Psych final review
22) Differentiate stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.
Stereotypes: positive or negative beliefs about the way a "typical" outgroup member thinks/behave Prejudice: negative attitudes towards an outgroup and its members Discrimination: harmful action carried out against outgroup members (often due to stereotypes, prejudice)
18) Define attribution and describe the two different types of attributions for behavior people can make.
attribution: How do people tend to explain others' and their own behavior? dispositional attribution = "That's just the sort of person they are" (internal, stable, personality-based causes) situational attribution = "It's because of the situation they were in" (external, unstable, contextual causes)
33) For a short answer question, be prepared to explain the three key criteria used by psychologists to define a pattern of thought/behavior as a psychological disorder (e.g., what distinguishes the fear of a typical person from a diagnosable phobia?) a. How do these three characteristics highlight the subjectivity of mental health diagnoses?
Dysfunctional: Interferes with day-to-day life (going to work, maintaining relationships) Distress: Causes the individual a significant amount of psychological discomfort and negative emotion Deviance: Atypical (extreme) in relation to the general population These three criteria highlight the subjectivity inherent to mental health diagnoses by defining what qualifies as "dysfunctional," "distressing," or "deviant" will vary from person to person, culture to culture, etc.)
7) What are some examples of important life outcomes that IQ predicts (i.e., with which IQ significantly correlates)?
-Academic (e.g., r = .5 with grades/years of education, r = .8 with SAT scores) - Occupational (e.g., r = .3-.5 with job performance, r = .2 with income) -Economic (e.g., r = .5 with SES, .4 after controlling for parent's SES) -Social (e.g., r = -.2 with criminality, +1 SD lowers chances of divorce by 26%) -Health and Longevity (childhood IQ predicts adult morbidity and mortality, including deaths from cancers and cardiovascular diseases)
What are examples of "culture-free" tests of intelligence, what is the purpose of such tests, and how do they work (i.e., what sorts of questions appear on these tests?)
-The Culture-Fair Intelligence Test - Raven's Progressive Matrices -Culture-fair tests, also called culture-free tests, are designed to assess intelligence (or other attributes) without relying on knowledge specific to any individual cultural group. Questions such as: Which figure logically belongs on the spot of the question mark? questions that test on logic without needing any cultural information
35) Be able to broadly describe and give examples of the following classes of psychological disorders: a. Anxiety disorders (e.g., GAD, phobias, OCD, PTSD) b. Mood disorders (e.g., major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder) c. Schizophrenia d. Personality disorders
Anxiety disorders: psychological disturbances marked by excessive and irrational fears, often of everyday objects/situations (Kessler et al., 2005) Example: post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Mood disorders: Mood is severely distorted or inconsistent with one's circumstances and interferes with an individual's ability to function Most common symptom: depression, a persistent negative mood Example: Bipolar disorder: Characterized by mood swings from extreme "highs" to periods of depression and back again, with periods of near-normal mood in between. Schizophrenia, (Greek for "split mind") Affects men and women equally, occurs in similar rates across ethnicities and cultures Onset is usually between the ages of 16-30, but rarely after the age of 45 Schizophrenia's possible symptoms: Positive symptoms (features not present in most healthy individuals): Hallucinations, delusions of grandeur, inappropriate emotional responses Negative symptoms (features lacking that are usually present in healthy individuals): Social withdrawal, flat affect and lack of pleasure, apathy and loss of motivation, poor hygiene and grooming Cognitive symptoms: Poor self-control, attentional problems, impaired problem-solving ability Personality disorders: Disorders characterized by inflexible patterns of thought/behavior which can cause problems in personal, social, and work situations. symptoms not all that out of the ordinary, disorder diagnosed when symptoms are extreme and disruption to a person's everyday life example: borderline personality disorder
26) What is empathic concern and how does it relate to helping behavior? a. What sorts of individuals are most likely to receive our empathy/help?
Empathic concern - a feeling of compassion and desire to reduce the suffering of others - is one of the best predictors of helping behavior What did soccer fans do when given the chance to take electric shocks on behalf of a fan of the same (vs. different) team? we are more likely to empathize with our ingroup rather than the outgroup
15) Describe Solomon Asch's (1956) studies on conformity, including the basic procedure used and the main findings (i.e., on what % of trials did subjects conform to the incorrect response provided by the confederates?) a. Name some of the factors identified in subsequent research which make conformity more vs. less likely (i.e., moderating variables).
Asch (1956) Participants were asked to make judgments about the lengths of lines out loud in small groups. Unknown to participants, everybody else in their group was in fact a confederate (working with the experimenters) Asch designed the study so actual participants would answer last (or second to last) On most trials, correct answer was given by confederates, however on certain trials, all confederates would give the same incorrect response On 37% of the key trials, participants conformed to the group's incorrect answer ¾ of participants conformed at least once during the study Factors that make conformity more/less likely Group size (up to 3-4 ppl; levels off after) -Unanimity ("ally" condition --> conformity drops to 5%) - Anonymity - Perceived expertise/status -Self-esteem
Name some of the specific abilities which tests of general intelligence tend to measure (e.g., what abilities are common across Binet-Simon test, SBIS, and WAIS?)
Binet Simon test: which consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the ability to name objects, define words, draw pictures, complete sentences, compare items, and construct sentences. They believed that the questions they asked their students, even though they were on the surface dissimilar, all assessed the basic abilities to understand, reason, and make judgments. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales -Primarily used to diagnose developmental or intellectual deficiencies in young children --Tests 5 factors: general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, working memory, and fluid reasoning Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale The most widely used intelligence test for adults Consists of 4 indices, each of which is measured with a variety of tasks: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed
36) What role do biology and environments play in putting individuals at risk for being diagnosed with mental illnesses, respectively?
Biological risk factors: Heritability (h2 = .3 for GAD, .4-5 for MDD, .8 for schizophrenia) Abnormal neurotransmitter functioning (e.g., excess dopamine activity in schizophrenia, insufficient serotonin activity in depression/anxiety) Abnormal whole-brain activity (e.g., lower than normal pFC activity in depression, enlarged cerebral ventricles in schizophrenia, abnormal amygdala activity in anxiety) Cannot necessarily define disorders based on these indicators, however, because they are not present in all cases Environmental risk factors: Trauma History of abuse Poverty Lack of social support Deficient nutrition Drug abuse Exposure to toxins in childhood Social stigma (e.g., LGBTQ+ individuals)
37) What are some of the predominant approaches used to treat psychological disorders (e.g., at a biological level? A psychological level? A societal level?)
Biological: Psychoactive mediations (targeting neurotransmitter activity) and other technologies targeting brain activity (e.g., TMS for depression) Psychological: Psychotherapy Societal: Provide support/resources for treatment programs (e.g., healthcare coverage) AND address environmental risk factors for mental illness (e.g., poverty)
Do claims that intelligence tests are highly biased or "don't measure anything meaningful" stand up to scrutiny? Why or why not?
But does this claim stand up to scrutiny? (1) Extensive efforts have been made to remove biased questions from tests (2) IQ scores do predict a host of meaningful outcomes (predictive validity) equally well across subgroups (3) Unbiased and "culture-free" tests have been developed for this purpose
28) What is the bystander effect and why is it believed to occur?
Bystander effect Likelihood of any individual helping someone in an emergency situation is ironically negatively correlated with the amount of people around who could help DARLEY & LATANE, 1968 Confederate faked an epileptic seizure while having a conversation over an intercom with participants Participants were much more likely to help when they knew that they were the only person listening to this student because if there are more people it is believed that someone will do something
9) What are cognitive biases and what do they tell us about the nature of human reasoning in a broad sense?
Cognitive biases reliable, systematic flaws in human reasoning and decision-making - ways in which we are "predictably irrational" (Ariely, 2009) Human reasoning is often influenced by these "flaws" where we seek our "understanding" actually hinders our reasoning and decision making
14) Define conformity and distinguish the two different motives for conformity: a. Informational social influence b. Normative social influence
Conformity: matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to a group norm or standard Occurs via one of two routes: - Informational social influence - assuming that the group is correct Normative social influence - going along with the group despite knowing they're wrong (e.g., to preserve group harmony, out of fear of retaliation, to improve one's standing in the group, etc.)
17) Were Milgram's findings predictable or surprising to laypeople and experts? Why?
Few predicted Milgram's results (even experts) Psychologists/psychiatrists polled beforehand guessed a max of 3% would obey up to 450V ...and vast majority of people predict they themselves would not obey, even after learning of these studies' results
In a short answer question, be prepared to name (a) one specific piece of evidence suggesting that genes influence intelligence AND (b) one specific piece of evidence suggesting that environments influence intelligence. Suggestions here: a. Genetic influences on intelligence i. Findings on the heritability of intelligence from twin/adoption studies ii. Specific comparisons from twin/adoption studies telling us that genes affect intelligence (make sure you name at least one specific comparison in your answer - e.g., that identical twins are more similar in intelligence than fraternal twins). b. Environmental influences on intelligence i. Specific comparisons from twin/adoption studies telling us that environments affect intelligence (ditto above - be specific here). ii. The Flynn effect iii. Direct effects of poverty on cognitive functioning (Mani et al., 2013 study) iv. Effects of education on IQ (Baltes & Reinert, 1969
Genetic contribution to intelligence: - The heritability (h2) of intelligence (based on findings from twin/adoption studies) has been estimated as somewhere in the 40-80% range (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin, 2003) depending on the study/sample -Correlations of IQs of identical twins (r = .86) tend to be higher than those of fraternal twins (r = .60) -Correlations between IQs of parents and their biological children (r = .42) tend to be higher than those between parents and adopted children (r =.19) Environmental contribution to intelligence: -Identical twins raised in the same home (r = .86) have more similar IQs than identical twins raised apart (r = .74) -Fraternal twins have more similar IQs than non-twin siblings (since they are more likely to be treated similarly) - Flynn effect: gradual rise in IQ scores around the world over the course of the 20th century (about 3 IQ points per decade) - Poverty correlates with poor nutrition and greater likelihood of exposure to toxins (lead in drinking water, dust, paint chips; Bellinger & Needleman, 2003) -After controlling for education, race, and parenting styles, children from households in poverty have lower IQs than children from households with more resources (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997)
12) What is the need to belong and what is some empirical evidence that humans possess such a need? a. Here, be able to describe/identify positive effects of quality social relationships (e.g., for happiness, self-esteem) and negative effects of social rejection/exclusion (social pain research; Chen et al., 2008; Eisenberger et al., 2003; Gray & Wegner, 2008)
Humans possess a fundamental motive to bond/affiliate with others - a need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; DeWall & Bushman, 2011) positive effects of quality social relationships -Quality of relationships/amount of time spent with others among the best predictors of subjective wellbeing (e.g., Diener & Seligman, 2002) -Self-esteem very closely connected to feelings of acceptance by others (Leary et al., 1995) Social pain: -Social rejection/exclusion hurts literally! -Social exclusion produces similar neural activity to physical pain (Eisenberger et al., 2003) - Otherwise equivalent electric shocks are rated as more painful when people believe they are given to them intentionally (Gray & Wegner, 2008) -People relive social pain more easily and intensely than physical pain (Chen et al., 2008)
16) Describe Stanley Milgram's (1965) research on obedience to authority figures (again, including the basic procedure used and the main findings, including the rough % of subjects who stayed through the entire experiment and administered a shock of 450V to the confederate). a. Name some of the factors identified in subsequent research which make obedience more vs. less likely (i.e., moderating variables)
MILGRAM, 1965 In one room there is a divider where on one side of the wall is a participant who administers shocks and the experimenter (urges the participant to shock the fake test subject) on the other side is the fake subject who pretends to receive the shocks and show pain. The fake subject is learning on word pair task if the subject makes an error, shock increase. The confederate is clearly in pain and the expirementer commands the participant to continue to shock up to the highest level 450v. 65% of the participants continued till the 450 shock Few predicted Milgram's results (even experts) Psychologists/psychiatrists polled beforehand guessed a max of 3% would obey up to 450V ...and vast majority of people predict they themselves would not obey, even after learning of these studies' results proximity to learner: What happens when we make the suffering of the learner more immediate and "real"? Experimenter characteristics: What happens when we make the authority less "real" or challenge it?
34) What is the main tool used by psychologists to diagnose psychological disorders in a standardized way (i.e., such that different psychologists are defining and diagnosing disorders in a consistent manner across people/situations)?
Main tool is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) which provides definitions/classification for different disorders: Continually revised/updated based on new empirical research DSM still far from "objective", however...serves in part as a reflection of how society views different sorts of traits/behaviors
32) What are some of the predominant approaches to measuring personality?
Most common method: self-report Informant ratings Implicit/projective measures Behavioral measures
What is the difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence (see textbook)?
One distinction is between fluid intelligence, which refers to the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and performing activities, and crystallized intelligence, which refers to the accumulated knowledge of the world we have acquired throughout our lives (Salthouse, 2004).
29) What is the effect of urban vs. rural environments on helping (Steblay, 1987)?
People are more likely to engage in a variety of helpful acts in rural as opposed to urban settings
21) Define ingroups, outgroups, and ingroup bias.
People tend to carve up their social world into "us" and "them" - social categories to which they belong (ingroup) vs. do not belong (outgroup) ingroup bias: preferential treatment for ingroup over outgroup members
20) What sorts of questions does the field of person perception focus on? a. What has research found with regard to the speed with which people make trait judgments based only on brief exposures to people's faces (Willis & Todorov, 2006) and the real-world consequences of such judgments (Ballew & Todorov, 2007; Eberhardt et al., 2006). b. What are thin-slice judgments? Are these judgments at all accurate (here, use the Carney et al., 2007 findings to answer)?
Person perception - research focuses on how we form initial impressions of others based on little information -People rapidly form trait impressions based on faces alone (trustworthy, competent ,likeable, agressive, attractive) -Rapid (100ms) facial judgments of competence predict outcomes of gubernatorial elections with better than chance accuracy -Judgments of facial stereotypicality (to what degree does this person match your stereotype of a Black man?) significantly predict likelihood of receiving the death penalty in real-world murder trials Thin slice judgments: Are first impressions accurate when based on more than just a face? Carney study : People watched videos of strangers in social interactions that lasted anywhere from 5 seconds to 5 minutes, then rated them on various traits
30) What is a personality trait and how are such traits usually conceptualized by psychologists (e.g., discrete categories vs. continuous variables)?
Personality traits - specific dimensions of thought/behavior that are: -Relatively consistent across situations -Relatively stable throughout time - Variable between individuals Personality traits are usually conceptualized as continuous variables: They do not consist of distinct, fully separate categories ("extraverts" vs. "introverts") Rather, individuals vary along a spectrum, as in the distribution of extraversion scores to the right
27) Describe the nature of the relationship between positive emotions and helping (i.e., research indicating that there is a causal relationship here which goes in both directions).
Positive emotions and helping also appear to share a bidirectional causal relationship: (1) Positive emotions increase chances of helping (2) Helping elicits positive emotions
31) Describe the five-factor model of personality. Specifically, be able to recognize examples of behaviors demonstrating high vs. low levels of the traits which comprise this theory.
Predominant "grand theory" of personality: the five-factor model, (or the "Big Five"), which argues that there are five core traits that explain most of the interpersonal variability in cognition and behavior. Can be remembered using the acronym OCEAN: Openness tendency to appreciate new ideas, art, values, feelings, behaviors Conscientiousness tendency to be careful, hard-working, responsible, punctual Extraversion tendency to be talkative, sociable, and to enjoy the company of others Agreeableness tendency to go along with others rather than assert one's opinions Neuroticism tendency to frequently experience negative emotions (anger, worry, sadness) and to be interpersonally sensitive (e.g., to experiences of social pain)
23) What does realistic group conflict theory suggest about the preconditions for intergroup conflict? a. Describe Sherif et al's (1954) Robber's cave study which provided support for this theory. b. What are superordinate goals and what effect do they have upon intergroup conflict?
Realistic group conflict theory: Zero-sum competition over finite resources (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007; Jackson, 1993) In Robbers cave state park in Oklahoma, Sherif's main idea was that conflict arises between groups when they're competing for limited resources. The experiment had three stages. The first being a bonding stage. Before the two groups were made aware of each other they were encouraged to bond and create social norms by engaging in activities such as swimming and hiking Here the group's took names, the Eagles and the Rattlers, and developed their own cultures and cultural norms. The next stage was the competition stage, lasting four to six days in this stage there was to be friction between the groups and as such a series of competitions were arranged. These competitions included baseball, tug-of-war and touch football among others. The winners would receive a trophy, medals and pocket knives there was no alternative prize for the losers. The Rattlers who had developed a norm of toughness and aggression became emphatically confident in their success. They put rattlers flags on the baseball field and made threats about bothering them. The researchers then manipulated situations where one group would gain at the cost of the other. What started as verbal aggression between the groups soon escalated further. After one of the baseball games the Eagles burned the Rattlers flag next day the Rattlers raided the Eagles cabin, flipping beds and stealing personal items. Soon fistfights would break out and the researchers had to physically separate the children. After the end of the conflict period, where it was announced that the Eagles were the winners, there was a reducing friction period. The groups were asked to characterize the other group and it was found that there were profoundly negative characterizations, while holding their own group in high esteem. During this time the two groups were brought together to engage in non-competitive activities. Sherif believed that simple contact between the groups would not reduce friction. Instead there would need to be common superordinate goals to accomplish. In one event the boys were to watch a movie together, but had to chip in money of their own. They worked together to decide the splitting of the money. They also had to work to fix an issue with a water tank and the water supply at camp, which the researchers had arranged. Likewise, one of the trucks delivering food became stuck and had to be pulled out by the children working together. At this point the kids had come together, no longer as enemies but as allies with a common goal. Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif had successfully demonstrated realistic conflict theory. Normal boys became their own cultures and showed that conflict for limited resources can lead to prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors. While simple coexistence did not eliminate these prejudices, working together toward something better for both groups did. superordinate goals are goals that are worth completing but require two or more social groups to cooperatively achieve.
What is IQ (intelligence quotient) and how is it defined/calculated (at least as it was originally conceived for use with the SBIS)?
What is it? An intelligence quotient is a total score derived from a set of standardized tests designed to access human intelligence It is a way to standardize scores from the SBIS How is it calculated? IQ= (mental age)/(chronological age) × 100
13) How well do people's attitudes and intentions (e.g., the sorts of things gauged through subjective self-report measures) tend to predict their actual behavior? Why might this be the case? a. Relate this to the trolley problem study you learned about in assignment #3 . b. How do studies of conformity and obedience to authority figures demonstrate this principle of human psychology?
self-report measures (e.g., of attitudes/intentions) are weak and inconsistent predictors of actual behavior (Schuman & Johnson, 1976; Wicker, 1969) This is especially true when one's attitudes conflict with other powerful determinants of behavior such as social pressure or influence social influence: The process by which an individual's attitudes, beliefs or behavior are modified by the presence or action of others trolly problem:: the majority of participants when asked said that if they were put in the situation, they would make the decision to hit the lever saving the 5 people but in reality, they did not. Conformity: matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to a group norm or standard and obedience to authority: tendency people have to try to please those in charge. even though people may feel that they won't be influenced they aren't influenced they are.
10) Be able to define and recognize examples of the following biases/errors we discussed in class: a. Confirmation bias b. Base-rate fallacy c. Dunning-Kruger effect
confirmation bias: Our tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms/supports our preexisting beliefs rather than falsifies them (Nickerson, 1998) (Participants who either supported or opposed the death penalty read an article that confirmed and one that disconfirmed the notion that the death penalty is an effective deterrent . People judged the study's validity on whether or not it confirmed their belief) Base-rate fallacy: People often fail to consider relevant base-rates (i.e., statistical information about the general prevalence of something) when drawing conclusions about data (local pd use breathalyzers that give false positives 5% of the time. However, they never fail to detect a truly drunk person. If an officer pulls a driver over at random and breathalyzes him and it comes up positive, the question what is the probability that they are drunk? Most participants will answer 95% paying attention only to the false positive of the test .Dunning-Kruger effect: People who are relatively low in a certain skill/ability tend to also be bad at realizing this fact - they are overconfident and overestimate their own ability In other words - self-perceived competence is often a poor guide to actual competence in class we watched the video where engineers were asked to rate their performance to which 32 percent stated that they were within the top 5%
25) What is the contact hypothesis regarding prejudice reduction? a. What conditions make it more likely that positive intergroup contact will have the intended effect?
contact hypothesis Research finds that when members of different groups have prolonged, positive contact, prejudice/hostility tends to be reduced. Most likely to occur when: (1) Groups have similar status (2) Groups' goals are aligned (superordinate) (3) Community norms support integration
9) Describe the following biases in attribution. For at least one of these, be prepared to describe an empirical study which shows this bias in action. a. Fundamental attribution error (studies: Tetlock, 1985; Napolitan & Goethals, 1979). b. Self-serving bias (studies: Stewart, 2005; Lau & Russell, 1980).
fundamental attribution error: people default to dispositional attributions for others' behavior even when given clear and compelling situational explanations. -(Forced) people who read other's opinion assume the content of the essay reflects the authors true belief- even when directly told that certain subjects were instructed to adapt a particular stance while writing (Tetlock, 1985) -(Forced) friendly vs. unfriendly behavior (Napolitan & Goethals, 1979) self-serving bias = people tend to attribute their successes to dispositional factors but their failures to situational/external factors Stewart, 2005: The more severe an auto accident, the more likely people are to blame it on others vs. themselves Lau & Russell, 1980: Coaches/athletes more likely to attribute wins than losses to internal factors
What is the general versus multiple (specific) intelligences debate? (Explain what each side of this debate argues about the nature of intelligence - remember, the key thing that you should be talking about here is how/whether different facets of intelligence are correlated). a. Which of these two theories of intelligence appears to be better supported by existing empirical evidence? b. What has research on different theories of multiple intelligences tended to show?
is intelligence one ability or many? General intelligence BINET-SIMON TEST: In order to help differentiate students who were expected to learn better and those who were expected to be slower learners, Binet and Simon conducted the first intelligence test which consisted of a variety of different questions that were different on the surface but assessed the basic abilities to understand, reason, and make judgments. They determined that students who got one item correct were more likely to get the other item correct as well. Charles spearman stated there was an underlying construct that all these items measure, the construct that the different abilities and skills measured on intelligence tests have in common the general intelligence factor (g). that relates to abstract thinking and that includes the abilities to acquire knowledge, to reason abstractly, to adapt to novel situations, and to benefit from instruction and experience Multiple intelligence: 1983: William Gardner publishes his theory of multiple intelligences which proposes 8 independent (i.e., uncorrelated) "modalities of intelligence" -spatial -linguistic -interpersonal -logical-mathematical -naturalist -musical -body-kinesthetic General intelligence was more supported by empirical evidence. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence was criticized because it: -simply redefines intelligence to include things not traditionally incorporated within this concept (e.g., athletic/physical ability) - it conflicts with empirical findings showing positive correlations in performance across different measures of intelligence Findings from Visser et al., 2006: "Results support previous findings that highly diverse tests of purely cognitive abilities share strong loadings on a factor of general intelligence, and that abilities involving sensory, motor, or personality influences are less strongly g-loaded."
24) Describe the minimal group paradigm. How does this procedure work? a. What do studies using the minimal group paradigm tend to find, and what do such findings suggest about the nature and origins of intergroup conflict (in particular, as contrasted with realistic group conflict theory, the frustration-aggression hypothesis, etc.) b. What are some examples of dependent variables for which ingroup bias has been shown when using the minimal group paradigm?
minimal group paradigm: What are the minimal conditions necessary for people to form groups. Participants assigned to groups based on "minimal" or fairly arbitrary criteria (e.g., preference for different abstract paintings, fictitious personality traits, coin flip) Then, placed in situations where ingroup favoritism/outgroup derogation is possible Boys then asked to make a series of decisions about how to allocate points ($) between members of their group (the ingroup) and the other group (the outgroup) When allocation is btwn 2 ingroup or 2 outgroup members, principle of fairness wins out On ingroup-outgroup trials, ingroup bias emerges: Boys tried to maximize relative advantage over outgroup, even when this meant sacrificing absolute gains for the ingroup This occurred despite the arbitrariness of these groups and lack of self-interest involved (boys received no $ themselves) Reliably, ingroup favoritism emerges across a broad variety of dependent variables: -Resource allocation (Tajfel et al., 1971) -Liking (Dunham, 2013) -(De)humanization (Haslam & Stratemeyer, 2016) - Empathy (Montalan et al., 2012) -Expectations of reciprocity (Dunham et al., 2011) - Biases in behavioral attributions (Otten & Moscowitz, 1999) -Ease of acquisition of a conditioned fear response (Navarrete et al., 2012)
11) What is motivated reasoning and what are the two types of ways in which people reason according to this theory? a. Describe an empirical study demonstrating the existence of motivated reasoning (specifically, directional motives in reasoning; e.g., Paharia et al., 2013; Piazza & Loughnan, 2016).
motivated reasoning: people reason in different sorts of ways depending on their motivations with regard to the issue at stake. -Accuracy motivation ("the scientist") -Directional motivation ("the lawyer") PAHARIA ET AL., 2013 Study 1a: Subjects imagined a Caribbean vacation (to be taken either by the participant themselves or by the participant's friends) at a beach resort with questionable labor practices Study 1b: Subjects read about a highly (vs. mildly) desired pair of sneakers and imagined finding out that sweatshop labor went into making them. DV: agreement with economic justifications for questionable/sweatshop labor practices In the abstract (e.g., friend vacation or undesirable pair of sneakers), judged acceptability of questionable/sweatshop labor was fairly low... However, the acceptability of such practices increased when participants found themselves wanting to justify a decision (going on a vacation themselves or buying the more desirable pair of sneakers)
