PSYCH CH 13

percentage of sexually active teens that used a condom at last intercourse

59.1 percent in 2013 American teens still need to improve their consistency in using condoms to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

Eating disorders occur in about

8 percent of adolescent females and 5 percent of adolescent males in the United States. tends to be more common in whites and bulimia more common among Hispanics

findings of Laurence stein berg study of behavioral aspect of dual systems model from data on risk taking impulse control

900 participants ages 8 to 30. They found that self-ratings of the tendency to take risks peaked at ages 12 to 15, whereas self-ratings of impulse control did not approach adult levels until ages 18 to 22 males rated themselves as more vulnerable to risk-taking and less able to control impulses over a longer period of development in adolescence than females

how do the hormonal changes of puberty begin in middle childhood?

At about 8 years of age, the pituitary gland signals the adrenal gland to begin producing higher levels of androgens.

eating disorder treatment

but family-based therapies, in which the individual's family is enlisted in efforts to monitor food intake and to help repair fractured family relationships, show some success change the thin-body ideal among young teens as a preventative measure for anorexia, using verbal, written, and role-playing exercises in which teens critique the ideal of thinness

Origins of eating disorders

combination of genetic, neurological, and behavioral vulnerabilities that interact with the social environment to increase risk. Neuroimaging studies have identified a number of abnormalities in brain activation in anorexia and bulimia (for example, in appetite regulation, emotional regulation, and impulse control),

girls in the United States and other economically developed countries have been experiencing menarche at ____ ages during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

earlier ages

During adolescence, connections within networks are ______ and _____

extended and strengthened, presumably due to the growth and myelination of long axonal fibers

study findings on youth who identifies themselves as "mostly or completely heterosexual," "mostly heterosexual or bisexual," or "mostly or completely homosexual."

few females identified as primarily homosexual over the age period studied, but the percentage identifying as mostly heterosexual or bisexual tripled the majority of sexual-minority youth are bisexual, rather than exclusively homosexual, but that males are more likely to adopt an exclusively homosexual orientation than females.

Sexual attraction appears to be more ______ among women than men

fluid

cyber ball study

game of "catch" with two anonymous players. They manipulated whether a participant was included or excluded by the other game players. Adolescents ages 11 to 16 reported feeling depressed mood and heightened anxiety during the exclusion condition relative to adults ( The exclusion condition of Cyberball activated areas of the social brain network differently in adolescents than in adult brains of adolescents are particularly sensitive to peer acceptance or exclusion, in keeping with their strong behavioral and emotional responses to peers

what are one of the best predictors of a girls pubertal timing

genetics. the age at which her mother attained various pubertal milestones.

Few adolescents met the exercise goals through

physical education classes at school, and this became even less likely as they advanced in grade level

important factors in teen pregnancy

poverty, poor educational system, poor economic opportunities for families, crime-ridden neighborhoods, conflict within the family, low levels of parental involvement, and early initiation of sexual activity by the teen combine to increase the likelihood of pregnancy.

comprehensive sex-education

programs that not only provide information about contraception, STDs, and pregnancy but also teach adolescents how to refuse unwanted sex and avoid unintended sex, increase their motivation to engage in safe sex, and change perceptions about peer norms and attitudes

abstinence-only sex education

promoted by some political leaders and religious institutions because of a concern that teaching adolescents about condoms and other forms of contraception sends a message that premarital sex is morally acceptable. A movement in the 1990s involved teens taking a "virginity pledge," a promise to abstain from sex until marriage.

binge eating disorder

recurrent eating binges and feelings of shame, but they do not purge and hence are frequently overweight

pituitary gland

releases luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and growth hormone

Experimental studies of sleep deprivation in teens and adults and longitudinal studies in children and teens indicate

restricted amounts of sleep lead to reductions in alertness, attentiveness, executive functioning, and higher-level reasoning

the percentage of high school students who had used some method to prevent pregnancy

risen from 83.5 percent in 1991 to 86.3 percent in 2013

Another study that conducted detailed analyses of friendship networks found that

same-sex attracted youth were better off socially in a larger and more ethnically diverse high school than in a smaller, predominantly white high school

ovaries and testes

secrete sex hormones

adrenal gland

secretes hormones and stimulate ovaries and testes

late-maturing boys are more likely to lack

self-confidence, more prone to anxiety and depression, lower average grades in school, ] consume alcohol more frequently than early-maturing boys over the course of the adolescent years

follow-ups of school-based virginity pledge programs found

sexual behavior of pledgers did not differ from peers who did not take pledges over a two-year span.' five years out, more than 80 percent of the pledge group denied ever having taken a pledge

adolescents acquire nearly half of new reported cases of

sexually transmitted infections (STIs) each year.

Carrera Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Program

"helps teens develop personal goals and the desire for a productive future, in addition to developing their sexual literacy and educating them about the consequences of sexual activity. All participants had free health care and received physical exams, STI testing, and contraception and sexual health counseling. At the end of the third year, the Carrera group females had fewer pregnancies and births than the control group and were more likely to be using a hormonal contraceptive. Educational outcomes and college readiness were also superior on some measures in the Carrera group

link between adolescent behavior, particularly risk-taking behavior, and brain development.

According to the dual systems model, maturation of one system, the reward network, in early adolescence leads individuals to seek novelty, reward, and intense stimulation. the executive control network does not fully mature until late adolescence. As a result, adolescents may find it difficult to dampen their urges for sensation-seeking and risk-taking in the early to mid-teens

what are the perceptions of power in dynamic sexual relationships

Males appear to have more power, in keeping with a pervasive cultural script in the United States that casts males as the initiators and females as the gatekeepers

age shift in parental reports of sleep habits for children and teens of various ages

More than half of 15- to 17-year-olds slept seven hours or less (National Sleep Foundation, 2014). However, when teens are allowed to sleep as much as they want over several nights in the laboratory, they appear to need just as much sleep as younger children (about nine hours per night)

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Promotes secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

how sleep mechanisms shift in adolescence

The circadian cycle may lengthen slightly in response to the hormones of puberty, or it may become less sensitive to morning or evening light The homeostatic drive for sleep also appears to change, possibly due to the influx of pubertal hormones or to changes in brain activity in early adolescence Adolescents don't accumulate sleep pressure as rapidly as younger children, and they discharge it more slowly during sleep, resulting in later bedtimes and greater sleepiness in the morning

reasons why sexually active adolescents are particularly vulnerable to STIs

They are more likely to have multiple sexual partners for short durations. They don't use protection against STIs consistently (both condoms and microcidal vaginal gels must be used for maximum effect). They engage in oral sex more often than intercourse, and many are unaware that oral sex can be a significant mode of transmission of chlamydia, gonorrhea, and herpes. They may have less access to health care or be embarrassed to ask for it, allowing infections to go untreated.

downside of early puberty in boys

a greater likelihood of becoming involved in early sexual activity, smoking, drinking, drug experimentation, and delinquency

Gonadotrpoin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

a releasing hormone responsible for the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary.

homeostatic drive for sleep

a system in the brain that increases the individual's need for sleep as a function of the number of waking hours creates increasing pressure to fall asleep.

enviornmental factors that play a role in puberty triggers

achievement of sufficient body weight as well as a sufficient body fat-to-body weight ratio are both important in females (

adrenarche

activation of the adrenal glands in late middle childhood and initial development of secondary sexual characteristics and sexual attraction

why do many people say that their first crush occurred at around ages 8 - 10

activation of the adrenal glands that is signaled by your pituitary gland in late middle childhood

behavioral and social factors affect sleep patterns

adolescents have more autonomy and hence more control over when they go to sleep. They are more likely than younger children to use electronic devices at night many teens start school earlier as they move from middle school to high school. One study found that the rise of melatonin in the evening was delayed by 30 minutes in teens that made a transition from an 8:25 AM start time in ninth grade to a 7:20 AM start time in 10th grade

slow decliners

adolescents who show heightened sensation seeking reward into there 20's showed greater increases in the use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana across the high school years, taking into account their initial levels of sensation-seeking, impulsivity, and substance use in early adolescence

early-maturing boys tend to be ________

advantaged. They often fit the cultural masculine ideal of being strong, tall, and muscular. In addition, generally more successful in athletics than on-time or later-maturing boys, early growth spurt gives them greater speed, muscular strength, and endurance. more self-confident and more popular among peers

he most common reason teens gave for not having sex

against their religious or moral codes or that they hadn't found the right partner yet. Additionally, many females expressed a concern about unwanted pregnancy

monozygotic (identical) twins (both male pairs and female pairs) have more similar

ages of puberty onset than dizygotic (fraternal) twins of the same sex

pattern of sexual maturation in boys

begins with enlargement of the testes and changes in the color and texture of the scrotum. The penis begins to enlarge; pubic hair and underarm hair emerge as well Growth of the larynx and vocal cords leads to a deepening of the voice, These external changes are accompanied by maturation of the seminal vesicles and prostate gland. The boy's first ejaculation, called spermarche, occurs at an average age of 13 ½

exual-minority youth are two to three times more likely to

commit suicide than heterosexual youth Some gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals (particularly those who are openly nonconforming to gender stereotypes) are verbally harassed and physically attacked by peers and even by family members

Heavier marijuana use in adolescence may

damage the developing brain, as indicated by studies finding an association between heavy use and alterations in the white matter structure of the brain persistent use beginning in adolescence is also linked to reduced neuropsychological functioning on a broad range of measures in adulthood, controlling for years of education

Since 1990, the teen pregnancy rate in the United States_________ from about 12 percent to 6 percent of the population of teenage girls

declined due to an increased number of adolescents (males and females) waiting to have sexual intercourse as well as more frequent use of contraceptives teen birthrate in the United States is higher than those of most other developed countries, including Canada, Sweden, and the United Kingdom

medical and psychiatric complications that result from starvation

dehydration, kidney failure, electrolyte imbalance, and alterations in brain activity and structure. Approximately 20 percent of victims continue to restrict their diets, about half develop other psychological disorders such as depression, and about 5 to 10 percent die, either from effects of the disorder or suicide

Teens who communicate openly with a parent about a relationship with a significant other and about their responsibilities as sexually active people tend to

delay sexual activity by at least a year Those who have weaker relationships with their parents are more likely to engage in early sex (before age 15) or with multiple partners

puberty and sexual maturation in girls who engage in vigorous sports is

delayed because they lack the energy reserves to devote to childbearing

limbic system

detect rewards and threats in the external environment and to activate a response in other regions of the brain. connects to a set of brain areas called the reward network individuals on the verge of adulthood need to seek natural rewards critical to survival and reproduction, such as food, water, warmth, social companions, and sexual partners

Early maturation may initiate a _______ that leads to behavior problems.

developmental cascade First, early-maturing girls tend to attract the attention of, older males they turn expose them to opportunities for risky or rebellious behavior. Second, from a brain and cognitive development stance, these girls have mature bodies, sexual impulses, and emotions without the mature ability to control impulses in making decisions about sexual behavior Third, . Early-maturing girls tend to be shorter and heavier than later-maturing girls by age 15 or 16 report having a poor body image. A poor body image may lead to other problems, such as eating disorders or low self-esteem form of higher incidence of depression; greater difficulty establishing close, high-quality relationships with friends and family; greater alcohol abuse; and lower educational attainment

What do gonads produce?

dramatically higher levels of the sex hormones, including androgens (male hormones) and estrogens (female hormones).

characteristics that affect development of adolescent sexual relationships

history of impulsive or delinquent behavior and low educational aspirations) social experiences (such as coping with parental divorce, living with a single parent or stepparent, being economically disadvantaged, and using alcohol and drugs)

how are levels of both androgen and estrogen monitored

hypothalamus in a feedback loop and the entire system -hypothalamus, pituitary and gonads- HPG axis

reasons for delayed puberty in female

if the female's weight or nutritional profile drops below levels that make childbearing possible When the environment is stressful and the girl has adequate body reserves, the girl's best chance of passing on her genes is to bear a child right away before the situation deteriorates any further—

How can information on the risks of STIs in adolescents be used in preventative efforts

if they focus on multiple levels of the environment. For example, interventions that simultaneously target increases in family communication about STIs, better student knowledge of STIs, and more informed attitudes among the peer network (such as attitudes about the risks of oral sex) may be more effective than those that focus on one level of the environment at a time

possible preventative strategies of substance abuse

improve parent-child relationships in early and middle childhood, Increase parental involvement in school and other activities, and help preteens learn effective methods of coping with stress and peer pressure.

factors may account for the large decline in the age of menarche from the 1800s to the mid-1900s,

improved nutrition and reduced effects of disease . Hence, it makes sense that the decline would have leveled off in the mid-twentieth century in developed nations because levels of malnutrition and disease have stabilized.

executive control network"

includes areas of the prefrontal cortex and other specific regions within the frontal and parietal lobes that work together to help individuals make decisions.

"reward network

involved in processing pleasurable or rewarding stimuli.

social network

involves subcortical structures, such as the amygdala, that respond to emotions and social stimuli and communicate back and forth with other brain structures located in the temporal, parietal, and prefrontal cortex.

hypothalamus produces

kisspeptin, a signaling hormone which stimulates gonadotropin-releasing hormone

Teen mothers generally interact ________ successfully with their babies and can be punitive or neglecting as parents.

less

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language executive functions controlling impulses weighing risks against rewards

developmental cascade of development of substance abuse

more likely to have been aggressive and uncooperative with parents in early childhood and may have also experienced coercive or lax parenting. In school, their high levels of aggression alienate them from positive peers, and they gravitate to deviant peer groups that model and reinforce consumption of alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs, and provide access to these substances

n adolescence, synaptic pruning and myelination are _____ in the prefrontal Cortex

most active

Early puberty for girls is consistently associated with ______ outcomes

negative Early-maturing girls tend to have a more negative body image than their on-time or late-maturing peers and are more likely to be depressed, show a drop in school performance, engage in early sexual activity, and act out by smoking cigarettes and abusing alcohol and drugs

One influential study of sexual-minority youth ages 21 to 25 found that

negative outcomes such as substance abuse, unprotected sex, depression, and suicide attempts were far more common among individuals whose sexual preferences were rejected or disapproved of by their families than individuals who experienced familial acceptance. Latino males had the highest rate of family rejection overall

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Longitudinal studies reveal that occasional use of alcohol or drugs is

not associated with significant psychological or behavioral problems

adolescents with poor sleep quality are more likely to be

obese, to have poor emotional regulation, and to engage in risky behavior such as substance abuse

strongest predictors of early puberty in females

obesity, high levels of chronic family stress, maternal-child conflict in early childhood, and father absence

bulimia nervosa

occurring in about 1.3 percent of adolescent females and 0.5 percent of adolescent males) that is characterized by recurrent episodes in which the individual loses control and goes on eating binges Afterward, the individual feels guilty or ashamed and uses laxatives or induces vomiting to prevent weight gain People with bulimia are similar to those with anorexia in that self-evaluations are based on body image

anorexia nervosa

occurs in about 1.8 percent of adolescent females and a substantially smaller number of males. a severely restrict their eating and often become emaciated but frequently continue to believe that they are unattractively overweight,

gonads

ovaries and testes

Girls at risk for early pregnancy often have

ow school achievement, aggressive behavior, and associate with deviant peers

Peer influence has been found to be

stronger among teens who lack adequate communication with their parents about sexual behaviors or the use of contraceptives

high activity in the reward network makes young adolescents particularly _____ to addictive substances, such as, ....

susceptible to nicotine, alcohol, cocaine, and amphetamines, which mimic the action of dopamine and other neurotransmitters in the brain

Children born to teen mothers are more likely than children born to older mothers to become

teen mothers or fathers themselves

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

circadian timing system

the brain's biological clock in the hypothalamus that governs the sleep/wake cycle It makes us sleepy at night by increasing levels of the hormone melatonin rapidly as bedtime approaches. Levels drop to zero by morning and stay there during the daytime.

menarche

the first menstruation, occurs relatively late in the pubertal process, after much of the gain in height and weight has been attained. Average ages of menarche are 12.6 to 12.9 12.6 to 12.9 (white girls), 12.1 to 12.2 (black girls), 12.2 to 12.3 (Latina girls)

ways to increase the amount of exercise adolescents get,

video games (often thought of as the antithesis of physical activity) could be put to good use. Teens who played 30 minutes of Wii tennis against a competitor expended a similar number of calories to teens who played regular tennis,

four prominent sets of changes in adolescent brain

the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the refinement of neural networks, the development of the social brain, and the development of the limbic system

puberty

the period during which the sexual organs mature, by considering hormonal changes, the adolescent growth spurt, and the development of sexual characteristics as well as the psychological impact of early and late puberty.

gondarche

the process during which chemical signals from the body and neural signals in the brain stimulate the hypothalamus to release a signaling molecule, kisspeptin, which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce a range of hormones that activate the gonads (the testes of the male and the ovaries of the female)

One study found that adolescents were more likely to engage in sexual intercourse if they perceived

their peers had engaged in sexual intercourse and had gained social status as a consequence A perception that peers participate in and condone oral sex is also one of the strongest predictors of whether teens report engaging in oral sex

gray matter in many areas of the brain _____ rapidly in early adolescence

thins and then more slowly until reaching adult levels in the early 20s.

binge drinking risks

traffic accidents, early sexual activity, and violent behavior, including rape

evaluation conducted in four school districts in different states that moved school start times from 7:30 or 8:00 to 8:30 AM found that

tudents in these schools (compared to comparable schools with earlier start times) had fewer driving accidents and higher academic performance and reported less depression and less use of alcohol and other illegal substances

The first signs of puberty in girls

typically the budding of the breasts and the growth spurt, followed by pubic hair development, although for about one-third of females, the first sign is pubic hair growth . Menarche

Adolescents showed a greater response in the ______ to rewards such as winning money In a gem compared to younger or older participants

ventral striatum

There is strong evidence from animal research and suggestive evidence from human studies that the adolescent brain is more

vulnerable to alcohol abuse that at any other time in development, making it important that prevention efforts be increase Heightened responses in the reward network of the brain may contribute to this vulnerability

STIs have more health consequences for

women and potentially for their newborn babies