Psych HL--Know these Nouns--Learn the Language, Particularly Critical Terms for IB Psychology Papers One, Two and Three in May

participant naturalistic observation (Paper 3)

1. The researcher becomes part of the target group under investigation. 2. The focus of the study is on natural behavior in its natural context. 3. The researcher enters the field and acts as the instrument of collection. The goal is to obtain a close and intimate familiarity with participants through personal development in their own environment.

cognitive process (Paper 1-cog)

Cognitive processes include decision making, memory, perception and attention. Memory is one of these, encoding, storing and retrieving information. Memory undergoes a series of stages in order to store its information. (multi-store model of memory) Encoding process: incoming information is organized and transformed so it can be entered into memory Storage process: involves entering and maintaining information in memory for a period of time Retrieval process: involves recovering stored information from memory so it can be used There are three main types of models of memory that demonstrate how our memory processes work including the: Multistore/stage Model (MSM) and Working Memory Model (WM). Other cognitive processes include attention, perception, language and decision making, too. Other models or theories could include--bottom-up and top-down processing, selective attention.

carrying out naturalistic observation (Paper 3)

Things to consider 4. data recording 5. observer characteristics 6. degree of involvement in the group 7. objectivity of researcher 8. analysis of data

setting up naturalistic observation (Paper 3)

Things to consider: 1. methodological considerations 2. ethical considerations 3. sampling methods (continued in carrying out naturalistic observation)

cognitive development theories (Paper 2)

theories of of how thinking and language grow, can be explained purely cognitively as Piaget offered or socially as Vygotsky theorized or biologically as Rosenzweig and Bennet and others suggest, also Kohlberg for cognitive theory of moral development or information processing approach to cognitive development

conformity (Paper 1-socio-cul)

type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group. This change is in response to real (involving the physical presence of others) or imagined (involving the pressure of social norms / expectations) group pressure. can also be simply defined as "yielding to group pressures" (Crutchfield, 1955). Group pressure may take different forms, for example bullying, persuasion, teasing, criticism, etc, and is also known as majority influence (or group pressure) The term is often used to indicate an agreement to the majority position, brought about either by a desire to 'fit in' or be liked (normative) or because of a desire to be correct (informational), or simply to fit to a social role (identification).

researcher triangulation (Paper 3)

use of more than one researcher to collect and analyze the data because bias is reduced and credibility is increased and it is particularly effective to counteract researcher bias because interpretations are discussed.

theory triangulation (Paper 3)

use of several and perhaps competing theories to analyze the data because bias is reduced and credibility increased and it promotes a deeper and more credible understanding of the topic under investigation and could reveal contradictions in the data and protect against researcher bias.

MRI (Paper 1)

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high quality two- or three-dimensional images of brain structures without use of ionizing radiation (X-rays) or radioactive tracers.

situational factors (Paper 1-socio-cul)

(also known as External Factors) are influences that do not occur from within the individual but from elsewhere like the environment and others around you. Examples of these factors are your environment, work and school, and the people around you. The opposite is dispositional factors that are are individual characteristics that influence behavior and actions in a person like personality traits, temperament, and genetics. People tend to cite dispositional factors as the reason for success ("I passed the test because I am smart", "I worked hard for that grade") where people tend to blame failure on external factors ("The test wasn't fair", "The teacher doesn't like me").

dispositional factors (Paper 1-socio-cul)

(also known as Internal Factors) are individual characteristics that influence behavior and actions in a person. Things like individual personality traits, temperament, and genetics are all internal factors. They are things that come from within an individual that they do not have much control over. The opposite of internal factors are situational factors which are influences like the environment and others around you. People tend to cite internal factors as the reason for success ("I passed the test because I am smart", "I worked hard for that grade") where people tend to blame failure on situational factors ("The test wasn't fair", "The teacher doesn't like me").

non-participant naturalistic observation (Paper 3)

1. the researcher does not take part in the participants' lives and instead merely observes and records behavior in their setting. 2. Non-participant observation can take place in a naturalistic setting and the researchers record natural behavior. 3. The researcher will inform participants about the observation in general terms but not about the exact behaviors studied to avoid increase in those behaviors.

serotonin (Paper 1-bio)

5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter, biochemically derived from tryptophan, primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), blood platelets, and the central nervous system (CNS) of animals, including humans, popularly thought to be a contributor to feelings of well-being and happiness and thus also depression, the 5-HT receptors are located on the cell membrane of nerve cells and other cell types in animals, and mediate the effects as the endogenous ligand and of a broad range of pharmaceutical and hallucinogenic drugs

after interview considerations (Paper 3)

Anonymity and confidentiality: participants have the right to give information knowing that it is confidential, just their information (without relating it to the participant) is going to be used. Inductive Content Analysis: reading and rereading the transcript in order to become familiar with the participants account Structuring emergent themes: list all the emerging themes and see if they relate to each other in order to get to a more reliable conclusion about the participant. Debriefing

representational generalization (Paper 3)

Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the population of the study.

culture (Paper 1-socio-cul)

Lonner (1995): can be defined as the common rules that regulate interactions and behavior in a group as well as a number of shared values and attitudes in the group. Hofstede (1995): can be defined as a collective mental programming that is the "software of the mind" that guides a group of people in their daily interactions and distinguishes them from other groups of people. Matsumoto (2004): can be defined as a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors.

during interview considerations (Paper 3)

Observation: many times, it is not only important what the interviewed says, but how he said it and how he acts during the interview, reason why the interviewer should pay attention at what he hears and sees (non-verbal signs). Research bias: Researcher not paying enough attention to the participants so that its own beliefs determine research process. Participant expectations: participants ideas of the research and the researcher which could affect trustworthiness of data. Rapport: trusting and open relationship, so answers are less bias Withdrawal from study: The participant has the right to withdrawal from the study, as well as its information at any point of the interview, even when it is finished.

social learning theory (Paper 1 and 2-socio-cul, dvlp, and possibly other optional area for HL)

One way in which society or culture passes on its norms to individuals within the group is through this theory, proposed and developed by Albert Bandura. It assumes that 'humans learn behaviour through the environment, but most specifically through observational learning." Observational learning is how people learn by watching and "observing" models and imitate their behaviour, thus noticing the consequences it has on them and their environments. E.g. Children observe their parents' behaviour and imitate it. By doing so, we learn without the need to perform the observed behaviours ourselves. Thus, it also helps us avoid harmful situations without direct exposure to them. Outline the components of the Social Learning Theory Modelling occurs Via gatekeepers / authoritative figures Parents Peers Media Teachers Sometimes the model has a desired effect on the learner (e.g. when a teacher instructs children how to solve a problem). But often, models serve as "indirect models," in that they are not intending or trying to influence behaviour.

social identity theory (Paper 1)

Social identity is a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). Think Tajfel, Sherif, and social psychology study that investigates group identity, favoritism, hostility. https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-identity-theory.html

inferential generalization (Paper 3)

The findings of the study can be applied to settings outside of the study.

snowball sampling (Paper 3)

The first respondent refers an acquaintance. The friend also refers a friend, and so on. Such samples are biased because they give people with more social connections an unknown but higher chance of selection (Berg 2006), but lead to higher response rates.

theoretical generalization (Paper 3)

Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory.

qualitative data (Paper 3)

This real world research gathers information that is not in numerical form but rather in TEXT--transcripts, field notes, also pictures, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews and unstructured observations, all considered RICH data--open ended. This data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyze than quantitative data--open for interpretation. The research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in depth, the ways in which people think or feel (e.g. case studies). Analysis of this data is difficult and requires an accurate description of participant responses, for example, sorting responses to open questions and interviews into broad themes, IPA.

etic (Paper 1-socio-cul)

This research compares psychological phenomena across cultures to find out what could be universal in human behavior. The purpose of research is to compare and contrast cultural phenomena across cultures to investigate whether phenomena are culture-specific or universal.=TWO CULTURES AS PARTICIPANTS

quantitative data (Paper 3)

This research gathers data in numerical form which can be put into categories, or in rank order, or measured in units of measurement--CLOSED data. This type of statistical data can be used to construct graphs and tables of raw data. Experiments typically yield this data, as they are concerned with measuring things. It often includes data from many participants to generalize findings to populations.

emic (Paper 1-socio-cul)

This research studies one culture alone to understand culture-specific behavior. Researchers attempt to study behavior through the eyes of the people who live in that culture. The way the phenomenon is linked to the culture (structure) and the meaning it has in this particular cultural (context) is emphasized. The focus is on the norms, values, motives, and customs of the members of the culture as they interpret and understand it themselves, explained with their own words.=ONE CULTURE AS PARTICIPANTS

opportunity sampling (Paper 3)

Uses people from target population available at the time and willing to take part. It is based on convenience and is obtained by asking members of the population of interest if they would take part in your research. An example would be selecting a sample of students from those coming out of the library. This is a quick way and easy of choosing participants (advantage), but may not provide a representative sample, and could be biased (disadvantage).

deprivation and/or trauma (Paper 2-dvlp)

_____________in childhood can be seen as living in a state of various forms of neglect to provide basic needs - physical, emotional, or social and is often related to institutionalization, growing up in poverty, and parental problems (e.g. alcoholism or mental illness. ___________in childhood can be seen as experiencing a powerful shock (e.g. divorce, death of a parent, physical or sexual abuse, natural disasters, or war. Such experiences may have long-lasting effects on development. Healthy development is influenced by factors such as access to loving caregivers, adequate nutrition, sensory and cognitive stimulation, and linguistic input.

Hawthorne Effect (all papers)

a change in the performance of a participant during study, in hopes that it meets the researcher's expectations... Participants usually make alterations in their behaviors according to what is being studied.

dopamine (Paper 1-bio)

a neurotransmitter--a chemical released by neurons (nerve cells) to send signals to other nerve cells, involved in pathways, one of which plays a major role in reward-motivated behavior and thus addiction... Most types of reward and most addictive drugs increase this neuronal activity. Other pathways are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of various hormones.

acetylcholine (Paper 1-bio)

a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells, has a variety of effects as a neuromodulator upon plasticity, arousal and reward, has an important role in the enhancement of sensory perceptions when we wake up[2] and in sustaining attention and thus memory.[3] Damage to the this system in the brain has been shown to be plausibly associated with the memory deficits associated with Alzheimer's disease.[4]

EVALUATE (all papers)

appraisal by weighing the strengths and limitations, the pros and the cons, a discussion of both strengths and limitations is required...Must do both to score.

case studies (all papers)

are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen. This method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing 'the case history' of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. These allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of 'averaging'. They are also useful to investigate sensitive topics, such as poverty, health, violence.

narrative interview (Paper 3)

are individual interpretations of the world that influence people's behavior based on an opening question; participants can talk freely in their own way without being interrupted as the interviewer is only supposed to ask questions that actually stimulate the interviewee's own narrative. Characteristics include a mix of facts and interpretations; constructed like a real story with an opening, middle, and ending; can be based on a life story or a story of a particular situation; useful in exploring sensitive issues. Limitations may include time consuming to conduct, transcribe and analyze, go in all directions because the participants who decide what to tell and have ethical issues involved in having people talk about very personal experiences.

hormones (Paper 1-bio)

are used to communicate between organs and tissues to physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood. They have the following effects on the body: stimulation or inhibition of growth, wake-sleep cycle and other circadian rhythms, mood swings, induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death), activation or inhibition of the immune system, regulation of metabolism, preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and other activity, preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, parenting, and menopause control of the reproductive cycle hunger cravings sexual arousal.

participant expectation (all papers)

bias that influences how the person thinks and behaves in the study and may include all of the following...social desirability, self preservation, artificial, Hawthorne effect, etc.

errors in attribution (Paper 1-socio-cul)

can be defined as a false assumption or distortion in perception or judgement about the causes of our own or other people's behaviour or thinking. Theories and studies have shown that there are two main AE's in attribution: the fundamental attribution error (FAE) and self-serving bias (SSB). Others include defensive attributuion bias, illusory correlation, modesty bias, in-group bias, halo effect and actor-observer bias. Attribution is how people interpret and explain causal relationships in the social world and society. This has laid foundations for the attribution theory (AT), proposed by Heider (1958), which attempts to provide an understanding and explanation for how people attribute causes to their own and other people's behaviour. We do this by observing others' behaviour and considering their intentions & responsibilities in that situation. According to Heider, when we observe somebody's behaviour we are inclined to attribute its cause to either dispositional (internal) factors of that person or to situational (external) causes. Dispositional factors are internal, psychological factors that influence behaviour E.g. personality, beliefs, mood For example, if you fail an exam, you could attribute it to the teacher (situational) or your own lack of study (dispositional) Situational factors are external factors that influence behaviour E.g. roles, luck, laws For example, attributing the loss of a soccer game performance to "bad weather."

emotion (Paper 1)

can be defined as the body's adaptive response to a particular situation. Ekman et al. (1972) identified/discovered 6 fundamental versions that were consistent across cultures. This includes (FASSHD): Fear Anger Surprise Sadness Happiness Disgust This primary set is viewed as universal that is, they are expressed facially in the same way, and are recognised, by all members of diverse cultures, which suggests perhaps that they are genetic (biological) rather than cognitive. Emotional memory/decision making is localized in the amygdala. Reference for emotion affecting cognitive processes include flashbulb memory studies and state-dependent memory studies. Two-factor theory[edit] Main article: Two-factor theory of emotion Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Interestingly, Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.[46] With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions. Cognitive theories[edit] With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur. One of the main proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order: Cognitive appraisal—The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion. Physiological changes—The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response. Action—The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react.

cultural norms (Paper 1-socio-cul)

can be defined as the rules that a specific group uses for stating what is seen as appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, values, beliefs, and attitudes. give people a sense of order and control in their lives as well as a sense of safety and belonging. Cultural norms may encompass communication style, whom to marry and how, child-rearing practices, or interaction between generations. can be explicit (e.g. legal codes) or implicit (i.e. conventional practices and rituals).

data triangulation (Paper 3)

comparison of data from multiple sources (different participants, observations from different days, pictures, texts, etc.) because bias is reduced and credibility is increased and provides additional sources to describe.

TO WHAT EXTENT (all papers)

consider the merits or otherwise of...

inductive content analysis/thematic analysis (Paper 3)

goal: give credible representation of the social world under investigation Process: 1. collecting data and making and initial analysis 2. preparing the data for content analysis 3. reading and re-reading material, identification of initial themes based on first readings of raw data 4. analyzing starts the data collection process and moves back and forth between data collection, analysis, and concept development 5. analysis of emerging low-level themes into higher-level themes and connections of 6. checking whether interpretations are credible 7. structuring emergent themes and making a summary table of themes--a hierarchy of themes 8. connecting subordinate themes with relevant quotations from transcripts to support the choice of each them and 9. inferences and conclusions are formed based on the summary table that reveals specific patterns in themes that can lead to formulation of theory

semi-structured interview (Paper 3)

consist of several key questions that help to define the areas to be explored, but also allows the interviewer or interviewee to diverge in order to pursue an idea or response in more detail. The flexibility of this approach also allows for the discovery or elaboration of information that is important to participants but may not have previously been thought of as pertinent by the research team. Open and closed-ended question can be sued. These interviews are informal and conversational and mostly face-to-face. Strengths include an interview guide with a combination of closed and open-ended questions which allows the researcher to ask specific questions while giving the participants the opportunity to talk more freely and in their own terms about their views on romantic love relationships, the flexibility of open-ended questions allows the research to obtain richer data because she or he can ask participants to elaborate on their answers, the face to face situation and nature of semi-structured interviews could give rise to establishing a positive rapport between the interviewer and the interviewees, which could be useful in a sensitive issue. Limitations include there may be limited time and space to explore themes that have not been planned in advance, data analysis of the transcripts is often very time-consuming compared to others and a lot of extra or irrelevant information may appear during the interview, which could make it difficult to analyze.

ethical considerations related to socio-cultural studies (Paper 1)

deception, risk benefit ratio, coercion, privacy, undue harm and stress--physical or mental, right to withdraw--may also address what the studies did well ethically

ethical considerations related to cognitive studies (Paper 1)

deception, undue harm and stress, risk benefit ratio, trauma, and more--may also address what the studies did well ethically

attachment (Paper 2-dvlp)

depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self, is a motivational and behavioral system that directs the child to seek proximity with a familiar caregiver when they are alarmed, with the expectation that they will receive protection and emotional support. John Bowlby believed that the tendency for primate infants to develop this to familiar caregivers was the result of evolutionary pressures, since the behavior would facilitate the infant's survival in the face of dangers such as predation or exposure to the elements. The most important tenet of the theory is that an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for the child's successful social and emotional development, and in particular for learning how to effectively regulate their feelings. Four different classifications have been identified in children: secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Secure is when children feel they can rely on their caregivers to attend to their needs of proximity, emotional support and protection. It is considered to be the best style. Separation anxiety is what infants feel when they are separated from their caregivers. Anxious-ambivalent is when the infant feels separation anxiety when separated from the caregiver and does not feel reassured when the caregiver returns to the infant. Anxious-avoidant is when the infant avoids their parents. Disorganized is when there is a lack of bonding behavior. In the 1980s, the theory was extended to adults. Attachment applies to adults when adults feel closeness to their parents and their romantic partners. Bowlby (1973) claims that there is a continuity between childhood and adult relationships, i.e. early patterns formed with parents continue in later relationships because they create an internal working model. The internal working model is a mental representation of the self, about the figure, and how others will react (social life). Internal working model: The child's experiences with figures during infancy, childhood, and adolescence result in expectations (mental representations or schemas) that persist relatively unchanged throughout the rest of life. If the child is confident that the figure is available when needed, the child will feel loved, secure and worthy of love and attention. According to Bowlby, the internal working model tends to be reproduced in later relationships (parenting, romantic love). Attachment history: The internal working model reflects the various experiences concerning accessibility and responsiveness of figures that an individual has experienced. Differences in experience with figures may explain different patterns as well as disorders.

schema theory (Paper 1-cog)

describes an organized pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them. It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information. They influence attention and the absorption of new knowledge: people are more likely to notice things that fit into their established versions, while re-interpreting contradictions as exceptions or distorting them to fit. They have a tendency to remain unchanged, even in the face of contradictory information. They can help in understanding the world and the rapidly changing environment. People can organize new perceptions quickly as most situations do not require complex thought when using these, since automatic thought is all that is required. People use them to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. Examples include academic rubrics, social associations, stereotypes, social roles, scripts, worldviews, and archetypes. In Piaget's theory of development, children construct a series of these to understand the world. References may include Loftus and Palmer on schema processing as a consequence of leading questions, Anderson and Pichert's schema processing on memory and encoding, Brewer and Treyen's office schema study, Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study

localization (Paper 1-bio)

different areas of the brain correlate with different functions, for example, the hippocampus with new memory formation, the prefrontal cortex with planning, thinking, and decision making, and the amygdala with emotional responses MORE...The cerebral cortex plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language and consciousness. It is divided into four main regions or lobes, which cover both hemispheres: the frontal lobe (involved in conscious thought and higher mental functions such as decision-making, particularly in that part of the frontal lobe known as the prefrontal cortex, and plays an important part in processing short-term memories and retaining longer term memories which are not task-based); the parietal lobe (involved in integrating sensory information from the various senses, and in the manipulation of objects in determining spatial sense and navigation); the temporal lobe (involved with the senses of smell and sound, the processing of semantics in both speech and vision, including the processing of complex stimuli like faces and scenes, and plays a key role in the formation of long-term memory); and the occipital lobe (mainly involved with the sense of sight). The medial temporal lobe (the inner part of the temporal lobe, near the divide between the left and right hemispheres) in particular is thought to be involved in declarative and episodic memory. Deep inside the medial temporal lobe is the region of the brain known as the limbic system, which includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, the cingulate gyrus, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the epithalamus, the mammillary body and other organs, many of which are of particular relevance to the processing of memory. The hippocampus, for example, is essential for memory function, particularly the transference from short- to long-term memory and control of spatial memory and behaviour. The hippocampus is one of the few areas of the brain capable actually growing new neurons, although this ability is impaired by stress-related glucocorticoids. The amygdala also performs a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions and social and sexual behaviour, as well as regulating the sense of smell.

research methods (all papers)

experiment, case study/interview (structured/unstructured/semi-structured), survey, naturalistic observation (overt/covert and participant/non-participant)--Be able to define and speak to pros AND cons for your extended responses on Paper One and Two!

methods most used by biological (Paper 1)

experiments, case studies, surveys (and in these often the use of neuroimaging technology)--speak to the pros and cons of these methods and the appreciation of multiple methods

methods most used by cognitive (Paper 1)

experiments, case studies, surveys--speak to the pros and cons of these methods and the appreciation of multiple methods

methods most used by socio-cultural (Paper 1)

experiments, naturalistic observations, surveys--speak to the pros and cons of these methods and the appreciation of multiple methods

DESCRIBE (all papers)

give a detailed account of...

EXPLAIN (all papers)

give a detailed account of...

COMPARE AND CONTRAST (all papers)

give an account of similarities and differences...Must do both to score.

OUTLINE (all papers)

give an account referring to a study or studies

ethical considerations (Paper 1)

informed consent, right to withdraw, undue harm and stress, deception, exploitation, sensitivity, confidentiality, anonymity, privacy, debriefing, ethical committee/review board, RISK BENEFIT RATIO, maintaining objectivity, danger, reflexivity, animal ethics, confederates (Ethical considerations can be positive as to what guidelines were followed or negative as to what guidelines were not followed.)

Biological Principles (Paper 1)

inheritance of behavior; animal research informs understanding of human behavior; cognitions, emotions, and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems (biological correlates of behavior)

focus group interview (Paper 3)

is a group discussion on a particular topic organised for research purposes. This discussion is guided, monitored and recorded by a researcher (sometimes called a moderator or facilitator). Usually a group of 6-10 interviewed at the same time with a facilitator, participants are supposed to interact with each other as in real life and to discuss and respond to each other's statements

oxytocin (Paper 1-bio)

is a hormone and is normally produced in the hypothalamus. It plays a role in social bonding, sexual reproduction in both sexes, and during and after childbirth. It is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response to stretching of the cervix and uterus during labor and with stimulation of the nipples from breastfeeding. This helps with birth, bonding with the baby, and milk production. Trust is increased by this hormone. Disclosure of emotional events is a sign of trust in humans. When recounting a negative event, humans who receive an intranasal version of this hormone share more emotional details and stories with more emotional significance. Humans also find faces more trustworthy after receiving a intranasal version. In a study, participants who received intranasal viewed photographs of human faces with neutral expressions and found them to be more trustworthy than those who did not receive the hormone. This may be because it reduces the fear of social betrayal in humans. Even after experiencing social alienation by being excluded from a conversation, humans who received the hormone scored higher in trust on the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Moreover, in a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered it displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that it was not merely affecting risk aversion. When there is a reason to be distrustful, such as experiencing betrayal, differing reactions are associated with this hormone's receptor gene (OXTR) differences. Those with the CT haplotype experience a stronger reaction, in the form of anger, to betrayal.

melatonin (Paper 1-bio)

is a hormone that anticipates the daily onset of darkness. In animals, it is involved in the entrainment (synchronization) of the circadian rhythms of physiological functions including sleep timing, blood pressure regulation, seasonal reproduction and many others. In vertebrates, it is produced in darkness, thus usually at night, by the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland located in the center of the brain but outside the blood-brain barrier. Light/dark information reaches the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) from retinal photosensitive ganglion cells of the eyes rather than this hormone's signal (as was once postulated).

Cognitive Principles (Paper 1)

mental representations guide behavior (humans are information processors with mental processes that guide behavior), mental processes can be scientifically investigated, cognitive processes are influenced socially and culturally, mental processing can be compared to computer function

stereotypes (Paper 1-socio-cul)

is a mental representation and a form of social categorization made about specific individuals or a group and its members. Once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the behaviour of the people or individual who hold the mental representation, and those who are labelled. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to the labels we place on others, but they are generally based on race and gender. This generalization may either be positive or negative, based on certain group membership or physical attributes, however most today are negative, exaggerating the quality and cognitively-associating such trait to all individuals that are part of the group leading to discrimination and prejudice, thus increasing self-esteem about themselves and their in-group. These are similar to schemas and are now also argued to be a schema process--those labelled are organized internal representations of individuals and or groups, therefore guiding how people act towards them. formation --> leading to affected behaviour There are several theories on the development, including social categorization grain of truth hypothesis, and illusory correlation. Old Theory - Social Categorization & Social Identity Theory Earlier on, Tajfel (1971) argued that stereotypes developed through a natural process of social categorization, which is when people categorize groups of people based on common traits or characteristics. However, this does not explain how it actually happens. Through categorization and by being part of thoughts resistant to change, labels have a tremendous potential to affect a certain group"s behaviour negatively, which can be explained by stereotype threat. Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype. Steele (1997) claims that the stereotypes" of prejudice is the cause of spotlight anxiety, an emotional stress that inhibits a stereotype-targeted individual"s performance.

purposive sampling (Paper 3)

is a non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available. Strengths are participants can accurately represent the topic under investigation because they are selected based on salient characteristics relevant to the research so they could provide rich data, it is relatively easy to select a sample and it can be supplemented with more participants during the research if necessary, it is useful when a researcher needs to select a sample quickly and if sampling for proportionality is not the main concern; limitations include sampling may be biased but if the sampling process is based on objective selection, documented and explained, bias can be reduced; the sample is not representative so it is difficult to generalize to a larger population.

gender roles (Paper 2-dvlp)

is a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex. These are usually centered around opposing conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are myriad exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. There is ongoing debate as to what extent their variations are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed. The term was first coined by John Money in 1955 during the course of his study of intersex individuals to describe the manners in which these individuals express their status as a male or female, in a situation where no clear biological assignment exists. Bandura's social learning theory suggests gender typing is a result of modelling, imitation and internalization of social transmitted gender roles. Gender schema theory suggests children internalize gender schemas about what is considered appropriate for a boy or a girl on the basis of what a particular culture dictates.

cortisol (Paper 1-bio)

is a steroid hormone and works with epinephrine (adrenaline) to create memories of short-term emotional events; this is the proposed mechanism for storage of flash bulb memories, and may originate as a means to remember what to avoid in the future. However, long-term exposure to this hormone damages cells in the hippocampus; this damage results in impaired learning. Furthermore, it has been shown that this hormone inhibits memory retrieval of already stored information. The activation of the stress system (and resulting increase in this hormone and Th2 shift) seen during an infection is believed to be a protective mechanism which prevents an over activation of the inflammatory response.This hormone can weaken the activity of the immune system.

testosterone (Paper 1-bio)

is a steroid hormone from the androgen group and is found in humans and other vertebrates. In humans and other mammals, it is secreted primarily by the testicles of males and, to a lesser extent, the ovaries of females. Small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands. It is the principal male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. Falling in love decreases men's levels while increasing women's levels. The literature suggests that attention, memory, and spatial ability are key cognitive functions affected by this hormone level in humans.

reflexivity (Paper 3)

is a strategy to reveal how a researcher's subjectivity contributes to the findings. It is when all information that may influenced the data collection, analysis, and interpretation should be noted. This type of effect is considered to occur when the observations or actions of observers in the social system affect the very situations they are observing, or theory being formulated is disseminated to and affects the behaviour of the individuals or systems the theory is meant to be objectively modelling and is, therefore, a methodological issue in the social sciences analogous to the observer effect. Reflexivity is one way to establish credibility/trustworthiness. There are epistemological and personal reflexivity.

genetic inheritance (Paper 1-bio)

is a term describing the phenomenon or process of transferring genetic informations from a parent to offspring, in a series of successive generations. Relatively widespread, but erroneous, is the belief that characteristics and traits are being inherited while it has been well-established what is inherited are only the genes, which are then exhibited in the descendants, depending on the heritability and the interaction with the external and intracellular environment. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype. The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.[3] As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. It cannot be said that a single gene is responsible for a specific behaviour - but it is a building block. But genetics alone does not affect behaviour. Environmental factors (e.g. culture, diet) also influence the development of an organism. Genes are complex. It is unlikely that a single gene is responsible for such complex behaviours as schizophrenia or depression. There is no causal relationship between a single gene and a specific behaviour. It is thought that what is inherited is the gene that can lead to the development of the specific behaviour, not the behaviour itself. This means that an individual may have a genetic predisposition to a behaviour but without appropriate environmental stimuli, the behaviour will not be manifested. Type of studies used in genetic research Twin studies are used in genetic research to study the correlation between genetic inheritance and behaviour due to the common genetics shared by twins. Monozygotic twins (MZT) identical - share 100% genetic material. Dizygotic twins (DZT) fraternal - share 50% genetic material. It is usually further explored, by studying the twins either separated or together to make a correlation of their behaviour. Adoption studies allow researchers to study the comparison between genetic and environmental influence on behaviour. Adopted children share no genes with their adoptive parents but 50% of genes with their biological parents. Family studies study behaviour between family members who have similar genetics to different degrees.

adolescence (Paper 2-dvlp)

is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority). The period is most closely associated with the teenage years, though its physical, psychological and cultural expressions may begin earlier and end later. For example, although puberty has been historically associated with the onset of this development, it now typically begins prior to the teenage years and there has been a normative shift of it occurring in preatimes, particularly in females (see precocious puberty). Physical growth, as distinct from puberty (particularly in males), and cognitive development generally seen in adolescence, can also extend into the early twenties. Thus chronological age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. not everyone agrees that it is a unique life period across all cultures, there are enormous individual and cultural differences in the adolescent experience, most research on adolescence has been conducted in the West Schlegel and Berry (1991) argue that even if there is no specific word for this growth, almost all cultures have a notion of what it is. In some non-industrialized cultures, the beginning of is marked by initiation ceremonies or rites of passage, which are major public events. Themes of initiation ceremonies may be related to adult responsibilities (e.g. productivity or fertility) in the various societies. In industrialized societies, there are no formal transition ceremonies and this leaves the period with no clear beginning or end. Hall (1904) described it as a period of "storm and stress". While it is true that some adolescents in the West may experience some problems during this period, it is not the norm. Possible references Erikson's identity formation, biological changes, Rutter, etc.

neuroplasticity (Paper 1-bio)

is an umbrella term that describes lasting change to the brain throughout an animal's life course. The term gained prominence in the latter half of the 20th century, when new research showed many aspects of the brain remain changeable (or "plastic") even into adulthood. This notion contrasts with the previous scientific consensus that the brain develops during a critical period in early childhood, then remains relatively unchangeable (or "static") afterward. Change can occur at small scales, such as physical changes to individual neurons, or at whole-brain scales, such as cortical remapping in response to injury; however cortical remapping only occurs during a certain time period meaning that if a child were injured and it resulted in brain damage then cortical remapping would most likely occur, however if an adult was injured and it resulted in brain damage, then cortical remapping would not occur since the brain has made the majority of its connections. Behavior, environmental stimuli, thought, and emotions may also cause change, which has significant implications for healthy development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage.

compliance techniques (Paper 1-socio-cul)

is another important aspect of behaviour within a group, can be defined as, according to Aronson et al. "a form of social influence, which is the result of direct pressure to respond to a request." Compliance techniques include reciprocity, foot in the door, low balling, door in the face, bait and switch. Conformity occurs when the situation does not exert direct pressure to follow the majority, but the pressure is often perceived by individuals as influencing their behaviour. It also involves publicly conforming to the behaviour or views of others but still privately maintaining one's own views. Cialdini, a key researcher into compliance and persuasion has outlined these techniques, ways in which individuals are influenced or persuaded by the demands or desires of others. (The result of direct pressure to respond to a request) Authority - people comply more often with those in positions of authority, e.g. famous people Commitment - once people have agreed to something, either by their behaviour or belief, they are likely to comply with similar requests (foor-in-the-door) Liking - people comply with requests from people they like Reciprocity - people often feel they need to "return a favour" Scarcity - opportunities seem more valuable to people when they are less readily available Social Proof - people view a behaviour as correct if they see others performing it

self-serving theory (Paper 1-socio-cul)

is any cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem, or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner. It is the belief that individuals tend to ascribe success to their own abilities and efforts, but ascribe failure to external factors. When individuals reject the validity of negative feedback, focus on their strengths and achievements but overlook their faults and failures, or take more responsibility for their group's work than they give to other members, they are protecting the ego from threat and injury. These cognitive and perceptual tendencies perpetuate illusions and error, but they also serve the self's need for esteem.

credibility (Paper 3)

is based on an evaluation of whether or not the research findings represent a credible interpretation of the data drawn from the participants' original data. The investigation must present a true picture of of the phenomenon under investigation and it should be possible to check how the results of the study were obtained. It helps establish trustworthiness and may include internal validity--whether or not the study measures what is actually intended. It is linked to participant expectations and research bias and depends on factors such as triangulation, researcher reflexivity, cross checking, peer review, and research disclosure.

resilience (Paper 2-dvlp)

is defined as an individual's ability to properly adapt to stress and adversity. Stress and adversity can come in the shape of family or relationship problems, health problems, or workplace and financial worries, among others.[1] In other words, it is one's ability to bounce back from a negative experience with "competent functioning". It is not a rare ability; in reality, it is found in the average individual and it can be learned and developed by virtually anyone. It should be considered a process, rather than a trait to be had. It is a process of individuation through a structured system with gradual discovery of personal and unique abilities. Protective and vulnerability factors include child's family and physical and social environment. Individual characteristics include capacity to make realistic plans, self-efficacy, skills in communication and problem solving and capacity to manage strong feelings and impulses. Rutter (1990): can be seen as maintaining adaptive functioning in spite of serious risk factors. Wyman et al. (2000): can be defined as a child's achievement of positive developmental outcomes and avoidance of maladaptive outcomes under adverse conditions.

covert naturalistic observation (Paper 3)

participants do not know they're being observed; pros--this makes it possible to study groups that can't otherwise be studied, limited or no reactivity; cons-- participants can't give informed consent, it can be dangerous if participants find out the researcher infiltrated their space w/o permission

overt naturalistic observation (Paper 3)

participants know they are being observed; pros--participants can be informed and give informed consent, data collection will be triangulated with interview data; cons--researcher may lose objectivity and become too involved, the researcher's presence is a potential source of bias (reactivity)

evolutionary explanation (Paper 1-bio)

is the changing in the inherited traits of a species over time. IT is at the biological level of analysis and aims to explain all behaviour by evolutionary means--natural selection, inheritance, sexual selection. Charles Darwin - the father of evolutionary psychology - proposed the theory of evolution, suggested those who adapt best to environmental challenges will have a greater chance of survival, reproduction, and passing on genes. Natural selection refers to the idea that members of a species that survive competition and breed will have characteristics better suited to the environment and are more likely to pass on these traits. Natural selection results in successive generations of a species developing characteristics that make it more competitive in its field - adaptation. If it is assumed that a predisposition for certain behaviours is inherited through genetics, and that the principles of evolution dictate that genetically based behaviours of an individual who has reproduced are passed on (while genetically based behaviours of unsuccessful individuals are lost over time), then behaviours observed today should have an evolutionary explanation. In essence, if behaviour exists in humans today, then it must have in the past helped in human survival and reproduction. Behaviour that has helped a species survive, thus reproduce is described as adaptive. The key assumption of all evolutionary psychological research is that human behaviour must have been adaptive under some circumstances in the past.

brain imaging (Paper 1)

is the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/pharmacology of the nervous system. It is a relatively new discipline within medicine and neuroscience/psychology. falls into two broad categories: Structural imaging, which deals with the structure of the nervous system and the diagnosis of gross (large scale) intracranial disease (such as tumor), and injury, and Functional imaging, which is used to diagnose metabolic diseases and lesions on a finer scale (such as Alzheimer's disease) and also for neurological and cognitive psychology research and building brain-computer interfaces. Functional imaging enables, for example, the processing of information by centers in the brain to be visualized directly. Such processing causes the involved area of the brain to increase metabolism and "light up" on the scan.

self-selected sampling (Paper 3)

is when we want to allow units, whether individuals or organisations, for example, to choose to take part in research on their own accord.

CT/CAT scan (Paper 1)

makes use of computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of specific areas of a scanned object, allowing the user to see inside the object without cutting.

PET (Paper 1)

measures emissions from radioactively labeled metabolically active chemicals that have been injected into the bloodstream. The emission data are computer-processed to produce 2- or 3-dimensional images of the distribution of the chemicals throughout the brain.[17] The positron emitting radioisotopes used are produced by a cyclotron, and chemicals are labeled with these radioactive atoms. The labeled compound, called a radiotracer, is injected into the bloodstream and eventually makes its way to the brain. Sensors in this scanner detect the radioactivity as the compound accumulates in various regions of the brain. A computer uses the data gathered by the sensors to create multicolored 2- or 3-dimensional images that show where the compound acts in the brain.

convenience sampling (Paper 3)

members of the population are chosen based on their relative ease of access. Such samples are biased because researchers may unconsciously approach some kinds of respondents and avoid others (Lucas 2014a), and respondents who volunteer for a study may differ in unknown but important ways from others (Wiederman 1999).

researcher bias (all papers)

occurs when a researcher unconsciously affects results, data, or a participant in an experiment due to subjective influence. It is difficult for humans to be entirely objective which is not being influenced by personal emotions, desires, or biases. This can occur at any phase of the research process from the initial background research to the final write-up of results. It is very important to consider it as a possible issue in any research setting. Steps can be taken to reduce the likelihood of its occurrence such as conducting blind studies and finding non-biased data collectors.

DISCUSS (all papers)

offer a considered and balanced (in support and counter theory) review...Must offer both supporting and countering evidence or theory.

cultural dimensions (Paper 1-socio-cul)

original theory proposed four of these along which values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task orientation versus person-orientation), long-term versus short-term orientation, monochronous versus polychronous time orientation. Independent research in Hong Kong led Hofstede to add a fifth, long-term orientation, to cover aspects of values not discussed in the original paradigm. In 2010 Hofstede added a sixth, indulgence versus self-restraint.

neurotransmission (Paper 1-bio)

process by which signaling molecules called neurotransmitters are released by a neuron (the presynaptic neuron), and bind to and activate the receptors of another neuron (the postsynaptic neuron), essential for the process of communication between two neurons. Synaptic transmission relies on: the availability of the neurotransmitter; the release of the neurotransmitter by exocytosis; the binding of the postsynaptic receptor by the neurotransmitter; the functional response of the postsynaptic cell; and the subsequent removal or deactivation of the neurotransmitter. In response to a threshold action potential or graded electrical potential, a neurotransmitter is released at the presynaptic terminal. The released neurotransmitter may then move across the synapse to be detected by and bind with receptors in the postsynaptic neuron. Binding of neurotransmitters may influence the postsynaptic neuron in either an inhibitory or excitatory way. The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron can trigger either short term changes, such as changes in the membrane potential called postsynaptic potentials, or longer term changes by the activation of signaling cascades. Neurons form elaborate networks through which nerve impulses (action potentials) travel. Each neuron has as many as 15,000 connections with other neurons. Neurons do not touch each other (except in the case of an electrical synapse through a gap junction); instead, neurons interact at close contact points called synapses. A neuron transports its information by way of an action potential. When the nerve impulse arrives at the synapse, it may cause the release of neurotransmitters, which influence another (postsynaptic) neuron. The postsynaptic neuron may receive inputs from many additional neurons, both excitatory and inhibitory. The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed, and if the net effect is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to "fire" (i.e., generate an action potential), and if the net effect is excitatory, the neuron will be more likely to fire. How likely a neuron is to fire depends on how far its membrane potential is from the threshold potential, the voltage at which an action potential is triggered because enough voltage-dependent sodium channels are activated so that the net inward sodium current exceeds all outward currents. Excitatory inputs bring a neuron closer to threshold, while inhibitory inputs bring the neuron farther from threshold. An action potential is an "all-or-none" event; neurons whose membranes have not reached threshold will not fire, while those that do must fire. Once the action potential is initiated (traditionally at the axon hillock), it will propagate along the axon, leading to release of neurotransmitters at the synaptic bouton to pass along information to yet another adjacent neuron

before interview considerations (Paper 3)

relevant and appropriate sampling methods should be considered: purposive (targets a a particular group of people), convenience (those that are available at the time) and snowball sampling (helps save time and energy choosing participants). informed consent: the participants need to agree and be informed on their participation in the interview, as it is their right to know. protecting participants from harm: even in an interview, participants should leave the interview in the same conditions as the ones they entered. Training of interviewer: he should act professionally, so that the interviewer effect (related to his gender, age, or ethnicity) affect, he should as well have people skills so that he can establish a good relationship with the person being interviewed. Choose the most appropriate type of interview that's going to be used: structured (schedule exactly as they should be asked) unstructured (only specifies the topic) semi-structured (more like an informal conversation) Choice interviews: people respond differently depending on the gender of the interviewer Interview guide: even when the interview is not necessarily structured, the researcher should have a basic guide of whats being looked for. Choose: descriptive: general account of something, structural: identify meanings to make sense of the world, contrast (compare events or things), evaluative: ask about feelings. Transcription of data: verbatim (word to word) postmodern transcripts (include even no verbal factors, such as laughter, false alarms etc) Reflexivity: assumption that its important the researcher is aware of his own contributions to the construction of meaning in the research process.

fMRI (Paper 1)

relies on the paramagnetic properties of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin to see images of changing blood flow in the brain associated with neural activity. This allows images to be generated that reflect which brain structures are activated (and how) during performance of different tasks or at resting state. According to the oxygenation hypothesis, changes in oxygen usage in regional cerebral blood flow during cognitive or behavioral activity can be associated with the regional neurons as being directly related to the cognitive or behavioral tasks being attended. Most of these scanners allow subjects to be presented with different visual images, sounds and touch stimuli, and to make different actions such as pressing a button or moving a joystick. Consequently, these scans can be used to reveal brain structures and processes associated with perception, thought and action.

Socio-cultural Principles (Paper 1)

social and cultural environment influences individual behavior, we are social animals wanting connectedness and belonging to others—group membership, we construct conceptions of the self and other, people's views of the world are resistant to change, our behavior is influenced by others even when we think we are acting independently

EXAMINE (all papers)

uncover the assumptions...

ethical considerations related to biological studies (Paper 1)

undue harm and stress, animal ethics, risk benefit ratio, exploitation, and more--may also address what the studies did well ethically

method triangulation (Paper 3)

use of different methods (observation, interview, case study, etc.) in the same study because bias is reduced and credibility increased and takes advantage of the strengths of various methods and compensates for methodological limitations