Psych 319 Exam 1
Innate motivators
were originally known as instincts. These are NOT "internal motivators". These motivators tend to be biologically in nature - genetically based. - NATURE - Hunger, thirst, tiredness, reproduction (evolutionists think the only motivator that drives everything we do is reproduction)
conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR)
though originally neutral, it developed (by association with the UCS) the ability to elicit a response that Pavlov called the conditioned response (CR). - learning was involved in eliciting the CR by the CS.
Be able to give examples of how to eliminate certain behaviors using classical conditioning. - In class discussion & Pg. 153-54
through desensitizing: extinction or counterconditioning (anxiety female singer)
unconditioned response (UCR)
unlearned nature of this response to the UCS.
Performance Variable
variable for specific tasks that are considered temporary (hunger for rat) -When enough motivation is present, behavior is performed; when motivation is too low, behavior is absent.
Know who Skinner was and his importance to Operant Conditioning. - Pg. 160, 61 and lecture.
- "father" of Operant Conditioning/Behaviorism - conceptualizing of the concept of reinforcement in behavior and motivation (strengthen the response itself, making its occurrence more probable.) - more interested in behavior probability than the motivation he could not measure.
Know Skinners theoretical orientation. - Lecture.
- "pure behaviorist" - He worked mostly with animals in different versions of "Skinner Boxes" - wasn't really interested in motives, he could not scientifically measure that - what he did believe, was that anything could be trained to do just about anything with enough consistent reward
Define and explain Pavlovian Classical Conditioning - Pg. 150
- A formally neutral stimulus gains the ability to elicit a response from an organism because it has been associated with some other stimulus that reliably elicited that response in the past. (his dogs) -UCS paired with CS --> to produce UCR and CR - results from the association of stimuli
Understand from a broad theoretical impact the analysis and details of the Urban Meyer case study. - Lecture and discussion only.
- Analytical group: Social analysis - Script: meyer POV and expectations → since it's his friend and coworker that he'd doubt the wife's story . Outside view → you should always check up on the allegations - Schema: you'd expect people to investigate this in this situation - School of thought: internal and external Making choice of not getting involved Keep things good with friends and coworkers, no need to cause a larger problem than it is Bobo experiment: follow what shown above, Meyer doesn't do anything so everyone else follows in his footsteps (not their place to do anything). Urban and everyone affected by Conformity - Motivations for everyone: meyer → bad PR, bad reputation, friend with other coach so doesn't want to get him in trouble, he's a good coach so just suspend him in order to keep the streak, owed alligencie People around didn't want to get involved → create an enemy, could mess up the relationship, job could be affected Shelley → could cause family problems (he might be the provider, arguing), she wants to be on his side Chemistry of the team will be affected (eg. gymnastics, Me too from the film industry) → don't screw up relationship → lose sponsorship, money, alumni, tv shows The school → The school pays Meyer $65 million a year (65 million reasons to keep this quiet) - Consoling/Punishments: 2 weeks of suspension until further investigation - Better environment: Take matters into your own hands and investigate this situation (don't let it slide), call the police, teaching the team what to look out for, open and safe environment
Modeling process and Retention
- Bandura argued that modeled behavior is stored in both verbal code and an imaginal code. i.e., words and images, smells, music, etc.
Observational Learning (Modeling) and what theoretical orientation it is associated with. - Pg. 172 & Lecture.
- Based in Social Learning Theory - observational learning, or the motivation that drives behavior - social conditions important determiners of behavior Certain individuals may act in certain ways based solely on the influence of others in a group.
Define ethology. - Pgs. 39&40
- Behavior patterns in humans or animals that appear to have innate, or instinctive components. - Eg: Kid suckling (not all babies will suckle) a lot have to be taught
Be able to give examples of Classical Conditioning outside of Pavlov's experiments. - In class discussion.
- EG: when you're hungry and smell steak (UCS) --> salivation (UCR) but when you pair the UCS with the bang of a gong (CS) after a while the two will be associated and after taking away the UCS and just bang the gong you will still get salivation (CR) - today's EG: dog treats for tricks, referee and whistle, work and paycheck, school and diploma, lights and sirens
Know the Evolution of the mind notes given in class.
- Great rift valley is the craddle of human civilization - Paleolithic means stone-tool- making ppl - Stone Hand axe appeared 1.5 million years ago - 6 million years ago human evolution begins - 2 ½ million years ago stone tools emerge = Proteo humans = meat eater = larger brains (there are vegetarian ones that didn't make it) - 60 thousand years modern humans leave africa and they are biologically completely modern - made lots of artifacts and art and behave like modern humans - Over 40 thousand years ago ornamental shell Beads and jewelry making discovered, it was an artistic expression, and a social identifier in social groups - Modern humans improve older tech and pass info down from older to younger generations - Modern humans engage in trade practices with other humanoid groups - Cave art demonstrates first evidence of imagination - Small mutations over tens of thousands of years lead to current biology of the modern human brain - human social complexity can be traced back to the birth of language, without it we lack culture and imagination - kids under 3 cannot see something from someone else's perspective, kids over 5 can - Modern human outhink to overcompete their competitors both human and animals and exercise the ability to deceive - Language window in human is open at birth until age of 7 after which it closes slowly till puberty - Lang requires the needs to be share info with others, it is not dependent on size of the social circle - Syntax is the constraints on lang. that allow us to communicate to form context - ⅔ of all conversations can be gossip or social interaction which helps hold social groups together - Lang is the force that creates human culture - Memes shape minds and cultures - Memes are the forces that drive mental evolution - Memes are ideas that are passed between individuals - Memes are any tool that transcend between humans (can be anything)
Define and explain the Nominal Fallacy. - Pg. 36
- In case of instinct theory, simply naming something an instinct does not explain the behavior (we are just labeling behavior). - instincts genetically encoded but not an instinctual behavior (can be taught) - Reflex behavior but does not always work thus not the same as instinct
Social Analysis
- Individuals and groups behavior will differ based on social settings and scripts and schemas based around those settings. i.e., classroom to bar room. - influenced situational and by the presence of others. - scripts: predetermined behavior by seeing other people do it, specific to a given situation, norms of what you're supposed to do - Schemas: expectation for a given setting/scene
Individual Analysis
- Individuals are given a set of instructions for a given task and achievement is measured. i.e., coaching, or training. - Research conducted on groups to check for behavioral changes due to social cues. i.e., Bandura, Bobo the clown (aggression) experiment. - Observational learning experiment --> Bobo (aggressive group versus nonaggressive group) children either observed adult aggression versus none to the clown - Modeling behavior: children exposed to aggression are more likely to be aggressive (imitate what we see)
Tokens - Pg. 164 & lecture.
- Objects other than money which are used as behavioral reinforcers in any culture to be exchanged for items, or services within that culture - Eg: gambling chips, Food stamps, tickets at Dave and busters, trade economy, panther bucks, cigarettes in prison
symptoms of learned helplessness
- Passivity, or motivational deficit (inability to react to an otherwise - situation_ - Retardation of Learning (Taking longer to learn equivalent task, or skill, or inability to learn at all) - Somatic Effects (Lack of aggressiveness in competitive situations, regardless of importance of the outcome) - decreases over time
Be able to define and explain Counterconditioning, how it breaks the process of association and creates a new one. - Pg. 154
- The process of extinction by which the negative CS is paired with a positive UCS. The negative CS gradually loses its aversiveness by being paired with the positive UCS and no longer being paired with the negative UCS. A new positive CS-UCS motivational relationship has been established. - long process but reintroduces good stimulus
Modeling process and Reproduction
- The stringing together of a correct pattern of responses meant to imitate the desired behavior
Philosophical Analysis
- The understanding of a philosophical state as it relates to motivation may be difficult to test empirically but can be important to seeking a degree of explanation to motivational behaviors. - The philosophical assumption that humans are inherently evil (Freud) driving their motivations, versus inherently good (Maslow) can color our analysis of any motivation and behavior. - Eg: Religion, history, mythology - Different points of view - Maslow = reach Self actualization
Modeling process and Attention
- We observe and imitate models with whom we are in frequent contact. i.e., caregivers, friends, family, role models, and less so those we see less frequently. - The characteristics of the model also influence our attention process. i.e., celebreties.
Define instinct theory . - Pg. 36
- an instinct: genetically programmed bit of behavior that occurs when circumstances are appropriate and requires no learning of behavior, REFLEX. - Eg: spiders making a web - gave rise to evolutionary psychology --> Evolution taught them, ones that survived = passed down the better webs, ones that don't = death
Law of Effect and why it is important to Operant Conditioning. - Pg. 160 & lecture.
- argued that the consequences of a response strengthen the connection between that response and some stimulus in the environment. - forerunner of our present concept of reinforcement. --> lead to the thinking of operant conditioning - author is Thorndike
Define and explain Extinction. - Pg. 150
- classical conditioning is NOT A PERMANENT CONDITION thus if a UCS is taken away for too long, the CR will no longer happen
Conditioned Reinforcement. - Pg. 163
- control responding because they have been associated with primary reinforcers in the past. - Eg: the hot pan on the stove, money no longer becomes important aka to be a monk, nun, you're rich, Edmond in prison, Working, Babies, Sleep with good health
How can motivation be measured? - Pgs. 5&6
- depravation (take something away) - activation (production of behavior, overt behavior and persistence) - independent, dependent, confounding - intervening and performance variable
Learned Helplessness. - Pgs. 169 - 172 & Lecture.
- disturbance in motivation, cognitive processes and emotionality as a result of previously experienced uncontrollability on the part of the organism. - Eg: Edmond in prison-gave up hope, Saudi Ariba girls, victims of bullying (can go either way), learned helplessness academia (can go either way), abuse victims
Define what learned aversions are. - Pg. 156
- emphasizes the motivational nature of the learned behaviors. -Are a food related behavior motive driven by a strong negative reaction to a paired food.
The concept of motivation can best be viewed as: - Pg. 4
- forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior. - More intense behaviors = higher level of motivations - A highly motivated behavior will often be persistent even though the intensity may be low. -Driving motivational force is reproduction motivation everything else is cultural motivation
Primary reinforcement. - Pg. 163
- increase a response because of their very nature (unlearned reinforcers such as food, water, sex, avoidance of pain, and so on) - innate, natural, or unlearned - baseline needs
Define Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning. - Pg. 160
- the process of motivation through the reinforcement of appropriate responses. - occurs as a consequence of a response. - Not permeant on humans or other cognitive animals - EG: Chimps. --> The consistent process of reinforcing/rewarding the behavior strengthens the motivations to continue, or improve the behavior.
Bandura, his theoretical orientation and what experiment he is famous for. - Pg. 172 & Lecture.
- late 20th Century Social Psychologist (Contemporary) - considered a driving force behind the development of modern social learning theory - Human ability to learn through modeling is vast, and allows us to build behavior patterns without trial and error. - We learn to be motivated by objects in our environment and emotional responses to situations through modeling. - observed behaviors are stored symbolically, then retrieved at a later time to help motivate certain behaviors. - It was our ability to represent events symbolically that allow us to predict behavior outcomes and alter our behavior accordingly. - human can regulate their own behaviors from within. - We reinforce ourselves with internal reward and punishment increasing our performance through our own internal motivators. - We use the performance of those around us along with the memories of our past performances and the reactions of observers to determine the standards of reinforcement. - bobo the clown experiment
Define and give an example latent learning. - Pg. 163
- learning in the absence of any reinforcement. - Eg: one group of rats was reinforced with food for learning to traverse a maze, while a second group received nothing. The nonreinforced group appeared to learn little. When food was later provided at the end of the maze, however, the performance of the nonreinforced group quickly matched that of the group that had been rewarded throughout CONCLUSION: the nonreinforced rats had learned the maze but were not inclined to demonstrate this learning until there was some motivation. - EG: brushing teeth, things that are habitual, lucky charms, SUPERSITION, believing in high being (religion) - Skinner wouldn't be able to prove this (wouldn't agree with this theory)
Be able to describe the role of evolution as a motivator. - Pgs. 25&26
- need for procreation within a species (primary operating principle). - natural selection through viability, fertility, and fecundity. - mating rituals
Be able to give three examples of what can cause learned aversions other than food. - Power point lecture.
- overindulgence - alcohol or drugs (changes in brain chemistry) - biochemical like allergies (gluten) - pregnancy (it changes what you like to eat) - chemotherapy (changes/kills taste buds)
Explain anthropomorphism. - Pg. 38
- the attribution of human characteristics to objects or animals - EG: Disney animation - Europeans and eastern people are proto-humans (interbreeding, we carry some if their genes) thus they would NOT go under anthropomorphism
Physiological Analysis
- the biological functions of the individual during various behavior states. - Brain and nervous system manipulation and inspection began in 1950's using electricity. - Later, less invasive techniques were used. i.e., MRI, CAT, PET & EEG to observe biology in real time. - Analyzing behaviors and motivations - Started as Dr. Frankenstein way of looking at the brain - Now look at the living brain during action - What's happening in the grey matter of our brain
Token Economy - Pg. 164 & lecture.
- the economy part - controlling unruly and inappropriate behavior
Understand the concepts of "Quantity, Quality and Contrasts of Reinforcement. - Pgs. 161-163 & lecture.
- types of reinforcement: money, cars, food, partying, luxury house, graduating - This is where skinner comes short (because cognitive beings are different from one another) - Motivations are social and situational - More important for humans than animals - More enforcements = more motivation - Crepsi's Experiment: In contrasting reinforcement, animals previously given the highest level of reinforcement, switched to a medium level of reinforcement, performed the worst of all (negative contrast) as opposed to the group that had received the least reinforcement switching to a medium level, whose performance increased (positive contrast).
Be able to give examples of situations where you could apply counterconditioning to alter a particular behavior. - In class discussion.
Child trauma, anxiety patients
Acquired motivators
are learned and commonly known as "incentive motivators". - EG: money → learned we have more money we can get more things (loose concept), power, killing people to get their stuff (GOT), recognition , awards, trophies, jealousy, love (concept we describe for a feeling we've learned, nature doesn't feel love)
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers. - Pg. 163, 64
gains its reinforcing properties from the several primary reinforcements with which it has been paired. - somewhat indep of any individual 1º reinforcer and strengthen or maintain behavior for longer period of time - Eg: Money, knowledge
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
indicate that its effect on behavior was unlearned or automatic.
Intervening Variable
link stimulus to response (hunger and love for cheese) and helps relate the two - We can only infer the existence of motivation by observing changes in the relationships bet/ stimulus conditions and responses.
Idiographic approach
looks at groups and determines how they are different, or unique (geography, race)
Nomothetic approach
looks at groups and determines how they are similar. i.e., physically, biologically, genetically, culturally, etc. - (within groups there are subgroups) - EG: college students, at chapman, sorority, frats, age, athletes, (within groups there are subgroups)
predisposition, experiences, learned factors, and interpretation are how motivations come to be.
motivational point of view
Internal motivation theory
postulates that diff. motive states can be conceptualized as "needs". These needs when active, promote behaviors to reduce needs. i.e., physical, emotional, or psychological. - Cognitively in nature, a choice - fear of failure, need to not let someone down (emotional good feeling that you did this), want to be like someone --> envy, need to belong (social network)
Mechanistic approach
states behaviors are controlled automatically as a reaction to changes in internal, or external states. i.e., hunger, thirst, or sex. - Neuro-reactionary. - a reaction (hand on the hot stove)
External motivation theory
states that motivational sources provided by goal objects in the environment drive differing behaviors. - EG: degrees, careers/job status (doctors), marriage (satisfy being loved and starting a family)
Cognitive approach
suggests the manner in which information is interpreted influences our motive states. i.e., fear of failure to task completion. - anything we think about that drives our behavior - we HAVE to think about it
