Psych Chapter 6

contingencies

"then-if" statements such as "If I run outside without shoes, they I get a cut on my foot."

ratio; interval

A _____ schedule is one in which a reinforcement is presented after a consistent and predictable number of occurrences. In contrast, a _____ schedule is one in which a reinforcement is presented in a consistent and predictable manner after a prescribed amount of time. -variable-ratio; variable-interval -ratio; interval -variable-interval; variable-ratio -interval; ratio

a mental diagram of a physical environment

A cognitive map is MOST similar to: -a mental hierarchy of information stored in long-term memory. -a problem-solving strategy. -learning strategies that focus on associative learning. -a mental diagram of a physical environment.

Learning

A family brings home a quiet puppy that does not bark when a doorbell is rung. Over the course of the next several days, visitors ring the doorbell upon arrival. The puppy is thrilled by the arrival of visitors. Now, the doorbell rings and the puppy barks excitedly. A psychologist would interpret this change in the puppy's behavior as: -shaping. -aggression. -generalization. -learning.

in the presence of his children, verbalizing which study strategies he has found most helpful.

Hector is a father and a college student. Hector wants his children to be accountable and diligent students. Psychologists who embrace the theories of Bandura would likely suggest that Hector study: -while his children are doing their homework, verbalizing how difficult college can be. -in the presence of his children, verbalizing which study strategies he has found most helpful. -only when his children are playing so they are distracted. -after his children go bed so that they do not realize how challenging college can be.

neutral stimulus; conditioned stimulus

In Pavlov's experiments with dogs, a bell was a _____ prior to conditioning and a _____ after conditioning. -neutral stimulus; conditioned stimulus -conditioned stimulus; neutral stimulus -neutral response; conditioned stimulus -neutral stimulus; conditioned response

Learning

A sea slug that has received electric shocks subsequently alters behavior to avoid future shocks. The change in behavior BEST illustrates the psychological construct of: -learning. -aversion. -trials. -avoidance

discriminative stimulus

A signal that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular consequence is known as a: -conditioned stimulus. -contingent stimulus. -discriminative stimulus. -conditioned behavior.

discriminative stimulus

A signal that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular consequence is known as a: -contingent stimulus -conditioned stimulus -discriminative stimulus -conditioned behavior

spanking

According to the text, harsh physical punishment includes all EXCEPT: -pushing. -slapping. -shoving. -spanking.

capable of behavioral changes in response to life experiences

Animal research using sea slugs as subjects revealed that small, relatively simple animals are: -poor models for exploring the process of learning. -incapable of discrimination and generalization. -not impacted by life experiences and operate on instinct only. -capable of behavioral changes in response to life experiences.

efficacy

Bandura indicated that all of these must be present in the observer in order to learn from a model EXCEPT: -efficacy. -memory. -attention. -motivation.

jump into the swimming pool

Based on principals of instinctive drift, which behavior would be MOST difficult for a domestic cat to learn and maintain? -walk a tight rope -jump into a swimming pool -swat a bell -meow on command

beet juice

Based on principles of taste aversion, it would be MOST helpful to offer _____ to cancer patients prior to chemotherapy. -beet juice -grape juice -orange juice -apple juice

vicarious conditioning

Ben was stung by a wasp and now demonstrates a fear response when a wasp is present. Nathan has witnessed Ben's reactions to wasps. Nathan, who has never been stung by a wasp, has also adopted a fear response to the presence of wasps. This situation BEST illustrates the principal of: -extinction. -generalization. -higher-order conditioning. -vicarious conditioning.

smoke

Children who watch movies depicting people who smoke are more likely to _____ as teenagers. -have poor relationships -abuse multiple substances -smoke -smoke and have high blood pressure

-done by Albert Bandura -half the subjects saw the model ignore the doll -the other half saw the model act aggressively towards the doll -the children then reacted to the doll according to how the model had

Describe the Bobo Doll experiment.

-Albert was presented with a variety of things to see and touch. At first he showed no fear, but when they were shown coupled with a loud noise, he began to show fear even when the object was shown without the loud noise

Describe the Little Albert study

learned helplessness

Diego attempted to lose weight on several occasions but was not successful. His doctor has prescribed an eating and exercise plan. Deigo showed no interest in following his doctor's instructions, believing that the efforts would produce no results. A psychologist would MOST likely state that Diego's behavior is linked to: -learned helplessness. -latent learning. -learned optimism. -insight.

Juanita

Hannah was fearful of trusting her gymnastics coach to spot her. Hannah's mother assured her that the coach was reliable. Nevertheless, Hannah remained unconvinced until she witnessed her older sister, Juanita, complete a back handspring with the help of the coach. In this situation the model is: -Juanita. -Hannah. -Hannah's mother. -the coach.

latent learning

It is Mateo's first day of kindergarten. Over the last year he has accompanied his mother, who volunteers to read to his 8-year-old brother's class. Upon arrival at the school Mateo walks ahead of his mother, taking a path to the kindergarten hallway. This scenario BEST illustrates the concept of: -biological preparedness. -instinctive drift. -maturation. -latent learning.

nausea

John Garcia's studies in taste aversion revealed that rats would MOST easily associate sweet water and: -sour water. -noise. -electric shocks. -nausea.

Generalization

Kadin formerly lived in a region of political unrest and experienced frequent exposure to dangerous gunfire. He currently resides in a region of relative political and social calm. However, when exposed to loud noises such as fireworks, Kadin assumes a defensive posture, crouching behind objects and hiding. A psychologist would MOST likely attribute Kadin's behavior to: -the effects of punishment. -discrimination. -generalization. -the effects of extinction.

insight

Kohler's research with chimpanzees is MOST closely associated with: -operant conditioning. -insight. -vicarious conditioning. -shaping.

latent learning

Learning that cannot be directly observed is: -fixed. -shaped. -extinct. -latent.

models

Neal has been watching video clips of major league baseball pitchers. He practices pitching in his back yard, attempting to imitate the movements and style of the professional pitchers. Neal is using the professional pitchers as: -models. -triggers. -neutral stimuli. -conditioned stimuli.

instinctive drift

Otis is a youthful elephant who was taught to use his trunk to offer flowers to people. However, as Otis grows older he eats the flowers at least half the time. This situation can be best explained by: -taste aversion. -instinctive drift. -drive theory. -biological preparedness.

insight

Perception of a solution to a problem, which evolves from cognitive understanding as opposed to trial and error, is: -insight. -learned helplessness. -cognitive mapping. -latent learning.

receiving something desirable; removing something undesirable

Positive reinforcement requires _____, while negative reinforcement requires _____. -receiving something desirable; removing something undesirable -receiving complements; receiving criticism -receiving something pleasant; receiving something unpleasant -prosocial behavior; antisocial behavior

Maturation

Potty training typically takes place when children are between the ages of 2 and 3. This BEST illustrates the relevance of _____ in the acquisition of human behaviors. -discrimination -association -maturation -generalization

innate; learned

Primary reinforcers are _____, while secondary reinforcers are _____. -powerful; weak -weak; powerful -innate; learned -learned; innate

cognitive maps

Rats in Toman's studies appeared to have developed: -learned helplessness. -taste aversions. -generalized responses. -cognitive maps.

continuous; positive reinforcement

Robert wants his child to put away toys every evening. Every night that his child puts away the toys, Robert reads an extra bedtime story. Robert is providing _____ and _____. -continuous; positive reinforcement -intermittent; negative reinforcement -continuous; negative reinforcement -intermittent; positive reinforcement

positive punishment

Ronda was late returning home from a party, and was grounded by her parents. This is an example of: -positive reinforcement. -positive punishment. -negative reinforcement. -negative punishment.

secondary reinforcer

Roxanne, a salesperson, earns commission. The commission on the sale is a _____. -primary reinforcer -secondary reinforcer -unconditioned stimulus -negative reinforcement

higher-order conditioning

Sam has begun riding the subway to school. He began to associate a loud noise with the arrival of the train. The noise, which was formerly a neural stimulus, became a conditioned stimulus. Sam's conditioned response to the noise was heightened attention applied to the arrival of the train. Later, Sam began to associate flashing lights near the track with the noise of the arriving train. The flashing lights, which were formerly a neural stimulus, became a conditioned stimulus. Sam's conditioned response was heightened attention for the noise of the train and the subsequent arrival of the train. This situation BEST illustrates the principal of: -operant conditioning. -higher-order conditioning. -aversion. -acquisition.

Maturation

Six-month-old Isaac has begun to roll over. This is developmentally appropriate because he has the strength and coordination to accomplish this task. Isaac's accomplishment, rolling over, supports the importance of _____ in the acquisition of behaviors. -shaping -generalization -association -maturation

learned helplessness

Some psychologists believe that _____ is linked to beliefs among depressed individuals that negative life experiences cannot be controlled or influenced. -learned helplessness -disinhibition -cognitive mapping -biological preparedness

biological preparedness

Taste aversion is an example of: -latent learning. -higher-order learning. -biological preparedness. -secondary reinforcers.

Elizabeth who pretends to cut down a tree like her lumberjack dad

The BEST example of observational learning is: -Robert, who stops playing when he hears a whistle from a referee. -Goldie, the finch, who sings in her cage among other birds. -Elizabeth, who pretends to cut down a tree like her lumberjack dad. -Butter, the cat, who uses a litter box.

Bandura

The classic studies using the Bobo doll were conducted by: -Skinner. -Watson. -Pavlov. -Bandura.

Bandura

The classic study involving adult models, child observers, and a Bobo doll is MOST closely associated with: -Bandura. -Skinner. -Maslow. -Watson.

discrimination/generalization

The classical conditioning experiment, the "Little Albert Study," BEST illustrated the _____ and _____ processes. -discrimination; generalization -generalization; higher-order conditioning -discrimination; punishment -acquisition; extinction

-attention -memory -imitation -motivation

What are four particular abilities that must be present in the observer in order to learn from a model?

-it teaches people what behavior to avoid, but not what behavior to choose instead -provides a model of aggressiveness -punishment can encourage lying and other kinds of deceptiveness -can create high levels of anxiety and fear

What are some drawbacks to punishment?

-a teenage girl driving a car for the first time (she knows the layout of the local streets, functions of various controls, etc.)

What is an example of both the cognitive map and latent learning?

Extinction

When Susan was a young mother, she was very alert when she would hear a baby cry. This sensitivity continued for many years. However, as Susan's children grew older and more independent, she no longer responded strongly to the cries of babies. This situation BEST illustrates the process of _____ . -counter conditioning -extinction -dishabituation -spontaneous recovery

Extinction

When a conditioned stimulus no longer causes the conditioned response, _____ has occurred. -dishabituation -acquisition -extinction -learning

learned optimism

When a person's cognitions emphasize positive interpretations of life experiences, they are MOST likely to have engaged in: -cognitive mapping. -learned helplessness. -learned optimism. -biological preparedness.

associate

When learning, an organism begins to _____ paired events. -recall -remember -associate -ignore

avoided consuming sheep

When wolves became ill after consuming sheep carcasses tainted by researchers, they: -began sniffing and examining sheep carcasses before ingesting them. -avoided consuming sheep. -only ate sheep that they killed. -avoided eating any meat.

A dog gets a treat when he sits on command

Which example BEST illustrates primary reinforcement? -A dog gets a treat when he sits on command. -A child receives praise when learning to write her name. -A worker receives a paycheck. -A man receives a compliment on his tie.

model

Which is MOST likely to be included in a list of observational learning terms? -neutral stimulus -model -extinction -punishment

Bandura

Which of these is MOST likely associated with observational learning? -Freud -Erikson -Bandura -Maslow

Tolman

Which researcher is MOST closely associated with latent learning? -Pavlov -Skinner -Tolman -Garcia

Watson

Which researcher is MOST commonly associated with the "Little Albert Study"? - Tolman -Pavlov -Watson -Skinner

mirror neurons

_____ are thought to play a significant role in observational learning, empathy, and imitation. -Interneurons -Unipolar neurons -Mirror neurons -Sensory neurons

biological preparedness

_____ is an animal's evolutionary predisposition to learn that which is most relevant to the survival of that species. -Instinctual drift -Survival of the fittest -Biological preparedness -Natural selection

instinctive drift

_____ is the tendency of an animal's behavior to return to innate, genetically programmed patterns. -Latent learning -Biological preparedness -Evolution -Instinctive drift

Thorndike

_____ is typically credited with initial research in operant conditioning. -Thorndike -Freud -Watson -Pavlov

classical conditioning

_____ occurs when animals or people make a connection between two stimuli that have occurred together, such that one predicts the other. -Classical conditioning -Insight learning -Operant conditioning -Observational learning

operant conditioning

_____ occurs when the consequences of voluntary behavior influence the likelihood that the behavior will recur. -Operant conditioning -Classical conditioning -Observational learning -Latent learning

Pavlov

_____ typically receives credit for the discovery of classical conditioning. -Watson -Pavlov -Rodgers -Skinner

skinner box

a container into which animals such as pigeons or rats could be placed for the purpose of o serving and recording their behavior in response to consequences

taste aversion

a developed dislike of what you ate based on how you felt afterwards

Classical conditioning

a form of learning in which animals or people make a connection between two stimuli that have occurred together such that one predicts the other

operant conditioning

a form of learning in which the consequences of a voluntary behavior affect the likelihood that the behavior will recur

conditioned stimulus

a formerly neutral stimulus that now causes a response because of its link to an unconditioned stimulus

cognitive map

a mental diagram of the physical environment

continuous reinforcement

a pattern by which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

a pattern by which a behavior is reinforced only some of the time

B. F. Skinner

a psychology professor who spent his career conducting extensive studies on animal behavior, trying to expand what we know about the law of effect and operant conditioning

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which a behavior can be reinforced after a time interval that is inconsistent and unpredictable

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced after a consistent predictable number of occurrences

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced after an inconsistent, unpredictable number of occurrences

secondary reinforcer

a reinforcer that requires a learned link to a primary reinforcer to have a reinforcing effect

discriminative stimulus

a signal that indicates that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular consequence

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that causes a response automatically without any need for learning

neutral simulus

a stimulus that causes no response at all

spontaneous recovery

after a temporary period of inactivity, the return of a conditioned response that had be

biological preparedness

an animal's evolutionary predisposition to learn what is most relevant to the survival of that species

primary reinforcer

an innate reinforcer that requires no learning to have a reinforcing effect because it satisfies a biological need

punishment

any consequence of a behavior that makes that behavior less likely to recur

reinforcement

any consequence of a behavior that makes that behavior more likely to recur

higher-order conditioning

classical conditioning that involves three or more stimuli (a.k.a. second order conditioning)

vicarious conditioning

conditioning that takes place via observation of others' life experiences rather than one's own

Amazon gift card given to a 12 year old

example of a secondary reinforcer

true

generalization and discrimination are complementary processes

contingency

if-then relationship: if you do this...then this will happen

contingency management

in psychology: if the client is behaving a certain way because of the consequences atet follow the behavior, so if the consequences change, then the behavior will change too

true

individualism and collectivism play a role in the way reinforcements are perceived in various cultures

Latent learning

learning that has taken place, but cannot be directly observed

observational learning

learning that occurs as a result of observing others' behavior and consequences rather than your own

reinforcement schedules

patterns by which reinforcements occur in response to a particular behavior

learned optimism

people can, via their own cognition, emphasize positive interpretations of life experiences to enhance happiness and ward off depression

positive reinforcement

reinforcement that involves getting something desirable

negative reinforcement

reinforcement that involves removing something undesirable

learned helplessness

the absence of any attempt to help oneself that results from previously learning that such attempts are useless (example of the three groups of dogs put in shuttle boxes being given a controlled shock or an uncontrolled shock)

unconditioned response

the automatic response to a stimulus that occurs naturally without any need for learning

law of effect

the observation that a behavior is more likely to be repeated if its effects are desirable but less likely to be repeated if its effects are undesirable

insight

the perception of a solution to a problem that results from cognitive understanding rather than from trial and error (when you use your intelligence to deduce the solution)

extinction

the point in the learning process at which the conditioned stimulus no longer causes the conditioned response because it is no longer linked to the unconditioned stimulus

acquisition

the point int h learning process at which the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus because it causes the conditioned response

extinction

the point when the learner realizes that the connection no longer applies

acquisition

the point where the learner makes the connection between a particular behavior and its consequence

Learning

the process by which life experience causes change in the behavior or thinking of an organism

discrimination

the process by which stimuli that are different from the conditioned stimulus fail to cause the same conditioned response

generalization

the process by which stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus cause the same conditioned response

Shaping

the process of gradually learning a complex behavior through the reinforcement of each of its small steps

false

the rats who received a shock after drinking sweet water avoided sweet water afterwards

conditioned response

the response to a conditioned stimulus acquired through learning

instinctive drift

the tendency of animals behavior to return to innate, genetically programmed patterns

mirror neurons

these cells relate directly to observational learning and are thought to underlie empathy and imitation and activate when a person performs or observes a particular behavior

true

true/false: if the term includes the word reinforcement it makes the behavior happen more often; if the term includes punishment, it makes the behavior happen less often

false

true/false: there are no drawbacks to punishment

delayed reinforcement

when reinforcement comes later

immediate reinforcement

when reinforcement comes right away