Psych Exam 2 Chapter 6

Generalization

A CR is made to a stimulus that is similar, but not the same as the CR.

Acquisition

CS+UCS Acquisition refers to the first stages of learning when a response is established. In classical conditioning, it refers to the period when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response.

Cognitive learning: Observational learning

Albert Bandura, who is known for the classic Bobo doll experiment, identified this basic form of learning in 1961. The importance of observational learning lies in helping individuals, especially children, acquire new responses by observing others' behavior.

Fixed Ratios

Always reinforce after the same number of responses For example: Get paid for every 5 jobs you finish.

Classical conditioning: unconditioned stimulus

Automatically elicits reflex.

Describe the process of operant conditioning

Behavior becomes associated with its consequences. Consider what happens to these behaviors after the consequence . A gambler put money in a slot. Machine-wins money A driver runs a red light-gets hit by another car A child misbehaves-tv gets taken away A teen gets good grades-curfew is reduced.

Describe the process of classical conditioning; be able to define its components and phases, and recognize examples of each

Classical Conditioning: involves creating a new association between a stimulus and a response. Examples: sound of a dentists drill-feel anxious, palms sweat. smell of food-feel nauseous noise of a can opener-cat comes running Discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov Natural salivation reflex to food in dogs after conditioning salivation to other stimuli. Ex: bells, whistles, tones. Phase 1: Before Conditioning The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus.Phase 2: During Conditioning During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). Phase 3: After Conditioning Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response even without the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR).

Classical conditioning: Conditioned Response

Conditioned response a learned response to the CS.

Discrimination

Distinguish highly similar stimuli by extinguishing the CR for one of them.

Classical conditioning: Neutral Stimulus

Does NOT elicit the reflex initially Neutral stimulus is presented along with the UCS, repeatedly.

Thorndike's Cats

Edward Thorndike. ... Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike. Thorndike (1898) studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning.

Tolman's rats

Edward Tolman (1948) challenged these assumptions by proposing that people and animals are active information processes and not passive learners as behaviorism had suggested. Tolman developed a cognitive view of learning that has become popular in modern psychology. Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman is virtually the only behaviorists who found the stimulus-response theory unacceptable, because reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur. He felt behavior was mainly cognitiveEdward Tolman (1886 - 1959) was a Cognitive Behaviorist who believed that animals had the ability to learn things that they could use later in a variety of ways. This point of view was in opposition to the idea that learning occurs as an automatic response to environmental stimuli. Tolman is well-known for his theory on Latent Learning, which states that learning occurs even if there is no reward. He demonstrated this in an experiment where rats were trained to run a maze without a reward. After a few days, a reward was introduced. The day after the reward was introduced, the rats began to run the maze faster. This showed that the rats developed a mental map of the maze when they were going through it without a reward. Upon introducing the reward, the rats demonstrated their learning by being able to run the maze faster in order to get the reward. Translated in human terms, you could go to the supermarket every week and go past the Baking Needs aisle without having to purchase any item from that section. This does not mean that you have not learned where the baking items are located. If one day you needed to buy a sack of flour, you would be able to go straight to that aisle because you already knew where it was.

Explain how classical conditioning applies to various real-world phenomena, such as phobias, taste aversion, motor responses, sexual fetishes and advertising

Examples: sound of a dentists drill-feel anxious, palms sweat. smell of food-feel nauseous noise of a can opener-cat comes running Discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov Natural salivation reflex to food in dogs after conditioning salivation to other stimuli. Ex: bells, whistles, tones

Operant Condition: Negative punishment

For positive punishment, try to think of it as adding a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is emitted to decrease future responses. As for negative punishment, try to think of it as taking away a certain desired item after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses

Complex Conditioning: shaping

In his operant-conditioning experiments, Skinner often used an approach called shaping. Instead of rewarding only the target, or desired, behavior, the process of shaping involves the reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behavior.

Operant Condition: Positive Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, positive reinforcement involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future. When a favorable outcome, event, or reward occurs after an action, that particular response or behavior will be strengthened.

Cognitive learning: Latent learning

In psychology, latent learning refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it. ... Only when the child is offered some form of reinforcement for completing the problem does this learning reveal itsel

Koeheler's Chimps

In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler was studying the behavior of apes. He designed some simple experiments that led to the development of one of the first cognitive theories of learning, which he called insight learning. In this experiment, Kohler hung a piece of fruit just out of reach of each chimp.

Classical conditioning: Unconditioned Response

Natural reflex to an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Condition: Negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. In negative reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus

Classical conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus

Overtime the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus Now elicits a response by itself

Define and contrast the four schedules of partial reinforcement, fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, and variable interval; describe the properties of responses learned under each

Partial Reinforcement:Partial reinforcement, unlike continuous reinforcement, is only reinforced at certain intervals or ratio of time, instead of reinforcing the behavior every single time. Fixed Ratio: always reinforce after the same number of responses for example: get paid for every 5 jobs you finish Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has gone by. for example: get paid very two weeks Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a random number of responses. For example: slot machine: pays out after a random number of pulls. Variable Interval: reinforcement after a random amount of time has gone by. For example: random drug testing at work operant conditioning of complex behavior.

Describe phenomena of insight learning, latent learning, cognitive maps, and observational learning, and explain how they provide evidence of cognitive processes in learning. 

Phenomenon of insight: Latent Learning: latent learning refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it. For example, a child might learn how to complete a math problem in class, but this learning is not immediately obvious. Cognitive Maps: are mental representations of physical locations. Humans and animals use them to find their way and to help recall important features of the environment. The term was inroduced by psychologist E. C. Tolman (1) to explain how rats learned the locations of rewards in a maze. Observational Learning: Modeling Observing and imitating the behavior of others Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1961) preschoolers modeled the aggressive behavior of an adult when they saw the adult get reinforced

Operant Condition: Positive punishment

Positive punishment is a concept used in B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning. ... The goal of any type of punishment is to decrease the behavior that it follows. In the case of positive punishment, it involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior.

Difference between primary and secondary reinforces and explain what token economies are.

Primary reinforcers are biological. Food, drink, and pleasure are the principal examples of primary reinforcers. But, most human reinforcers are secondary, or conditioned. ... The food would be the primary reinforcer. Token Economies: A token economy is a form of behavior modification designed to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior with the use of tokens.

Fixed interval

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has gone by. For example: Get paid every two weeks.

Variable interval

Reinforcement after a random amount of time has gone by For example: random drug testing at work operation conditioning of complex behavior

Variable ratio

Reinforcement after a random amount of time has gone by. For example: slot machine; pays out after a random number of pulls.

Define and differentiate positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment. Be able to recognize examples of each.

Reinforcement: behavior is increased Punishment: behavior is decreased Positive: administrated/given Negative: taken away

Describe the processes of shaping and how it can be used to condition complex behavior

Shaping: learn a complex behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. Example: get a rat to push a lever reward rat when it: looks at the lever, steps toward lever, touches lever, pushes lever.

Bandura's Bobo Dolls

The Bobo doll experiment was the collective name of experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 when he studied children's behavior after watching an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll, a toy that gets up by itself to a standing position when it is knocked down.

Describe the classical conditioning process in Watson and Raynor's (1920) "little Albert" study

The Little Albert Experiment demonstrated that classical conditioning—the association of a particular stimulus or behavior with an unrelated stimulus or behavior—works in human beings. In the experiment, psychologist John Watson was able to condition a previously unafraid baby to become afraid of a rat.

Little Albert

The Little Albert experiment was a controlled experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans. The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization. It was carried out by John B. Watson and his graduate student, Rosalie Rayner, at Johns Hopkins University.

Pavlov's Dogs

The dogs used in conditioned response experiments by a Russian scientist of the late nineteenth century, Ivan Pavlov. In these experiments, Pavlov sounded a bell while presenting food to a dog, thereby stimulating the natural flow of saliva in the dog's mouth.

Cognitive learning: Insight learning

Theory Development. In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler was studying the behavior of apes. He designed some simple experiments that led to the development of one of the first cognitive theories of learning, which he called insight learning. ... Learning occurs in a variety of ways.

Complex conditioning: token economics

Token economy. A token economy is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. ... A token economy is based on the principles of operant conditioning and behavioral economics and can be situated within applied behavior analysis.

Define "learning" and be able to recognize the contributions of Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, E. L. Thorndike, B.F. Skinner, and Edward Tolman to the study of learning.

a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. ADD MORE

Spontaneous recovery

is a phenomenon of learning and memory that was first named and described by Ivan Pavlov in his studies of classical (Pavlovian) conditioning. In that context, it refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay.

Extinction

is the disappearance of a previously learned behavior when the behavior is not reinforced. In this lesson, learn more about extinction in operant conditioning and test your knowledge with a quiz. Introduction to Psychology: Homework Help Resource / Psychology Courses

Describe Thorndike's "Law of effect" and summarize evidence from his puzzle-box experiment with cats.

satisfying consequences strengthen a s-r connection Unfavorable consequences weaken an s-r connection. Thorndike's cats learned to escape "puzzle boxes" with trial and error. Stimulus: food outside response: howling, scratching, pushing at door