PSYCH-336 Chapter 15

15.1.1 Self-Concepts and Self-Esteem

1. Both self-concepts and self-esteem tend to undergo changes as adolescents mature and think more deeply about themselves than they did as younger children.

15.3.5. Are the Kids Alright?

1.) (MADICS), which collected data on diverse areas of psychological functioning for adolescents living in Prince George county, chosen because it was the home of sizeable numbers of middle-class African American and European American families and because it contained urban, suburban, and rural neighborhoods. a.) The study is rare in being able to address the question of whether African American and European American students attending the same schools, and living in the same neighborhoods, show similar or different developmental pathways through adolescence. The study also looked at gender and SES differences in adolescent development (Gutman, Peck, Malanchuk, Sameroff, & Eccles, 2017).

15.3.1 Adolescent-Parent Relationships

1.) A common belief in the United States is that adolescents break away from their parents in order to form deeper relationships with friends and romantic others. Although this happens to some extent, parents continue to influence socioemotional development throughout adolescence.

Cont

1.) A third limitation pertains to Kohlberg's assumption that moral reasoning leads to moral behavior. Researchers have found some associations between moral reasoning stage and behavior, particularly at the higher moral stages (Gibbs, 2010). a.) At stage 5 they are more likely to not engage in petty theft vs stage 3 and 4 people's actions don't align with their morals 2.) A fourth criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it is incomplete because it is based on judgments about fairness and justice and ignores the fact that most moral dilemmas involve an individual deciding whether to engage in prosocial behavior (helping or taking care of others) when these actions might be costly to him/herself a.) preschoolers and young elementary school-age children tend to think about their own needs and desires (attending the party) and ignore another person's needs. Thinking about others' needs increases in middle childhood but declines slightly in early adolescence. i.) Contrary to Kohlberg's stage theory, adolescents use multiple types of prosocial reasoning at a given age level. -For example, an adolescent might appeal to both guilt and sympathy toward another person's perspective (Killen & Smetana, 2015).

15.2.3 Culture and Moral Development

1.) According to SOCIAL DOMAIN THEORY, children as young as 3 distinguish moral issues from issues concerned with social convention and slightly older children identify a third domain: personal choice (Smetana et al., 2012). a.) The moral/social-conventional/personal choice distinction is made by children and adolescents all over the world living in a variety of socioeconomic circumstances 2.) Individuals generally don't differ as much across cultures on moral issues as they do on social-conventional and personal choice issues. a.) In most cultures, children and adolescents view violations of moral issues as more serious than violations of social conventions. However, cultures differ widely on what is regarded as social-conventional or personal. i.) Among non-Muslims in the United States, wearing a head scarf, or a khimar, is seen as a personal fashion choice, whereas in traditional Islamic societies, it is a social-conventional, or in some cases a moral, issue. 3.) In Western societies, the primary source of moral authority is the individual, whereas in many Eastern cultures, the community or social group—and one's obligations to that group—is the primary basis for moral decision making. Still a third method of determining moral authority is reliance on divine authority, as manifested through religious texts (such as the Bible, Koran, and Torah) or spiritual leaders (Jensen, 2008).

Online Peer Interaction

1.) Adolescents spend about three hours a day on their mobile phone, and a typical teen sends and receives 30 texts a day, although the range is quite large a.) Coyne, Padilla-Walker, & Holmgren, 2018 i.) texting and use of social media peaked at about the age of 16 to 17 and decreased slightly at age 18, suggesting that mid-adolescence may be a prime period for online interaction with peers ii.) Rather than being addicted to social media, one researcher characterized it differently—teens are addicted to each other (Boyd, 2014). 2.) Social media use has risks for adolescents, including exposure to CYBERBULLING a.) cyberbullying has similar consequences to face-to-face bullying (such as increased anxiety and depression, school disengagement, and suicidal ideation) and can compound effects of school bullying b.) Shapka, Onditi, Collie, & Lapidot-Lefler, 2018 i.) Cell phones were in the country of Tanzania in 2017 ii.) Yet researchers found that Tanzanian teens engaged in cyberbullying at a similar rate to Canadian teens. The results also illustrate that cyberbullying is found in a variety of cultures. According to the authors of the study, methods of helping adolescents develop positive relationships online are needed to reduce the temptation to cyberbully 3.) Another negative feature of social media platforms such as Instagram and Facebook is that teens can scroll through carefully curated portrayals of their friends' best moments. This has the potential to create loneliness, depression, and jealousy. a.) Lehnhart 2015 i.) 53 percent of adolescents reported seeing social media posts about events to which they had not been invited, and 21 percent admitted to feeling worse about themselves because of what their friends had posted on social media b.) the amount of time adolescent girls spent viewing friends' profiles was positively correlated with depression symptoms, although the direction of causality is, of course, uncertain (Frison & Eggermount, 2015). The long-term effects of "lurking" on social media, particularly for teens with a tendency toward depression, are unknown at present (Underwood et al., 2018). 4.) experiences on social media, most teens report that they enjoy social media tremendously and that by and large their experiences are positive a.) Face-to-face and online prosocial behavior was positively correlated, indicating that people with tendencies to be prosocial expressed them both offline and online (Wright & Li, 2011).

Cont

1.) Adolescents who are more religious show lower levels of internalizing problems—such as anxiety, depression, and suicidal thinking—and externalizing problems—such as delinquency and substance abuse 2.) adolescent religiosity is associated with greater life satisfaction and a stronger sense of commitment and purpose in life 3.) raising the issue of whether it is religious involvement per se or other correlated factors that lead to more positive outcomes. a.) adolescents are more likely than non-religious adolescents to have a close relationship with their parents and other adults or are more likely to be involved in social networks of peers who are also high in religious involvement. Hence, these adolescents may be less exposed to the influence of peers who engage in experimentation with alcohol, drugs, and early sexual activity b.) religious educators and clergy talk about moral issues, which may help adolescents apply moral thinking to their everyday lives, and religious organizations give adolescents concrete ways to act on prosocial and moral impulses, such as volunteer community service

Popularity

1.) Beginning in middle childhood, children can distinguish between likeability or acceptance and perceived popularity. a.) popularity in girls is associated with being fashionable, attractive, and sociable as well as mean, rude, and snobby, whereas popularity in boys is associated with being cool, athletic, entertaining, and a risk taker (Closson, 2009). 2.) Beginning in middle school and continuing at least into mid-adolescence, popular individuals appear to fall into two subgroups. Some popular children rely more on PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR to gain social status, and some rely on a COMBINATION OF PROSOCIAL AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR. a.) Popularity is linked with both physical and relational aggression, although the use of relational aggression is more common among girls b.) High school students who are high in popularity tend to engage in proactive aggression (strategic, planful, and goal-oriented), whereas students who are low in popularity engage in more reactive aggression, which is impulsive, and derived from frustration (Prinstein & Cillessen, 2003).

Cliques and Crowds

1.) Cliques are small, exclusive groups of friends and acquaintances, containing around 3-10 members and generally resemble one another in SES, family background, ethnicity, moral and social values, and school achievement a.) have a fairly strict hierarchy and reinforce group norms with comments and occasional teasing or even verbal rebukes b.) The overall developmental function of the clique is similar to parent-child or sibling attachment in that the clique provides a secure base and active social support for its members (Brechwald & Prinstein, 2011). c.) In mid-adolescence, single-sex cliques become mixed-sex, and romantic couples sometimes form within the group (Connolly, Craig, Goldberg, & Pepler, 2004) d.) Individuals may have several cliques, including cliques in school, in after-school activities, and in the neighborhood. Cliques maintain similarity among group members by similar processes to those discussed in the section on friendships (selection, exclusion and peer influence) (Ellis & Zarbatany, 2017). 2.) A second type of peer influence occurs within a larger group known as the CROWD, which often contains several cliques, friendship pairs, and solo individuals. a.) Crowds are reputation-based. Common types of crowds found in high schools are "brains," "populars," "jocks," "burnouts" (disengaged with school and/or engaging in deviant behavior), and "normals" (a large group of teens who are average in popularity and school achievement) b.) The exact identity of the crowd depends on the size and ethnic composition of the school. Small high schools often do not subdivide into reputation-based crowds because the entire student body within a given age range, such as juniors and seniors, constitutes the crowd. In a school that has roughly equal-sized ethnic groups, there might be Asian American, African American, Latino, and white crowds (Brown & Larson, 2009). In schools with very small numbers of certain ethnic minorities, these individuals may be more integrated into other groups (Brown, Herman, Hamm, & Heck, 2008). The developmental function of the crowd is less clear than that of the clique. Well-defined crowds are most common in large, demographically diverse high schools, which suggests that they may help adolescents feel a sense of community and identity.

Marcia's Identity Status Framework

1.) Erikson provided rich clinical observations to support his ideas, but no formal research methods for investigating identity. 2.) James Marcia developed a questionnaire method to study the processes of exploration and commitment. Depending on whether they said they engaged in exploration or commitment, individuals could be assigned to one of four possible identity statuses: IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT, (exploration and commitment, IDENTITY MORATORIUM (exploration without commitment), IDENTITY FORCLOSURE (commitment without prior exploration), and IDENTITY DIFFUSION (no exploration or commitment) a.) Each aspect of identity involves separate processes of exploration and commitment, and they do not develop in synchrony. i.) For example, individuals might simply accept their parents' religious beliefs without considering alternatives (foreclosure), but might have actively explored various vocations and decided on a major in college (identity achievement). 3.) Marcia's framework has lead to several key findings for educational and occupational identity: a.) There is no strong evidence for a typical sequence of development. Individuals may move into identity achievement from any of the other categories, and about 15 percent of people move to a less-advantageous status over time (for example, from identity achievement to moratorium) b.) There is a steady decrease with age in the percentage of people in the diffusion category and a steady increase in the percentage in the identity achievement category, but the largest increase in identity achievement doesn't occur until the late 20s and early 30s c.) People in identity achievement generally show better psychological adjustment, less delinquent behavior, and better school performance and tend to have a warmer family environment than people in the moratorium and diffusion status (Meeus, 2011; Meeus et al., 2012). d.) Comparisons of identity achievement with foreclosure have not revealed consistent differences in self-esteem, anxiety, or other aspects of psychological adjustment (Schwartz, Donnellan, Ravert, Luyckx, & Zamboanga, 2013). Studies of adults reveal that about 20 percent are in foreclosure with regard to various aspects of identity (such as career, religious beliefs, and political affiliation) (Côté, 2009). i.) Identity diffusion is highest at 13-15; moratorium highest at 19-20; achievement highest at 30+

Erikson's Identity vs Role Confusion Stage

1.) Erikson theorized that the major psychosocial task of adolescence was constructing a sense of identity a.) Erikson thought this process involved an identity crisis in which individuals either achieved a sense of identity or remained confused about their adult roles. i.) Failure to resolve the identity crisis led to difficulties at the next stage of development, in which the key issue was forming an intimate relationship versus remaining isolated and alone. 2.) Erikson did not believe that the identity crisis had to be sudden or severe but that adolescents needed to become engaged in two processes: EXPLORATION and COMMITMENT a.) e.g., an occupational identity crisis might involve exploring one's areas of strength and weakness, talking to people from different occupations to gauge one's interest in that type of work, and committing to a program of study to prepare for that career (Côté, 2009).

Development of Romantic Experiences

1.) For heterosexual, North American adolescents (on whom the bulk of research has been done), same-sex cliques are often the initial environment in which to discuss and explore romantic and sexual thoughts, emotions, and fantasies. a.) Teens in mixed-sex cliques attend dances and parties or simply hang out in school or after-school environments, such as movie theaters and local fast-food restaurants. In these contexts, they can meet potential romantic or sexual partners (Connolly et al., 2004; Furman & Rose, 2015). 2.) Romantic relationships become more common across adolescence. According to a national survey, 42 percent of 8th graders, 60 percent of 10th graders, and 64 percent of 12th graders said they were "dating" (Child Trends Databank, 2015). a.) The majority of these relationships in 8th and 10th graders tend to last less than a year (Carver, Joyner, & Udry, 2003). By ages 17 to 18, many teens report longer-term relationships (Shulman, Davila, & Shachar-Shapira, 2011). b.) This general developmental pattern has been found across ethnic groups in the United States. However, African American youth tend to form slightly longer-lasting relationships, and Latino and Asian American youth begin to date and form couples later in adolescence than other ethnic groups 3.) There is some variation in the sequence and timing of romantic experiences (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009). a.) analyzed the trajectory of romantic experiences reported by a large multiethnic group of Canadian adolescents followed longitudinally. They identified three subgroups: EARLY STARTERS (21.4%), ON-TIME (52.3%), AND LATE BLOOMERS (26.4%) i.) EARLY STARTERS (21.4 percent of the sample) did not show the expected progression in romantic activities (such as socializing in mixed-gender groups, group dating, and dating couples) but instead moved to the highest developmental level (dating couples) in early adolescence. Unfortunately, many of their early relationships were short-lived. ii.) In contrast, LATE-BLOOMERS (26.4 percent) did not begin to group-date or to form couples until later in adolescence. iii.) Only the ON-TIME subgroup (52.3 percent) showed the expected developmental progression. 4.) A generation ago, many individuals began to form couples and move toward marriage in their early to mid-20s, but today's emerging adults are taking longer to reach these milestones. a.) median age of first marriage reported in the census has been rising steadily since the 1970s for both sexes (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017). b.) many emerging adults engage in short-term casual romantic experiences or non-committed relationships, and some cease dating at all for periods of time. This may be because emerging adults are pursuing many life tasks simultaneously. i.) When interviewed, the majority of people in their 20s state that they feel unable to commit to a long-term romantic relationship until some of these life tasks are settled (Shulman & Connolly, 2013). 5.) The number of LGB youth reporting that they have same-sex romantic relationships is larger than it was a decade ago. However, many LGB youth report having opposite-sex relationships as well as same-sex relationships. Such relationships may be a way of hiding their same-sex attraction or exploring their sexual identity (Russell, Watson, & Muraco, 2012). a.) Sexual behavior in adolescence is not necessarily predictive of sexual orientation in adulthood—many sexual minority women report that their sexual attractions, behavior, and identity change between adolescence and early adulthood

Cont

1.) Having a strong ethnic-racial identity and positive feelings toward one's group are associated with psychologically adaptive outcomes in members of all ethnic-racial groups. These outcomes include social competence, self-esteem, academic achievement, and more resilience in the face of ethnic-racial discrimination 2.) However, not all adolescents achieve a clear sense of their own ethnic identity at the end of the high school years a.) 26 percent of Latino students, 39 percent of Asian American students, and 55 percent of African American students reached stage 3. Substantial numbers of adolescents were foreclosed, meaning that they had adopted an ethnic identity at an early age without questioning it b.) Studies indicate that ethnic identity exploration continues in the college years and that active participation in ethnically relevant activities is associated with psychological well-being c.) study of sixth to ninth graders, about half of the students showed increases in ethnic identification over time, but about one-third of the sample showed no change or declining levels of ethnic identification

15.1.2 Identity Development

1.) IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT: refers to the process in which an individual integrates personal characteristics (such as self-concepts) with a set of values and a set of future goals.

Cont

1.) In general, strong ethnic socialization efforts by parents are associated with adolescents' greater ethnic knowledge, more positive attitudes toward their ethnicity, and greater exploration of ethnic identity 2.) the immigrant parents of U.S.-born youth encouraged their children to explore their ethnic identity, whereas U.S.-born youth with U.S.-born parents initiated their own explorations of ethnic identity 3.) Adolescents who interact with peers of the same ethnic-racial background tend to have stronger and more positive ethnic identities 4.) bidirectional influences between diverse friendships and ethnic-racial identity occur 5.) The ethnic composition of the school can influence both peer interaction and social identity processes, such as the tendency to view oneself as a distinct ethnic group. Adolescents who are a minority within their school (for example, a mixed-ethnicity school with only 15 percent African American students) are more likely to engage in ethnic identity exploration, whereas those who are a majority in their school (for example, a predominantly African American school) may be delayed in engaging in identity exploration

15.3.3 The Peer Network

1.) In group settings, teens typically form into cliques and crowds and maintain their membership in the cliques by communicating with other members in both face-to-face and electronically mediated contexts.

15.2.4 Religion in Adolescence

1.) Interest in the religious lives of adolescents is expanding rapidly due to links researchers have found between religious involvement and positive developmental outcomes a.) ages 13-17, 84% believe in God and 50% attended religious service twice or more a month and 80% were Christian 2.) A belief in God held steady across adolescence but that attendance at religious services declined, reaching a low point in late adolescence and emerging adulthood. Lower religious attendance may be due to factors beyond religious beliefs, such as a desire to be independent of parents (and perhaps their beliefs) and the occurrence of significant life events such as moving away from home, attending college, and getting a job 3.) Christian, Jewish, and Muslim adolescents had their religions' traditions connected to their faith on the basis of beliefs (in God or in sacred texts), participation in services and religious traditions, commitment to religious principles (such as helping unfortunate people and pursuing peace), and personal relationships (with parents, friends, and religious leaders). a.) younger adolescents relied on more concrete ties to their religion (through personal relationships and following rules) and older adolescents on abstract ties (with God or with the community of past and future believers) 4.) A developmental systems approach to religious involvement is determined by Exposure to organized religious teaching (such as attending religious services regularly or going to a religious school), being a member of a family that talks about religious issues frequently, having parents who attend services regularly, and having parents who are not divorced are all factors that predict higher involvement in religious activities in adolescents and emerging adults a.) higher religious involvement of blacks, Latinos, and Asian Americans compared with whites

15.2.2 Contemporary Research on Moral Development

1.) Kohlberg's characterization of children under 12 as being bound primarily by a preconventional morality based on rewards and punishments (stages 1 and 2) is most likely an underestimate of the moral thinking of young children 2.) when children were given a chance to decide whether laws were "good or bad," they distinguished between moral issues (such as harm, equality, fairness, and rights) and social-conventional issues (what is considered proper behavior by adults or society in general, such as following authority and not lying) (Helwig & Jasiobedska, 2001). 3.) Turiel (2010) asserts that Kohlberg's dilemmas put moral values in conflict with each other and with social-conventional values, making it difficult for preadolescents to respond in a coherent fashion. This may be why they fall back on a simpler set of rules (preconventional morality). 4.) During adolescence, individuals become increasingly able to weigh different moral demands in complex situations (Nucci & Turiel, 2009), which helps explain why adolescents and adults make more mature moral arguments than younger children. 5.) A second criticism attacks Kohlberg's claim that individuals at a variety of age levels use the same type of moral reasoning in dealing with all issues (Colby & Kohlberg, 1987). a.) Researchers have found that different contexts call for different types of moral judgment 6.) Basic business transactions are guided by a stage 2 morality of instrumental exchange (goods and services are exchanged for a fair price). The institution of marriage is based on stage 3 moral thinking in which two individuals make mutual personal commitments. The legal system is guided by stage 4 morality, based on maintaining the social order. There may indeed be a developmental progression from stages 1 through 4, as many researchers have found, but once all four types of thinking have been acquired, selection of the type of reasoning depends in part on the context of the situation (Krebs & Denton, 2005).

Developmental Changes in Adolescent-Parent Relationships

1.) Larson, Richards, Moneta, Holmbeck, & Duckett, 1996 a.) The results of cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses revealed that teens spent increasingly less time with parents from 10 to 18 years of age a.) However, the amount of time teens spent alone with parents was fairly constant across grades -father was the lowest b.) When the teens came home from school in a negative mood, they reported feeling better if their mothers or fathers were responsive and sensitive (listening when they're distressed). If their parents were unavailable or unresponsive, the teens reported feeling worse i.) The study demonstrates that parents continue to help their children develop emotion regulation skills in adolescence. 2.) Granic, Hollenstein, Dishion, & Patterson, 2003 a.) found that conflict between mothers and adolescents follows a U-shaped developmental function in which the frequency of arguments peaks in early and middle adolescence and declines in late adolescence (but arguments are more intense) a.) Most arguments concern everyday issues, such as clothing, bedroom cleanliness, homework, curfew, and so on. The chief impetus for the arguments is the teen's desire to renegotiate his/her position in the direction of greater control over the daily schedule and personal choices (Hawk, Keijsers, Hale, & Meeus, 2009). i.) Parents might regard something such as staying up late and texting with friends as a health matter that falls under parental jurisdiction, but teens often see this as a matter of personal choice (Laursen & Collins, 2009). 3.) Conflict during adolescence may actually serve to strengthen parent-adolescent relationships if it provides a means of communicating interpersonal issues and personal concerns that merit attention (Laursen & Collins, 2009). a.) By late adolescence, most teens recognize parental authority in matters involving morals, health and safety, and social conventions (such as politeness), and most parents have granted more independence to teens in matters of personal choice (Smetana & Villalobos, 2009). b.) Moreover, a psychologically controlling style is linked to later externalizing and internalizing problems in adolescents (Van Petegem, Soenens, Vansteenkiste, & Beyers, 2015).

Cont

1.) Miller & Bersoff, 1992 a.) Participants were asked to choose either a JUSTICE BASED RESPONSE (not stealing the train ticket, even though Ben would be letting his best friend down) or an INTERPERSONAL RESPONSE (stealing the train ticket in order to deliver the rings to his best friend). b.) Adolescents from India in all three age groups were far more likely than American participants to choose the interpersonal responses over the justice-based responses for 7th graders i.) When participants from India chose the interpersonal response, they typically said it was the morally right thing to do. In contrast, when Americans chose the interpersonal option, they usually viewed it as a personal choice. For more extreme moral violations (for example, stealing both the ticket and the money), participants from India shifted in the direction of justice-based responses but still preferred the interpersonal responses.

Influences of Friends on Social and Emotional Development

1.) On the positive side, friends and friendship networks can help adolescents understand other people's emotions, social roles, and perspectives and influence social competence and psychological well-being (for instance, happiness and life satisfaction) a.) Friends can also help teens deal with stressful times, such as the transition to high school, or stressful situations, like dealing with insults or bullying from peers b.) Associating with academically high-achieving peers has been shown to increase the grades of students followed longitudinally (Rambaran et al., 2017). c.) friends provide support and companionship as adolescents explore new aspects of themselves in the quest to form a personal identity (Waldrip, 2008). 2.) Co-rumination occurs when two friends continually remind each other of a problem that one or both are having. a.) more common among adolescent female friends than male friends and is associated with depressive symptoms in both members of the friendship 3.) Dishion, Spracklen, Andrews, & Patterson, 1996 a.) DEVIANCY TRAINING is the way in which antisocial peers increasingly reinforce each other during their conversations for deviant comments and behavior a.) It's so powerful that it confounded attempts to reduce delinquent behavior in several intervention studies. The problem was that the interventions brought antisocial youth together in groups, allowing deviancy training to occur and leading to increases in delinquent behavior 4.) peer violence was positively related to boys' delinquency over time. However, there was a stronger relationship when parental monitoring was low (Henneberger, Durkee, Truong, Atkins, & Tolan, 2013).

Cont

1.) Preadolescents tended to give level I responses, and most people made a steady progression to stage 3 and 4 reasoning in adolescence. The number of people providing stage 4 responses continued to increase into adulthood. Only 10 percent of the participants moved beyond stage 4, attaining stage 5 sometime in their 20s. 2.) most people move through stages 1 to 4 by adulthood, but stage 5 reasoning is rare outside Western democracies, and stage 6 reasoning is almost nonexistent a.) Examples of people who exemplify stage 6 thinking exist historically, however, such as Mahatma Gandhi, Corrie ten Boom, and Martin Luther King Jr. 3.) Kohlberg thought cognitive development was the foundation of moral development but that opportunities to engage in MORAL DISCUSSIONS WITH PARENTS OR PEERS were an important source of changes in moral thinking. Researchers found that parents who engaged in such discussions with their adolescents tended to have teens with more advanced moral reasoning a.) parents by having discussions in which both parent and adolescent expressed their point of view and friends by having heated arguments about moral issues. The findings suggest that parents and peers contribute to moral development in different ways (Walker, Hennig, & Krettenauer, 2000).

Normative Changes in Friendships

1.) Teens spend less time with the family as adolescence progresses and spend more time with their friends a.) Adolescents continue to value qualities in friends that they valued in middle childhood, such as being fun, having similar interests, and being loyal. i.) In addition, interviews with teens reveal that they value confiding in their friends, giving and receiving emotional support, and achieving mutual understanding of each other's feelings, attitudes, and beliefs (Smetana & Villalobos, 2009). 2.) In early adolescence, friendships are relatively exclusive, as they were in late middle childhood. However, adolescents increasingly accept their friends' needs to form relationships with other people, perhaps because of their own desire for independence from their parents (Rubin, Bukowski, & Bowker, 2015). a.) At the same time, friends serve as a support system for each other as adolescents seek to establish autonomy from parents and a sense of identity (Bokhurst, Sumter, & Westenberg, 2010; Bornstein, Jager, & Steinberg, 2011). 3.) Adolescent friends are more similar than non-friends on a variety of characteristics, including prosocial and antisocial behavior, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, peer acceptance and popularity, and academic achievement. a.) friends select similar peers as friends, avoid dissimilar peers, and tend to influence one another to become more similar 4.) Hafen, Laursen, Burk, Kerr, & Stattin, 2011 a.) they looked back at the characteristics of both members of the new-friend pair a year before they became friends. b.) They found that the new friends were already more similar to each other on overt behaviors such as delinquency and alcohol misuse, but not on attitudinal measures such as achievement motivation and self-esteem. c.) The findings suggest that reputations within the peer group, which are based on overt behaviors, were the strongest predictors of which teens became friends 5.) four main mechanisms by which friends influence, or socialize one another to become more similar over time: REWARDS, EMULATION, PEER PRESSURE, & COMPROMISE a.) many friendships break up when teens grow apart on factors such as peer acceptance, school competence, physical aggression, and other traits (Hartl, Laursen, & Cillessen, 2015).

Results of the MADICS Study

1.) The key idea from the MADICS study is that stable, supportive, middle-class families whose teenagers attend typical American public schools provide a secure context for keeping adolescents on track developmentally. There are minor bumps in the road, such as early adolescent parent-child relationships, and mid- to late-adolescent experimentation with substances, but given a supportive environment, most adolescents are resilient. 2.) Though we have discussed circumstances where development goes seriously off track, this most often occurs when there are multiple risk factors, both genetic and environmental, 3.) An important caution that must always be made with longitudinal studies is the possibility of cohort effects. a.) Most indicators in the last decade point to improving mental and physical health among adolescents, including lowered rates of smoking, more participation in physical activity, better diets, fewer teen pregnancies, more teens finishing high school, and more going to college. The major concern at present is for teens from all ethnic-racial groups living in low-income urban and rural families, who enter middle and high school at a disadvantage in key areas such as executive function, language, literacy, and mathematics and have more environmental stressors in their home environments and neighborhoods 4.) Scarce research and public policy resources should be directed at understanding the risk and protective factors found among young people from low-income families, and helping these young people succeed at the key developmental tasks of adolescence.

Factors Affecting Romantic Relationship Quality

1.) The quality of romantic relationships is influenced by parental, friend, and peer relationships in adolescence and emerging adulthood (Furman, 2018). a.) secure working model of the parent-child relationship would provide a foundation for later friendships as well as romantic relationships by influencing children's expectancies of MUTUAL TRUST and RECIPROCITY in relationships and by fostering empathy toward others (Furman & Collins, 2009). b.) secure attachments in childhood are associated with the quality of romantic relationships in adolescence and early adulthood i.) Supportive relationships with parents during adolescence are also related to the degree of closeness and intimacy in the romantic relationships of early adulthood 2.) Authoritative and autonomy-supportive parenting in adolescence (for example, flexible control, emotional connectedness, and respect for the teen's autonomy and privacy) is associated with a higher degree of intimacy in late-adolescent romantic relationship 3.)negative experiences within the family, such as conflict, divorce, poor communication between parent and teen, and experience of family stress, have all been associated with poor romantic relationship outcomes or early and less psychologically healthy romantic relationships a.) parents who used a high degree of psychological control (for example, use of guilt and love withdrawal) to manipulate their children at age 13 tended to have adolescents who were less competent in peer relationships at ages 13 and 18, and these differences combined to undermine the quality of romantic relationships at age 18 (Oudekerk, Allen, Hessel, & Molloy, 2015). 4.) Friends sometimes provide models of successful romantic relationships, support for the teen's own exploration of dating and relationship formation, and comfort when a relationship breaks up (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009) a.) teens who have secure relationships with close friends tend to become emerging adults capable of resolving conflict and engaging in collaborative tasks with romantic partners 5.) attachment security at ages 1 to 2, peer competence at ages 6 to 8, and the quality of parent-child interaction at age 13 predicted the quality of romantic relationships at ages 20 to 21. Although these earlier predictors were important, the success of romantic experiences in adolescence was also an important predictor of higher-quality romantic relationships at ages 20 to 21 (Madsen & Collins, 2011).

Description of the MADICS Study

1.) The two main assumptions of the resilience framework are that young people need to develop certain personal qualities (such as high self-esteem and high educational aspirations) and rely on environmental resources (such as supportive parents and peers) to help them overcome risk factors, such as opportunities to abuse substances. 2.) The two main assumptions of the positive youth development framework are that people working with adolescents need to identify personal strengths in each person and guide the young person in accessing developmental assets in the environment, such as mentors and coaches. 3.) Risk Factors: poor psychological well-being; high levels of racial/ethnic discrimination; engage in problem behaviors (drinking); experiences with controlling and negative parent-adolescent relationships; friends engage in risky behavior 4.) Protective/Promotive Factors: good psychological well-being; developing a positive racial/ethnic identity; hold high educational/occupational expectations and educational aspirations; possess positive academic self-beliefs, values, and motivations; positive parent and peer relationships, communication, and support 3 and 4 lead into 5 5.) Six Key Developmental Tasks: develop high self-esteem, healthy emotional functioning, and resilience (or grit); develop strong racial/ethnic identity and cope with discrimination; develop good academic expectations and functioning; minimize problem behaviors; develop autonomy plus positive parent-child relationships; develop close and supportive relationships with peers 6.) Study began in grade 7 and ended in age 20; sample consisted of 60% AA and 30% European Americans a.) Families were mostly middle class in which AA families had lower average incomes and education compared to that of European Americans

Influences of Adolescent-Parent Relationships on Social and Emotional Development

1.) children of authoritative, autonomy-supporting parents fare better in academic achievement, social skills, self-esteem, independence, and self-regulation than children of highly controlling parents (who intrude on children's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors) (Grolnick & Pomerantz, 2009; Grusec, Chaparro, Johnston, & Sherman, 2013). This continues to be the case in adolescence a.) Cheung, Pomerantz, Wang, & Qu, 2016 i.) asked 13 y.o. to rate their parents on how frequently they engaged in controlling parenting and autonomy-supportive parenting ii.) Children who said their parents frequently supported their autonomy performed well on a challenging cognitive task in the laboratory and had higher grades and stronger emotional functioning 6 months after the initial interview. In contrast, children who said their parents frequently engaged in controlling practices performed more poorly on the cognitive task and had poorer emotional functioning. -This was equally true for samples of teens in both the United States and China, in keeping with past studies that found the relationship of controlling and autonomy-supportive parenting with child outcome variables was similar in the United States and China (Pomerantz & Wang, 2009). iii.) Chinese and U.S. parenting have been thought to be grounded in different worldviews (individualism versus collectivism), the findings either indicate that worldviews are not all that different in today's world, or that the issue of control versus autonomy is a core issue for the adult-teen relationship in many cultures 2.) harsh, controlling parenting is associated with externalizing problems for adolescents with an undercontrolled personality type but with internalizing problems for adolescents with an overcontrolled personality type, relative to adolescents with a resilient personality type 3.) McElhaney, Allen, Stephenson, & Hare, 2009 a.) Researchers use the term attachment style to refer to the quality of attachments to parents from adolescence through adulthood. Three styles that have emerged consistently from research are i.) SECURE: The adolescent uses parent as a secure base. ii.) INSECURE-DISMISSING: The adolescent tends to idealize the attachment figure or devalue their relationship (parallel to insecure-avoidant). iii.) INSECURE-PREOCCUPIED The adolescent is confused or angry about the attachment relationship (parallel to insecure-ambivalent). b.) Adolescents with a secure attachment have better abilities to negotiate and resolve disagreements with their friends and higher social competence with peers and adults outside the family (McElhaney et al., 2009). i.) adolescents in one study reported they could fill some of their attachment needs with other people, such as friends and romantic partners. They relied on parents mainly as someone they could always count on (secure base) (Markiewicz, Lawford, Doyle, & Haggart, 2006).

15.2.1 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning

1.) constructed an influential theory of moral development based on Piaget's initial ideas and He proposed that advances in cognitive ability led to a universal series of stages in moral thinking. 2.) Based on their response and the justifications they gave, Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development, with two substages at each level. a.) At level I (PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY), moral reasoning focused on avoiding punishment (stage 1) or gaining rewards (stage 2). Kohlberg labeled this the preconventional level because judgments were not yet based on rules that govern social interactions within society. b.) At level II (CONVENTIONAL MORALITY), moral judgment is based on conformity to the social expectations of others (stage 3) or conformity to the laws of the land (stage 4) c.) At level III (POSTCONVETIONAL MORALITY), moral reasoning moves beyond social approval or social conventions to consider abstract principles pertaining to human rights (such as life, liberty, freedom of speech). Moral thinking is based on the idea of a social contract that is agreed upon by the group to serve the needs of society (stage 5), or it is based on universal ethical principles that go beyond the laws of any particular society or religion (stage 6).

Late Adolescence

1.) most older adolescents (17 and 18) can form an integrated view of themselves, and as a result, they no longer see conflicting statements about themselves as contradictory a.) e.g., "I am introverted with my date and extroverted with my friends, which means I am adaptive" or "I want my parents to let me make my own decisions, but I still feel that I need their help to make really important decisions such as where to go to college" 2.) By ages 17 to 18, adolescents are also less concerned about the opinions of their peers. They are interested in developing their own personal beliefs, values, and moral standards, which sets the stage for working out issues of identity, such as occupational and ethnic identity a.) adolescents function better when they have help from adults because they are only beginning to think about these personal issues and need guidance and support 3.) Self-esteem tends to rise in late adolescence for many adolescents and remains fairly high in early adulthood i.) one explanation is that is that older adolescents are better at downplaying the importance of domains of self-esteem in which they do not feel successful. Many have "found their niche"; in other words, they've begun putting effort into areas of greater perceived talent and are beginning to feel a sense of mastery

Processes of Identity Development

1.) only 21.5 percent of individuals were classified as identity achieved at the end of adolescence (ages 19 to 20), and by ages 30-36, half of people are identity achievement (Kroger et al., 2010) a.) Identity achievement occurs in adulthood because of economic and social changes, various life tasks—such as deciding on a career, forming an adult romantic relationship, and starting a family—have become more complicated and are taking longer to attain than they did several decades ago. i.) Researcher Jeffery Arnett proposed that the period from age 18 to the mid-20s is actually a distinct developmental period, called EMERGING ADULTHOOD—a period of transition from adolescence to adulthood that shares some features traditionally associated with adolescence (exploration of multiple career and lifestyle possibilities) and some features generally associated with adulthood (trying to live independently of one's parents) (Arnett, 2000, 2007). 2.) studies conducted in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Finland with adolescents and young adults have expanded Marcia's framework to focus on the process of identity development (Crocetti, 2017) a.) proposes that adolescents and emerging adults experience two cycles of exploration and commitment i.) In the first cycle, the individual engages in EXPLORATION IN BREADTH and COMMITMENT MAKING (similar to Marcia's two original dimensions) in areas such as educational and occupational goals. -Exploration in breadth means that the individual is talking to others about, reading about, and taking courses in stated areas of interest. ii.) In the second cycle, people experience EXPLORATION IN DEPTH—in which they carefully consider a commitment they have already made (perhaps by taking an internship, taking advanced courses, or seeking out more focused training)—and move on to IDENTIFICATION WITH COMMITMENT, which involves integrating their commitments into an overall sense of identity. iii.) first cycle of exploration and commitment usually occurred in adolescence and was associated with higher self-esteem. The second cycle tended to occur in emerging adulthood. iv) Exploration in depth and identification with commitment were associated with self-esteem in the college years and among people who were employed full-time. v.) The psychosocially least healthy individuals in the studies were either still exploring in breadth in college and beyond, were in diffusion, or were engaged in a type of ruminative exploration where they kept revisiting the same career goals without making any progress 3.) important practical implication of this work is that high school counselors should encourage exploration in breadth and temporary commitments, whereas college counselors should encourage exploration in depth (for example, taking on an internship or working on a research project in a field of interest). Counselors at both age levels who detect ruminative exploration or diffusion can encourage students to explore one alternative in depth.

Early and Middle Adolescence

1.) self-concepts of children prior to adolescence become more realistic, based on comparisons of themselves with their peers, and that children can have positive or negative self-evaluations in different domains, such as scholastic competence and athletic competence 2.) Adolescents become more self-reflective, and are capable of more abstract and complex concepts about the self. a.) Initially these contradictions don't seem to bother young adolescents, but by ages 14 to 16, they are actively trying to integrate these self-observed traits into a consistent portrait of the self. -Adolescents may have different responses to different social situations, which complicate their understanding of themselves. i.) can create feelings of internal conflict, confusion, and distress for some adolescents, leading to a decline in self-esteem 3.) In addition to having multiple, contradictory self-concepts, adolescents at 12 to 15 years of age can be hard on themselves. a.) They are able to envision an ideal self, and they are prone to feelings of low self-esteem if their real (or perceived) self falls short of the ideal. i.) Typically each person has a few areas that are of greatest importance to self-esteem (e.g., the star athlete values athletic performance, whereas the class clown values social skills). -young adolescents' self-evaluations change frequently based on input from people they know 4.) Zimmerman et al. 1997 a.) about one-third of a sample of adolescents who were followed from 6th to 10th grades showed declines in self-esteem (based on questionnaire data). The rest of the sample had high-stable, moderate-stable, or moderate and rising levels of self-esteem i.) the reactions and opinions of classmates in school affect adolescents' perceptions of their actual self and thus weigh more heavily in their overall self-esteem in early to mid-adolescence than was the case in middle childhood. -Adolescents who perceive low peer evaluations in an area that they value tend to have lower self-esteem because the gap between their ideal self and actual self has increased (Harter, Waters, & Whitesell, 1998). -e.g., boys and girls often regard physical appearance and social acceptance as crucial to their self-esteem, particularly in middle adolescence. If peers evaluate them negatively in these areas, self-esteem tends to suffer. -early-maturing girls seem to be the most affected, as their body image may not fit the American ideal of slimness (Shapka & Keating, 2005) -drop in self-esteem due to body-image issues is more prevalent among white than black girls, however, as many African Americans regard being slightly overweight as more desirable than being underweight

15.1.3 Ethnic-Racial Identity

2.) 1.) ethnicity and race are two separate concepts a.) Race refers to physical characteristics (such as skin color) and ethnicity to cultural background, nationality, religion, language, and social practices that distinguish one group from other. i.) will blend ethnicity and race together into a single construct called ethnic-racial identity. The rationale for blending the concepts is that the process of developing an ethnic or a racial identity is very similar, and the achievement of a mature ethnic or racial identity has similar consequences for psychological adaptation (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014). 2.) Ethnic-racial identity is a multidimensional concept that includes the attitudes and beliefs people have about the meaning of their ethnic-racial group memberships a.) Jean Phinney (1990) proposed that ethnic identity develops in three stages, and the process appears largely similar for racial identity i.) Stage 1: UNEXAMINED ETHNIC IDENTITY: In this stage, children and young adolescents haven't yet reflected on what it means to be in a particular ethnic group. They tend to prefer the values of the majority culture to the values of their minority culture. They generally go along with what their parents and other members of their ethnic group do—in terms of religion, language, food, and other customs—and don't reflect on the differences between their culture and the majority culture. ii.) Stage 2: ETHNIC IDENTITY SEARCH: Some adolescents remain in stage 1 but experience rejection or humiliation on the basis of their ethnicity or race. These experiences help individuals realize that the values of the majority culture differ dramatically from those of their own group. After such experiences, adolescents often engage in more active exploration of what it means to belong to their ethnic-racial group and may become involved in activities that promote ethnic-racial pride and expose them more intensely to the values, beliefs, and customs of their group. iii.) Stage 3: ETHNIC IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT: individuals resolve the conflict between their ethnic-racial identity and the majority culture and acquire a reasonably secure ethnic-racial identity. They may identify primarily with their ethnic group (common in African American and Native American adolescents), or they may have a bicultural identity (common in Latino and Asian American groups).