. *Preconventional*: --> *morality is EXTERNALLY controlled and SELF-CENTERED* - *focus on fear of personal punishment or reward* ("should not steal the drug bc he will go to jail", or "should steal drug bc wife will love him") 2. *Conventional*: --> *moral reasoning is guided by LAWS and SOCIAL norms*; society rules are important ("should not steal bc that's what good citizens do") 3. *Postconventional*: --> *moral reasoning is guided by universal ethical / abstract principles* ("although it is wrong to steal, there are times when stealing is okay to save a human life or to promote welfare") --rises after teen years, not many people get to this level --substages 5&6 --*Early adolescence: preconventional* -->conventional for mid-late adolescence --->postconventional comes after teen years CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG'S APPROACH: 1. *Wide variability in moral reasoning across situations - not as neat and stepwise as might assume* 2. *Age biases? Dilemmas too mature*. (young kids may not understand complex scenarios -- if they had used scenarios more relatable to 8 yr olds may have shown better results and this may show more advanced reasoning that kids actually have) . Ex: "Do you violate the rules to save a life?" is complex for young children. 3. *Possible gender bias?* --> *Carol Gilligan* (critic of Kohlberg): --*justice perceptive* (individual rights, principles of justice) does not fully reflect relationships and concerns for others --*female morality* - embedded in human relationships - *ethic of care* = based on harmony, need for compassion, care, (Gilligan explained that this is why women scored lower on Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning) --NO consistent *evidence for sex differences* in reasoning level! --as age increases, humans everywhere (all genders) become more fair and justified with deeper understandings / reasonings

nature of parental sexual communication - impact of parental communication on early sexual behavior - why mixed findings, findings of Widman et al. (2016) meta-analysis

NATURE OF PARENTAL COMMUNICATION ABOUT SEXUALITY -*American parents* typically give *minimal direct, verbal information* -Focus on communication is often on *biology, physical development, sexual safety* -*Minimal discussion of sexual pleasure, sexual feelings* -Approx. *2/3 of young people have talked to their parents about sexuality*. Quantities vary by topic. -*Mothers tend to discuss issues more than fathers* -*Parents tend to believe they were more communicative than children perceive them to be* --EX: Miller, Kotchik : asked teens ... mothers said they discussed topics a lot more than students said they discussed with mom; dad always lower than mom IMPACT OF PARENTAL COMMUNICATION ON EARLY SEXUAL BEHAVIOR: -Expectation is that parental input will be beneficial -REALITY: *mixed results* in the field ! --Some studies find that parent/child communication is associated with a delay of sexual intercourse and safer sex practices --Handful report opposite association. Others report NO EFFECT. *WIDMAN ET. AL (2016) META ANALYSIS*: -Examined 52 studies, 71 effect sizes - impact of communication on safer sex behavior, - average r = .10*, but NOT SIGNIFICANT FOR BOYS, or from dads --mom communication often affects kids, NOT DAD (low correlation). --> Potential reasons behind mixed results: -*Research has viewed parental communication TOO SIMPLISTICALLY* -*Focus on AMOUNT over context* -*Don't consider GENDERED SCRIPTS*

nature of puberty - definition, timing, growth spurt for each sex, major changes in overall body growth

PHYSICAL CHANGES OF PUBERTY - GENERAL NATURE (body + cognition) 1. *Puberty*: the set of biological processes that change the immature child into a sexually mature person 2. *NOT a single event*. Part of a gradual process (over 4-5 years) 3. *Timing*: Girls = ages 10-15, Boys = ages 11.5-17 (boys start later and last longer) --Puberty is occurring EARLIER NOW. Improved health care and diets. (less disease, can gain weight, eliminate starvation) 4. *Growth Patterns*: --Youth progress through events at *different rates*, all generally following the *same sequence* --Characterized by UNEVEN growth (*asynchrony*) - some adult parts, some child OVERALL BODY GROWTH (major changes): -Controlled by INCREASES in *growth hormones and thyroxine* -FIRST outward sign of puberty = *growth spurt*, = *a large increase in size, strength, weight, (add about 50-75 lbs during spurts) -*Girls start spurt EARLIER, often age 10. Lasts about 2.5 years* -*Boys start spurt LATER, around age 12.5, and grow for a longer period of time (12-13in of height gained)* -*REVERSE of cephalocaudal trend* (now feet, legs, and hands grow first, THEN trunk ... why some teens have huge adult shoe sizes bigger than stature) -INCREASE in *appetite* (to maintain rapid body growth) - INCREASE in *size and activity of OIL-PRODUCING GLANDS* --> acne, body odor -See *changes in muscle-fat ratio* --*Girls add MORE fat* than boys (starts age 10 - puberty) --*Boys gain MORE muscle strength* than girls

media and adolescent sexuality from *READING 5* *(Strasburger, 2005)* and from Ward lab findings

READING 5: Strasburger, 2005- "Adolescents, Sex, and the Media: Ooooo, Baby, Baby-a Q & A" --more than 80% of popular teen shows contain appreciable sexual content --media offer "scripts" -American media is the most sexually suggestive --"everyone is doing it" on the media, yet mentions of birth control or condoms are rarely mentioned ... --*there IS a cause and effect relationship between exposure to sexual content and early onset of sexual activity* --many link media usage by teen girls to distorted body self image and suggest link to eating disorder in women --other western countries have a healthier attitude toward sex than the US; american teens get inadequate info on sex, leading to the US having the highest teen pregnancy rate in the Western world --> How does media sexually socialize American youth? ◦*Cultivation Effect Theory*- heavy exposure to media alters a viewer's perception of social reality in a way that matches the media world ◦*Social Cognitive Theory*- vicarious learning, observation, modeling; children learn behavior by observing others directly in real life and vicariously through media ◦*Super-Peer Theory*- TV as an encouraging "super-peer"; media encourages teens more than their friends to have sex --So, media teaches teens about sex and sexuality by influencing perceptions of social behavior, social reality, and shaping cultural norms -Average = 15,000 sexual references on TV ◦Sexual content among top 20 teen shows in 2002: 83% ◦Among shows most watched by teens that have sexual content, percentage of those who also have references to safe sex: 45% -->*Third Person Effect*: teens think that the media affects everyone else but themselves "How much do you think sexual content in the media influences your friends?" ◦A lot: 32% ◦Somewhat: 40% ◦Only a little: 22% ◦Not at all: 6% "How much do you think sexual content in the media influences you?" ◦A lot: 6% ◦Somewhat: 16% ◦Only a little: 28% ◦Not at all: 50% --> What's missing? --Messages about contraception and safe sexual practices. ◦Parents and schools aren't great at covering this area ◦¼ of parents never discussed birth control with their high schoolers ◦10% of schools have NO sex ed ◦30% of those that do are abstinence only, 58% do not mention sexual orientation --Study of pregnant and non-pregnant teenagers: ◦Pregnant girls watched more soap operas prior to pregnancy ◦They believed that their favorite soap opera characters would not use contraceptives

Role of brain development in adolescents' changing thinking - why we see more "what were they thinking" moments - sources of psychosocial immaturity

ROLE OF BRAIN DEVELOPMENT: -changes ... HOW kids get to the new level of reasoning -*Improvements in RATIONAL THINKING fostered by extensive maturation of PREFRONTAL CORTEX* (brain isn't fully developed until about age 20) --areas for *planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks and rewards* --includes *synaptic pruning, myelination, increased connections to other brain parts* -But adolescents still *DO NOT fully resemble adults in their decision-making* -See *MORE risk taking (staying up late before an exam, concert, skateboard)* and *"what were they thinking?"* *moments* ...Why?? -- *Decision making in the real world is the product of BOTH logical reasoning AND psychosocial factors* (e.g., impulse control, handling peer pressure) - these 2 components MATURE AT DIFFERENT RATES --> WHAT DOES THE *PSYCHOSOCIAL IMMATURITY* STEM FROM? -*Gap in the maturation of brain networks* -*Socioemotional networks develop EARLY*- highlight emotion, rewards, sensation, - *seeking, positive interactions* (mature; amygdala) -*cognitive control systems develop LATER and more GRADUALLY*-- responsible for : --*impulse control* --*emotional regulation* --*delay of gratification* --*resistance to peer influence*

sequence for early adulthood - stages, areas of sex differences; nature and role of dream and mentor

SEQUENCE FOR EARLY ADULTHOOD - UNDER Levinson's seasons of life: -->17-22: -*Transition to early adulthood*. -*TASK is to become PSYCHOLOGICALLY INDEPENDENT from parents*. -->22-28: -*Stable phase.* -*Become AUTONOMOUS.* -*Establish SELF in adult world.* -*Work on developing intimacy* -->28-33: -*Age 30 Transition - REEVALUATE life structure* -*can be a crisis if you don't have a partner / other things your friends do at this time* -->33-40: -*Stable phase - "Settling down"* -*CAREER CONSOLIDATION is a major goal* (higher office at work, coach kids' team...) -*Sex differences* --*Men are settling down* --*Often see continued instability for women* (ex: decides to have a baby) TWO ORGANIZING FACTORS: -->1. *Dream* = an image of the self in the adult world that *guides decision making* ("I'm gonna be CEO" --> keeps you motivated now) --Example: Sam, from film "Seniors" - Four Years in Retrospect: --Gender differences: men - career, women - family AND career --Refine and update dreams throughout adulthood (as interests change) -nearly 1/2 of young adults wanna be professionals, only 1/7 do -->2. *Mentor = facilitates realization of the dream - *provides a transition from parent - child relationship to the world of adult peers*. -Men are MORE likely to get mentors and sponsors than women

sexual socialization as a multidimensional process; common sources of sexual communication

SEXUAL SOCIALIZATION: -Definition: *what and how we learn about sexuality and sexual relationships* MULTIDIMENSIONAL PROCESS: -Learning involves MANY issues (touch, consent ...) -Input comes in *different forms* (direct/indirect, clear, ambiguous...) -Input *received across the lifespan* -Information comes from *several sources* -->Most important sources: DOMINANT SOURCES- -*Parents* seems as INITIAL sexuality educators -*Peers, school, media* often cited as MOST IMPORTANT -Source of information *varies by topic* --45% said they learned the most about by sex by friends, then media

ethnic identity - definition - challenges and beneficial outcomes

SPOTLIGHT ON ONE TYPE OF IDENTITY: *ETHNIC IDENTITY* -Definition: *an enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes feelings related to that membership* -ex: Italian culture, Greek heritage etc... makes you different than others -Many people *CONSCIOUSLY confront it for the first time* in adolescence (thinks about what it means for the first time) *Challenges*: -dealing with discrimination against you group -negotiating stereotypes of one's group held by mainstream culture (stereotype threat) -confronting conflicting values between ethnic and mainstream cultures - may develop a bicultural identity (Indian AND American) *Strengths* (beneficial outcomes) - Research Findings: -Having a stronger ethnic identity is linked to: --> *higher self-esteem* --> more *satisfying interactions with family* --> better *academic outcomes* and school performances --> being *less affected by discrimination* experiences --> *greater levels of daily happiness* and *less daily anxiety*

PARENTHOOD PANEL: Transition to Parenthood

STATISTICS ABOUT PARENTHOOD: 1. *70% of couples bear children* (people have smaller families and less kids today, one change over time) 2. *Family size in industrialized nations has declined*. Average # of children per U.S. couple: --in 1950: 3.1 --in 1996: 2.1 --in 2000: 1.8 3. *Having first child at later ages* -->Average age for an American woman to have her first child ... --in 1970: 21.4 yrs --in 2003: 25.1 yrs TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD: -->The decision to have children *Decision affected by a complex set of factors*: -Personal and religious values (culture --> big fam idea?) -Biological and health reasons (ex: kidney disease, you may want to spend more time w person than risk having a kid) -Financial circumstances -Demographics matter, too. BEING OLDER: + and - + Benefits: --higher financial security --higher psychological maturity - Negatives: --fertility related risk --heightened profesional demands (work hours and travel demand) --reduced peer support (fam / friends have already had their kids)

general characteristics of postformal thought - relativism, contradiction, synthesis

SUMMARY OF 3 CENTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POSTFORMAL THOUGHT: (thought does NOT stop after formal operational, it keeps changing in early adulthood..) 1. *Relativism*: awareness of multiple truths 2. *Contradiction*: a basic aspect of reality (a person can be strong *and* weak - we accept this!) 3. *Synthesis*: synthesizing contradictory thoughts, emotions, and experiences into a larger framework --about 70% of hs grads enroll in a 4yr institution

definition of identity - psychosocial conflict of identity achievement vs. identity role confusion - nature of identify formation process and complexities (hierarchical, intersectional, contextual)

TASK #4: IDENTITY FORMATION / CONSOLIDATION -Often seen as *THE major psychological task of adolescence* -*Identity*: a well organized conception of the self made up of values, beliefs and goals to which the individual is solidly committed --> must integrate the various components of one's self understanding into a *coherent whole identity* (like a puzzle --> consolidate identity; coherent whole fit puzzle) -Why identity issues are so important now: --*Realize you are changing* (physically) *and becoming someone else*. Who? *Who am I?* (cog skills are expanding too, can see abstract things and question things. religion? what does it mean to me?) -*Erikson's* notions/perspective about the process and its psychosocial conflicts: --Erikson saw process as driven by an *identity crisis* = a temporary period of confusion and distress experienced while experimenting with alternatives --OUTCOMES: identity achievement vs *identity role confusion* (=failure in identity consolidation - lack of an adult path) -Exploration - more typical NATURE AND COMPLEXITY OF IDENTITY WORK: -->*Nature of Process*: NOT a simple, straightforward process. Takes place gradually over time. Involves exploration and questioning. -->*Complexity of Identity*: (complexities) 1. *Multiple domains of exploration* - not all equally developed (cultural, gendered, political ,...) 2. *Multiple influences* - peers, parents, school activities (sports, drama, art, clubs at school ... not done by yourself!)-- these help adolescents figure out who they are 3. Identities are *hierarchical* - some identities are more important to us than other (Asian, athlete, woman..) 4. Identities are *intersectional* - identities often overlap in meaningful ways - unique identity created at intersection 5. Identity is *contextual* - different environments or situations can highlight specific identities (diff identities are salient in different contexts!)

how striving for autonomy & individuation plays out in adolescence; parent-child conflict, timing, topics

TASK #5: DEVELOPMENT OF AUTONOMY AND INDIVIDUATION (5th universal development task of adolescence, try to be more independent) -*Individuation* = process of becoming an individual, separate emotionally from one's parents. --depend more on yourself with problems, NOT parents --"me make my own decisions" "I wanna be .... different" --bedroom = sanctuary, keep out signs! *Changing parent-child dynamics: An INCREASE in parent-child conflict* - -Often accompanied by an *INCREASE in parent-child conflict* !!! -Conflict is often most FREQUENT in EARLY adolescence (11-12) and most INTENSE in MID-adolescence -Conflicts tend to focus on issues of SELF-DISCIPLINE and SELF-CONTROL - usually involve repeated, petty arguments about cleanliness, leisure time, chores (matters of personal privacy, clean room ... kids want to leave it messy!) -Represent teen's desire for independence

Erikson's psychosocial conflict - intimacy vs. isolation; characteristics of this conflict and of each outcome

THEORIES OF YOUNG ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT (18-40 = early/young adulthood) - 1. *Erikson*: *Psychosocial conflict* of INTIMACY vs ISOLATION --- general patterns --- -Intimacy involves a *mutually satisfying, close relationship with another* (not easy, compromise for couple; represents search for the love experience without losing one's character) -Must *balance needs for independence and intimacy* to develop a mature relationship --*without independence* - define self only in terms of partner, sacrifice self respect and initiative --*without intimacy* - face isolation, loneliness, self absorption -*Positive resolution* = INTIMACY - able to commit to a love relationship and sacrifice and compromise -*Negative resolution* = ISOLATION - involves an inability or failure to achieve mutuality

Levinson's seasons of life -development, structure, and content of theory - life structure, stable periods, transitional phases

THEORIES OF YOUNG ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT (18-40 = early/young adulthood) - 2. *Levinson's Season's of Life*: (17/18 - middle adulthood) --- OVERVIEW OF THEORY: -Based on in-depth interviews of white and black men 35-45 -Also reviewed biographies of famous men -Wrote *Seasons of a Man's Life* (1978) -Using interviews of women aged 35-45, he wrote *Seasons of a Woman's Life* (1996) -->Central concept is the *LIFE STRUCTURE* = the underlying pattern or design of a person's life at a given time - consists of relationships with significant others -Sees *development as a sequence of stable and transitional phases* (contrast) --STABLE: pursue goals, at ease w self --TRANSITIONAL: question one's life and explore new possibilities