Psych Section 5
manic episode
"distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one week," that lasts most of the time each day -flight of ideas -grandiosity -reckless behaviors could experience rapid-cycling risk factors: -higher in men -1/2 onset before 25 -90% have comorbid disorder, most often an anxiety disorder or a substance abuse problem
major depressive disorder
-"depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day" (feeling sad, empty, hopeless, or appearing tearful to others), and loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities -total of five symptoms for at least a two-week period; these symptoms must cause significant distress or impair normal functioning, and they must not be caused by substances or a medical condition -significant weight loss (when not dieting) or weight gain and/or significant decrease or increase in appetite; -difficulty falling asleep or sleeping too much -psychomotor agitation (the person is noticeably fidgety and jittery or psychomotor retardation (the person talks and moves slowly -fatigue or loss of energy; -feelings of worthlessness or guilt; -difficulty concentrating and indecisiveness; and -suicidal ideation -episodic -often results in unavailability for work or education, abandonment of promising careers, and lost wages; occasionally, the condition requires hospitalization
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
--thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) -obsessions are characterized as persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing -know irrational -Compulsions are repetitive and ritualistic acts that are typically carried out primarily as a means to minimize the distress that obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event -two dozen potential genes that may be involved in OCD; these genes regulate the function of three neurotransmitters: serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate (need more research) -orbitofrontal cortex-area of the frontal lobe involved in learning and decision-making--becomes especially hyperactive when they are provoked with tasks -OCD circuit; this circuit consists of several interconnected regions that influence the perceived emotional value of stimuli and the selection of both behavioral and cognitive responses
postraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
-Extremely stressful or traumatic events, such as combat, natural disasters, and terrorist attacks, place the people who experience them at an increased risk for developing -symptoms:intrusive and distressing memories of the event, flashbacks (states that can last from a few seconds to several days, during which the individual relives the event and behaves as if the event were occurring at that moment, avoidance of stimuli connected to the event, persistently negative emotional states (e.g., fear, anger, guilt, and shame), feelings of detachment from others, irritability, proneness toward outbursts, and an exaggerated startle response (jumpiness). For PTSD to be diagnosed,must occur at least 1 month. social support following a traumatic event can reduce the likelihood of PTSD -
occupational-related stressors
-Stressors can include situations in which one is frequently exposed to challenging and unpleasant events, such as difficult, demanding, or unsafe working conditions -heavy workload and uncertainty about and lack of control over certain aspects of a job
stress
-a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his well-being -people differ in how they view and react to challenging life events and situations -appraisal- how ppl judge the event
cognitive theories of depression
-triggered by negative thoughts, interpretations, self-evaluations, and expectations -diathesis-stress models propose that depression is triggered by a "cognitive vulnerability" (negative and maladaptive thinking) and by precipitating stressful life events
generalized anxiety disorder
-a relatively continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension -worry about routine, everyday things, even though their concerns are unjustified -occurs more days than not for at least six months, and is accompanied by any three of the following symptoms: restlessness, difficulty concentrating, being easily fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties -genetic factors play a modest role -worry represents a mental strategy to avoid more powerful negative emotions perhaps stemming from earlier unpleasant or traumatic experiences.
cortisol
-a stress hormone and helps provide that boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight. However, sustained elevated levels of cortisol weaken the immune system.
health psychology
-a subfield of psychology devoted to understanding the importance of psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill -In addition to studying the connection between stress and illness, health psychologists investigate issues such as why people make certain lifestyle choices (e.g., smoking or eating unhealthy food despite knowing the potential adverse health implications of such behaviors). Health psychologists also design and investigate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at changing unhealthy behaviors. Perhaps one of the more fundamental tasks of health psychologists is to identify which groups of people are especially at risk for negative health outcomes, based on psychological or behavioral factors.
Chronic occupational stress contributes to job strain
-a work situation that combines excessive job demands and workload with little discretion in decision making or job control -increased risk of hypertension, heart attacks, recurrence of heart disease after a first heart attack, significant weight loss or gain, and major depressive disorder
physiological impacts of stress
-accelerated heart rate, headaches, or gastrointestinal problems), cognitive (e.g., difficulty concentrating or making decisions), and behavioral (e.g., drinking alcohol, smoking, or taking actions directed at eliminating the cause of the stress)
Of all the possible stress reduction techniques, exercise has the most health benefits. All of the following are possible reasons why aerobic exercise seems to promote stress relief and improve well-being EXCEPT:
-aerobic exercise increases serotonin production -aerobic exercise increases the production of endorphins *aerobic exercise increases the production of cytokines (proteins that are released as a part of an immune system response to an infection--in an overall sense aerobic exercise can improve immune functioning but cytokines are specific response to illness/infection) -aerobic exercise increases the production of naturally occurring opiates
factors connected to happiness
-age--life satisfaction inc the older ppl get -Family and other social relationships--tend to have more friends, more high-quality social relationships, and stronger social support networks than less happy ppl -money--residents of affluent countries tend to be happier than residents of poor countries; within countries, wealthy individuals are happier than poor individuals, but the association is much weaker--income w/in societies appears to correlate with happiness only up to a point ($75,000) -happy ppl more likely to graduate college + secure more meaningful and engaging jobs -religion--nations with difficult living conditions, religiosity is associated with greater well-being; in nations with more favorable living conditions, religious and nonreligious individuals report similar levels of well-being -culture
type A
-aggressive and chronic struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time -excessive competitive drive, chronic sense of time urgency, impatience, and hostility toward others (particularly those who get in the person's way) -anger/hostility dimension of Type A behavior pattern may be one of the most important factors in the development of heart disease. -hostility and social strain form a cycle
alarm reaction
-body's immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency, and it is roughly analogous to the fight-or-flight response described by Cannon -alerted to a stressor, and your body alarms you with a cascade of physiological reactions that provide you with the energy to manage the situation
stress and the immune system
-body's surveillance system -it keeps us healthy and disease free by eliminating harmful bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances that have entered the body -immunosuppression, the decreased effectiveness of the immune system
happiness
-can be defined diff by diff ppl -consists of three distinct elements: 1.the pleasant life--realized through the attainment of day-to-day pleasures that add fun, joy, and excitement to our lives 2.the good life--achieved through identifying our unique skills and abilities and engaging these talents to enrich our lives 3.the meaningful life--deep sense of fulfillment that comes from using our talents in the service of the greater good happiest people tend to be those who pursue the full life—they orient their pursuits toward all three elements long term state-- characterized as subjective well-being
good stress
-can sometimes be a positive, motivating force that can improve the quality of our lives -eustress -associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance -moderate stress can enhance both immediate and delayed recall of educational material
hoarding disorder
-cannot bear to part with personal possessions, regardless of how valueless or useless these possessions are -believe the items might be of some later use, or because they form a sentimental attachment to the items -only if the hoarding is not caused by another medical condition and if the hoarding is not a symptom of another disorder (e.g., schizophrenia)
Cardiovascular disorders
-cardiovascular system is composed of the heart and blood circulation system -heart disease- angina—chest pains or discomfort that occur when the heart does not receive enough blood -A major risk factor for heart disease is hypertension, which is high blood pressure-- can lead to a heart attack, stroke, or heart failure; it can also lead to kidney failure and blindness -risk factors of cardiovascular disorders include social determinants such as aging, income, education, and employment status, as well as behavioral risk factors that include unhealthy diet, tobacco use, physical inactivity, and excessive alcohol consumption; obesity and diabetes are additional risk factors -exposure to stressors of many kinds has also been linked to cardiovascular problems
asthma
-chronic and serious disease in which the airways of the respiratory system become obstructed, leading to great difficulty expelling air from the lungs -often triggered by environmental factors, such as air pollution, allergens (e.g., pollen, mold, and pet hairs), cigarette smoke, airway infections, cold air or a sudden change in temperature, and exercise -will experience asthma symptoms if they expect them -report and display a high level of negative emotions such as anxiety, and asthma attacks have been linked to periods of high emotionality
stressors
-chronic- events that persist over an extended period of time, such as caring for a parent with dementia, long-term unemployment, or imprisonment -acute-brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as overwhelming well after the event has ended, such as falling on an icy sidewalk and breaking your leg -traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, as well as other situations in which a person is regularly exposed to threat, challenge, or danger
International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
-classification system -used for clinical purposes, this tool is also used to examine the general health of populations and to monitor the prevalence of diseases and other health problems internationally
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
-classification system -includes many categories of disorders (e.g., anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and dissociative disorders). Each disorder is described in detail, including an overview of the disorder (diagnostic features), specific symptoms required for diagnosis (diagnostic criteria), prevalence information (what percent of the population is thought to be afflicted with the disorder), and risk factors associated with the disorder -comorbidity; the co-occurrence of two disorders
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
-consisting of 43 life events that require varying degrees of personal readjustment -Holmes and Rahe also proposed that life events can add up over time, and that experiencing a cluster of stressful events increases one's risk of developing physical illnesses -accumulating a high number of life change units within a brief period of time (one or two years) is related to a wide range of physical illnesses (even accidents and athletic injuries) and mental health problems
headache
-continuous pain anywhere in the head and neck region -sinuses caused by an infection or allergic reaction can cause sinus headaches, which are experienced as pain in the cheeks and forehead -migraines -severe pain on one or both sides of the head, an upset stomach, and disturbed vision -Tension headaches are triggered by tightening/tensing of facial + neck muscles; most common -tension headaches, including sleep deprivation, skipping meals, eye strain, overexertion, muscular tension caused by poor posture, and stress -stress may contribute to tension headaches by increasing pain sensitivity in already-sensitive pain pathways in tension headache sufferers
life changes
-death of a close family member, marriage, divorce, and moving
emotional states linked with heart disease
-depression -negative affectivity-tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness
depressive disorders
-depression is the main feature -sad, discouraged, and hopeless. These individuals lose interest in activities once enjoyed, often experience a decrease in drives such as hunger and sex, and frequently doubt personal worth -major depressive disorder
Schizophrenia
-devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior -significant difficulties in many day-to-day activities, such as holding a job, paying bills, caring for oneself (grooming and hygiene), and maintaining relationships with others symptoms:hallucinations (auditory most common), delusions, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behavior, and negative -delusions -disorganized thinking disorganized/abnormal motor behavior Negative symptoms are those that reflect noticeable decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, or drives -Avolition: lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity, including the most basic of tasks (bathing) -Alogia: reduced speech output -asociality, or social withdrawal and lack of interest in engaging in social interactions with others. -anhedonia: inability to experience pleasure
emotion-focused coping
-efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress -include avoiding, minimizing, or distancing oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others, or seeking something positive in a negative event -sometimes involves reappraisal, whereby the stressor is construed differently (and somewhat self-deceptively) without changing its objective level of threat -treating the symptoms rather than the actual cause -more likely to predominate when faced with stressors that we believe we are powerless to change
Depression is linked to abnormal activity in several regions of the brain including those important in assessing the emotional significance of stimuli and experiencing emotions (amygdala), and in regulating and controlling emotions (like the prefrontal cortex, or PFC)
-elevated amygdala activity, especially when presented with negative emotional stimuli (even if outside conscious awareness), and it persists even after the negative emotional stimuli are no longer present -less activation in the prefrontal, particularly on the left side--PFC can dampen amygdala activation, thereby enabling one to suppress negative emotions, decreased activation in certain regions of the PFC may inhibit its ability to override negative emotions that might then lead to more negative mood states -abnormal levels of cortisol,a stress hormone released into the blood by the neuroendocrine system during times of stress--activates activity in the amygdala while deactivating activity in the PFC
anxiety disorders
-excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior -more common in women than they are in men -most frequently occurring class of mental disorders and are often comorbid with each other and with other mental disorders
stress reduction techniques
-exercise-- more physically fit ppl more resistant to the adverse effects of stress and recover more quickly from stress than less physically fit ppl--might buffer some of the deleterious physiological mechanisms of stress--prevent telomere shortening(look young)--minimize the detrimental effects of stress on the hippocampus and memory -
dissociative identity disorder (DID)(formerly called multiple personality disorder)
-exhibit two or more separate personalities or identities, each well-defined and distinct from one another -memory gaps -may hear voices history of childhood trauma -traumatic experiences can cause people to experience states of dissociation, suggesting that dissociative states—including the adoption of multiple personalities—may serve as a psychologically important coping mechanism for threat and danger
social anxiety disorder
-extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others -concern that he may act in a humiliating or embarrassing way, such as appearing foolish, showing symptoms of anxiety (blushing), or doing or saying something that might lead to rejection (such as offending others) -problems include public speaking, having a conversation, meeting strangers, eating in restaurants, and, in some cases, using public restrooms -may resort to self-medication, such as drinking alcohol, as a means to avert the anxiety symptoms they experience in social situations can develop through conditioning experiences -risk factor: behavioral inhibition-an inherited trait, and it is characterized by a consistent tendency to show fear and restraint when presented with unfamiliar people or situations--displayed very early in life
flow
-factor that seems to be important in fostering a deep sense of well-being -a particular experience that is so engaging and engrossing that it becomes worth doing for its own sake -usually related to creative endeavors and leisure activities, but it can also be experienced by workers who like their jobs or students who love studying -become involved in an activity to the point where they feel they lose themselves in the activity. They effortlessly maintain their concentration and focus, they feel as though they have complete control of their actions, and time seems to pass more quickly than usual -considered a pleasurable experience, and it typically occurs when people are engaged in challenging activities that require skills and knowledge they know they possess
Psychoneuroimmunology
-field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune system and immune functioning -many kinds of stressors are associated with poor or weakened immune functioning -stress hormones released during hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation can adversely impact immune function. One way they do this is by inhibiting the production of lymphocytes, white blood cells that circulate in the body's fluids that are important in the immune response
physiological basis of stress
-generally involve the work of two systems—the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis 1.sympathetic nervous system releases adrenaline from adrenal glands (activates f-or-f) -HPA axis which is primarily endocrine in nature, becomes especially active, although it works much more slowly than the sympathetic nervous system 2. hypothalamus (one of the limbic structures in the brain) releases corticotrophin-releasing factor, a hormone that causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 3.ACTH then activates the adrenal glands to secrete a number of hormones into the bloodstream; an important one is cortisol
biological perspective views psychological disorders
-genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities -abnormalities in brain structure and function might be directly involved in many disorders, and advances in our understanding of neurotransmitters and hormones have yielded insights into their possible connections -most psychological disorders have a genetic component; in fact, there is little dispute that some disorders are largely due to genetic factors
social support
-he soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances -fundamental human motive -advice, guidance, encouragement, acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance (such as financial help) -individuals with stronger social relationships have a 50% greater likelihood of survival -work by boosting the immune system, especially among people who are experiencing stress -shown to reduce blood pressure for people performing stressful tasks -may lead to better health behaviors, such as a healthy diet, exercising, smoking cessation, and cooperation with medical regimens
If exposure to a stressor is prolonged, the organism will enter the stage of resistance
-initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to the stressor -body also remains on alert and is prepared to respond as it did during the alarm reaction, with less intensity
primary appraisal
-judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail -it could lead to some kind of harm, loss, or other negative consequence; conversely, a stressor would likely be appraised as a challenge if one believes that it carries the potential for gain or personal growth.
secondary appraisal
-judgment of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as perceptions of how effective such options will be -A threat tends to be viewed as less catastrophic if one believes something can be done about it -
When people with social anxiety disorder are unable to avoid situations that provoke anxiety, they typically perform safety behaviors
-mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcome -avoiding eye contact, rehearsing sentences before speaking, talking only briefly, and not talking about oneself -these actions usually exacerbate the problem because they do not allow the individual to disconfirm his negative beliefs, often eliciting rejection and other negative reactions from others -
daily hassles
-minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives (e.g., rush hour traffic, lost keys, obnoxious coworkers, inclement weather, arguments with friends or family)—can build on one another and leave us just as stressed as life change events
causes of OCD
-moderate genetic component -
bipolar disorder (manic depression)
-mood states that vacillate between depression and mania;mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other diagnosis: -at least one manic episode
rumination
-repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and dwelling on depressed symptoms, rather that distracting one's self from the symptoms or attempting to address them in an active, problem- solving manner -tendency to ruminate is associated with increases in depression symptoms , heightened risk of major depressive episodes, and chronicity of such episodes
Risk Factors for Major Depressive Disorder
-more common among women -biological and gender-related environmental experiences -unemployment (including homemakers); earning < $20,000/yr; living in urban areas; or being separated, divorced, or widowed -Comorbid disorders include anxiety disorders and substance abuse disorders subtypes (specifiers): -labels used to indicate specific patterns of symptoms or to specify certain periods of time in which the symptoms may be present -seasonal pattern -peripartum onset (commonly referred to as postpartum depression) -persistent depressive disorder
Cannon and the fight-or-flight response
-occurs when a person experiences very strong emotions—especially those associated with a perceived threat -body is rapidly aroused by activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system -arousal helps prepare the person to either fight or flee from a perceived threat. -built-in mechanism that assists in maintaining homeostasis -adaptive because it enables people to adjust internally and externally to threats in their environment, allowing them to continue to be alive and overcome the threat
People are often poor at affective forecasting: predicting the intensity and duration of their future emotions
-often incorrect when estimating how our long-term happiness would change for the better or worse in response to certain life events -we eventually adjust to the emotional new normal; the emotional impact of the event tends to erode, and we eventually revert to our original baseline happiness levels -often do not fully adapt to unemployment or severe disabilities or widowed
problem-focused coping
-one attempts to manage or alter the problem that is causing one to experience stress -identifying the problem, considering possible solutions, weighing the costs and benefits of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative -actively try to do things to address the problem -more likely to occur when encountering stressors we perceive as controllable
perceived control
-our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes -has major implications for our health and happiness -greater personal control: better physical and mental health and greater psychological well-being, and lower reactivity to stressors in daily life--more likely that they will better manage their health and engage in behaviors conducive to good health
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
-overabundance of dopamine in the limbic system may be responsible for some symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions, whereas low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex might be responsible primarily for the negative symptoms (avolition, alogia, asociality, and anhedonia)
hopelessness theory
-particular style of negative thinking leads to a sense of hopelessness, which then leads to depression -hopelessness stems from a tendency to perceive negative life events as having stable ("It's never going to change") and global ("It's going to affect my whole life") causes -predicts that people who exhibit this cognitive style in response to undesirable life events will view such events as having negative implications for their future and self-worth, thereby increasing the likelihood of hopelessness—the primary cause of depression
panic attack
-period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes. (unexpected) - symptoms: accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills, dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy, and fears of dying -misinterpret them as a sign that something is intensely wrong internally (thinking, for example, that the pounding heart represents an impending heart attack) -some genetic reason -classical conditioning responses to subtle bodily sensations resembling those normally occurring when one is anxious or frightened (asthma ppl 3x more likely) -prone to interpret ordinary bodily sensations catastrophically, and these fearful interpretations set the stage for panic attacks
If exposure to a stressor continues over a longer period of time, the stage of exhaustion ensues
-person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor -physical wear takes its toll on the body's tissues and organs -illness, disease, and other permanent damage to the body—even death—may occur
Many theories suggest that phobias develop through learning
-phobias can be acquired through three major learning pathways. 1.classical conditioning 2.vicarious learning, such as modeling 3.verbal transmission or information people are more likely to develop phobias of things that do not represent much actual danger to themselves, such as animals and heights, and are less likely to develop phobias toward things that present legitimate danger in contemporary society, such as motorcycles and weapons
psychophysiological disorders
-physical symptoms are real and they can be produced or exacerbated by psychological factors (hence the psycho and physiological in psychophysiological) -cardiovascular disorders and asthma
body dysmorphic disorder
-preoccupied with a perceived flaw in physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people -drives the person to engage in repetitive and ritualistic behavioral and mental acts, such as constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body part, comparisons with others, and, in some extreme cases, cosmetic surgery
Depersonalization/derealization disorder
-recurring episodes of depersonalization, derealization/both . Depersonalization -feelings of "unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, one's whole self or from aspects of the self"--thoughts not own, feel robotic, distorted time, extreme: out of body Derealization -sense of "unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, the world, be it individuals, inanimate objects, or all surroundings"-- feel in a fog or a dream, world is somehow artificial and unreal
positive affect
-refers to pleasurable engagement with the environment, such as happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement -Independent of age, gender, and income, positive affect is associated with greater social connectedness, emotional and practical support, adaptive coping efforts, and lower depression; it is also associated with longevity and favorable physiological functioning -protective factor against heart disease -
positive psychology
-science of happiness -seeks to identify and promote those qualities that lead to greater fulfillment in our lives -looks at people's strengths and what helps individuals to lead happy, contented lives, and it moves away from focusing on people's pathology, faults, and problems -topics studied by positive psychologists include altruism and empathy, creativity, forgiveness and compassion, the importance of positive emotions, enhancement of immune system functioning, savoring the fleeting moments of life, and strengthening virtues as a way to increase authentic happiness
mood disorder
-severe disturbances in mood and emotions—most often depression, but also mania and elation -mood fluctuations are extreme, distort their outlook on life, and impair their ability to function -depressive disorders -Bipolar and related disorders
traumatic events
-situations in which a person is exposed to actual or threatened death or serious injury -Some individuals who are exposed to stressors of extreme magnitude develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a chronic stress reaction characterized by experiences and behaviors that may include intrusive and painful memories of the stressor event, jumpiness, persistent negative emotional states, detachment from others, angry outbursts, and avoidance of reminders of the event
relaxation response technique
-stress reduction method 1.sitting upright on a comfortable chair with feet on the ground and body in a relaxed position, 2.being in a quiet environment with eyes closed, 3.repeating a word or a phrase—a mantra—to oneself, such as "alert mind, calm body," 4.passively allowing the mind to focus on pleasant thoughts, such as nature or the warmth of your blood nourishing your body -reduces sympathetic arousal -used effectively to treat high BP
biological basis of mood disorders
-strong genetic and biological basis -imbalances in certain neurotransmitters, particularly norepinephrine and serotonin--important regulators of the bodily functions that are disrupted in mood disorders, including appetite, sex drive, sleep, arousal, and mood meds-typically boost serotonin and norepinephrine activity, whereas lithium—used in the treatment of bipolar disorder—blocks norepinephrine activity at the synapses
Psychopathology
-study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment
risk factors for suicide
-substance abuse -previous attempt -Withdrawal from social relationships, feeling as though one is a burden to others, and engaging in reckless and risk-taking behaviors may be precursors to suicidal behavior -another's suicide, especially that of a family member, heightens one's risk of suicide -disturbances in the functioning of serotonin
diathesis-stress model
-suggests that people with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress) -diathesis and stress, are necessary in the development of a disorder -level of stress needed to produce the disorder is inversely proportional to the level of diathesis.
LEARNING AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PTSD
-symptoms are developed and maintained through classical conditioning. The traumatic event may act as an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response characterized by extreme fear and anxiety. Cognitive, emotional, physiological, and environmental cues accompanying or related to the event are conditioned stimuli. These traumatic reminders evoke conditioned responses (extreme fear and anxiety) similar to those caused by the event itself -facilitated acquisition of conditioned responses and delayed extinction of conditioned responses in people with PTSD cognitive factors -two key processes are crucial: disturbances in memory for the event, and negative appraisals of the trauma and its aftermath
biofeedback
-technique to reduce stress -uses electronic equipment to accurately measure a person's neuromuscular and autonomic activity—feedback is provided in the form of visual or auditory signals -providing somebody biofeedback will enable the individual to develop strategies that help gain some level of voluntary control over what are normally involuntary bodily processes -facial muscle movement, brain activity, and skin temperature -successful w tension headaches, high blood pressure, asthma, and phobias
Selye and the General Adaptation Syndrome
-the body's nonspecific physiological response to stress -when exposed to prolonged negative stimulation (stressors)—such as extreme cold, surgical injury, excessive muscular exercise, and shock—the rats showed signs of adrenal enlargement, thymus and lymph node shrinkage, and stomach ulceration -three stages: (1) alarm reaction, (2) stage of resistance, and (3) stage of exhaustion
increasing happiness
-thoughtfully developed well-being interventions designed to augment people's baseline levels of happiness may increase happiness in ways that are permanent and long-lasting, not just temporary -average national happiness scores (over time and across countries) relate strongly to six key variables: per capita gross domestic product (GDP, which reflects a nation's economic standard of living), social support, freedom to make important life choices, healthy life expectancy, freedom from perceived corruption in government and business, and generosity -
psychological disorder
-to label behaviors, thoughts, and inner experiences that are atypical, distressful, dysfunctional, and sometimes even dangerous, as signs of a disorder -some disorders, although not exactly typical, are far from atypical, and the rates in which they appear in the population are surprisingly high -harmful dysfunction consists of- -significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors -disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction -disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in one's life -disturbances do not reflect expected or culturally approved responses to certain events
risk factors for PTSD
-trauma experience, greater trauma severity, lack of immediate social support, and more subsequent life stress -female gender, low socioeconomic status, low intelligence, personal history of mental disorders, history of childhood adversity (abuse or other trauma during childhood), and family history of mental disorders -Personality characteristics such as neuroticism and somatization (the tendency to experience physical symptoms when one encounters stress) -possess one or two short versions of a gene that regulates the neurotransmitter serotonin--interaction of psychosocial and biological factors
dissociative amnesia
-unable to recall important personal information, usually following an extremely stressful or traumatic experience such as combat, natural disasters, or being the victim of violence -some experience dissociative fugue, whereby they suddenly wander away from their home, experience confusion about their identity, and sometimes even adopt a new identity
Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior
-unusual behaviors and movements: becoming unusually active, exhibiting silly child-like behaviors (giggling and self-absorbed smiling), engaging in repeated and purposeless movements, or displaying odd facial expressions and gestures catatonic behaviors, which show decreased reactivity to the environment, such as posturing, in which the person maintains a rigid and bizarre posture for long periods of time, or catatonic stupor, a complete lack of movement and verbal behavior
early warning signs of schizophrenia
-unusual thought content, paranoia, odd communication, delusions, problems at school or work, and a decline in social functioning—which are coined prodromal symptoms genetic risk (a family history of psychosis), recent deterioration in functioning, high levels of unusual thought content, high levels of suspicion or paranoia, poor social functioning, and a history of substance abuse
Some people who are exposed to chronically stressful work conditions can experience job burnout
-which is a general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one's job -occurs frequently among those in human service jobs (e.g., social workers, teachers, therapists, and police officers) -first dimension is exhaustion—a sense that one's emotional resources are drained or that one is at the end of her rope and has nothing more to give at a psychological level. -Second, job burnout is characterized by depersonalization: a sense of emotional detachment between the worker and the recipients of his services, often resulting in callous, cynical, or indifferent attitudes toward these individuals. -Third, job burnout is characterized by diminished personal accomplishment, which is the tendency to evaluate one's work negatively by, for example, experiencing dissatisfaction with one's job-related accomplishments or feeling as though one has categorically failed to influence others' lives through one's work
People with Type A personality and who respond to stressful events with ________ are more likely to suffer from a heart problems.
Hostility
delusions
beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence -absurd paranoid delusions, which involve the (false) belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm the person grandiose delusions, beliefs that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important Other delusions include the belief that one's thoughts are being removed (thought withdrawal) or thoughts have been placed inside one's head (thought insertion) somatic delusion, which is the belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one's body (e.g., that one's kidneys are being eaten by cockroaches)
examples of catecholamines
epinephrine and norepinephrine
specific phobia (formerly known as simple phobia)
excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (such as animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying) -people realize their level of fear is irrational, some people with a specific phobia may go to great lengths to avoid the phobic stimulus -disruptive to life
Causes of Schizophrenia
genes -diathesis-stress interpretation of schizophrenia—both genetic vulnerability and environ stress are necessary for schizophrenia to develop, genes alone do not show the complete picture neurotransmitters -dopamine-drugs that increase dopamine levels can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms, and medications that block dopamine activity reduce the symptoms -serotonin--meds block serotonin receptors brain anatomy -enlarged ventricles, the cavities within the brain that contain cerebral spinal fluid (other regions reduced) -reduction in gray matter (cell bodies of neurons) in frontal lobes + many show less frontal lobe activity when performing cognitive tasks pregnancy events -High rates of obstetric complication -influenza 1st tri -emotional stress marijuana use (correlation is not causation) -arly marijuana use may disrupt normal brain development during important early maturation periods in adolescence
Bipolar and related disorders
group of disorders in which mania is the defining feature. Mania is a state of extreme elation and agitation. When people experience mania, they may become extremely talkative, behave recklessly, or attempt to take on many tasks simultaneously
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors -elevate the unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors to a status so intense that these cognitions and activities disrupt daily life. Included in this category are obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding disorder
Happiness has been shown to be associated with a number of desirable outcomes, such as __________
happy lawyers are more likely to win cases
A key function of cortisol is to:
increase blood glucose levels for use by the muscles (parasympathetic nervous system is part of Autonomic Nervous System is the "rest and digest" part)
dissociative disorders
individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from her core sense of self. Memory and identity become disturbed; these disturbances have a psychological rather than physical cause. Dissociative disorders listed in the DSM-5 include dissociative amnesia, depersonalization/derealization disorder, and dissociative identity disorder
neurodevelopmental disorders
involve developmental problems in personal, social, academic, and intellectual functioning (APA, 2013). In this section, we will discuss two such disorders: attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder and autism
coping
mental and behavioral efforts that we use to deal with problems relating to stress.
Dr. Kelly McConigal (Ted Talk) emphasized the positive aspects of stress. She identified the importance of the role of ________ and the role in _______ and connected to differences that can be present when comparing male and female stress responses and _______.
oxytocin; seeking social support which also buffers against negative impact of stress; how females may be more likely than males to engage in "tend and befriend" behaviors which buffer against stress
hallucinations
perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation -delusions
According to the General Adaptation Syndrome analysis of responses to stress, if the stress continues long enough
physiological and immune systems will begin to fail
panis disorder
recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks (e.g., avoidance of exercise or unfamiliar situations)
optimism
the general tendency to look on the bright side of things—is also a significant predictor of positive health outcomes. -linked to longevity, healthier behaviors, fewer postsurgical complications, better immune functioning among men with prostate cancer, and better treatment adherence -people report fewer physical symptoms, less pain, better physical functioning, and are less likely to be rehospitalized following heart surgery
In humans, the presence of a stressor results in
the production of cortisol which helps the body respond to stress
