PSYCH Test 2

The process of memory - encoding

1. Encoding: when the brain receives information from the environment it: Labels/codes it. Organizes it with other similar information. Connects new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding occurs through 2 types of processing: Automatic processing - encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Usually done without conscious awareness. E.g. remembering WHEN you last studied. Effortful processing - encoding of details that takes time and effort. E.g. WHAT you last studied, learning new skills. When you first learn new skills such as driving a car, you have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about driving. Once you know how to drive, you can encode additional information about this skill automatically. Types of encoding: Semantic encoding - encoding of words and their meanings. Most effective form of encoding. Attaching meaning to information makes it easier to recall later. Involves a deeper level of processing. Visual encoding - encoding of images. Words that create a mental image, such as car, dog and book (concrete words) are easier to recall than words such as level, truth and value (abstract words). Acoustic encoding - encoding of sounds. Self-reference effect - the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance.

The process of memory - storage

2. Storage: Baddeley and Hitch proposed a model of storage where short-term memory has different forms depending on the type of information received. Storing memories is like opening different files on a computer and adding information. 3 short-term systems: Visuospatial sketchpad Episodic buffer Phonological loop. According to the model, a central executive supervises the flow of information between the systems.

The process of memory - retrieval

3. Retrieval: the process of recovering or locating information stored in memory Recall - being able to access information without cues. Recognition - being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. Relearning - Learning information that you previously learned.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience.

Visual pathways

After being processed in the occipital lobe, visual information exits and goes through two different pathways. The "WHAT" pathway: Object recognition. Object identification. The "WHERE/HOW" pathway: Location in space. How one might interact with a particular visual stimulus.

The two different types of amnesia

Amnesia - the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma. There are 2 common types: Anterograde amnesia - inability to remember new information after point of trauma. Commonly caused by brain trauma. Hippocampus is usually affected - causes inability to transfer information from STM to LTM. Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory (partial or complete) for events that occurred prior to the trauma.

The four parts of the brain dealing with memory and their function

Amygdala - Involved in fear and fear memories (memory storage is influenced by stress hormones). Processes emotional information important in encoding memories at a deeper level and memory consolidation. Hippocampus - Associated with explicit memory, recognition memory and spatial memory. Projects information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. Involved in memory consolidation. Damage leads to an inability to process new declarative memories. Cerebellum - Plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano and classical conditioning. Damage prevents classical conditioning such as an eye-blink in response to a puff of air. Prefrontal Cortex - Appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks. PET scans show activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex when completing semantic tasks. Encoding is associated with left frontal activity. Retrieval of information is associated with the right frontal region.

higher-order conditioning

An established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus. In higher-order conditioning, an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus (the second-order stimulus), so that eventually the new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being presented.

continuous reinforcement schedule

An organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior. Quickest way to teach a behavior. Timing is important.

A-S Model of short-term memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory Sensory memory - storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. Stored for up to a couple of seconds. The first step of processing stimuli from the environment. If the information is not important, it is discarded. If the information is valuable then it moves into our short-term memory. Long-term memory is the continuous storage of information. It has no limit and is like the information you store on the hard drive of a computer.

The Skinner Box and how behavior is shaped

B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences. (b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward. Behavior is shaped when you either receive either a reinforcer or a punishment after learning a specific response, along with changing the probability of making various responses.

Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll experiment

Bandura researched modeling behavior, particularly children's modeling of adults' aggressive and violent behaviors. He conducted an experiment with a five-foot inflatable doll that he called a Bobo doll. In the experiment, children's aggressive behavior was influenced by whether the teacher was punished for her behavior. In one scenario, a teacher acted aggressively with the doll, hitting, throwing, and even punching the doll, while a child watched. There were two types of responses by the children to the teacher's behavior. When the teacher was punished for her bad behavior, the children decreased their tendency to act as she had. When the teacher was praised or ignored (and not punished for her behavior), the children imitated what she did, and even what she said. They punched, kicked, and yelled at the doll. What are the implications of this study? Bandura concluded that we watch and learn, and that this learning can have both prosocial and antisocial effects. Prosocial (positive) models can be used to encourage socially acceptable behavior. The main idea is that children observe and learn from their parents, even their parents' morals, so be consistent and toss out the old adage "Do as I say, not as I do," because children tend to copy what you do instead of what you say. The antisocial effects of observational learning are also worth mentioning. Research suggests that this may help to explain why victims of abuse often grow up to be abusers themselves We tend to do what we know. Children who grow up witnessing their parents deal with anger and frustration through violent and aggressive acts often learn to behave in that manner themselves.

The process of classical conditioning - before conditioning, during conditioning, and after conditioning

Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.

variable-ratio schedule

Behavior is reinforced after a random number of responses. Results in high, steady rates of responding. Ex: A child is given candy for every 3-10 pages of a book they read. For example, they are given a candy after reading 5, then 3, then 8, then 7 pages. Unpredictable reinforcement motivates them to keep reading.

Classifying intelligence: the work of Charles Spearman

Believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called g. Focused on commonalities amongst various intellectual abilities.

Bottom up and top down processing

Bottom-up processing - system in which perceptions are built from sensory input. Top-down processing - interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts.

Processes involved in cognition

Cognition, most simply, is thinking. It encompasses the processes associated with: Perception Knowledge Problem-solving Judgement Language Memory

Concepts and prototypes

Concepts - categories of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories. Used to see relationships among different elements of experience. Can be complex and abstract (e.g. the idea of justice) or concrete (types of birds). Prototype - the best example or representation of a concept. E.g. Mahatma Gandhi could be a prototype for the category of civil disobedience.

Memory construction and reconstruction

Construction - formulation of new memories. Reconstruction - process of bringing up old memories. When we retrieve memories, we tend to unintentionally alter and modify them, resulting in inaccuracies and distortions.

Olfactory receptor cells (relating to smell)

Contain small hair-like extensions which serve as the site for odor molecules to interact with chemical receptors located on these extensions (Located in a mucous membrane at the top of the nose).

the critical period of language

Critical period - proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life. Being deprived of language during the critical period impedes the ability to fully acquire and use language.

Factors affecting perception - life and cultural experiences

Culture can affect how we view situations. Ex: One study found that people from Western cultures (where there is a perceptual context of buildings with straight lines) were more likely to experience certain types of visual illusions, like the Muller-Lyer illusion, than individuals from non-western cultures (where they are more likely to live in round huts).

Measures of Intelligence -- Wechsler Scale

David Wechsler's definition of intelligence - "the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment." In 1939, Wechsler developed a new IQ test by combining several subtests from other intelligence tests. Tapped into a variety of verbal and nonverbal skills. One of the most extensively used intelligence tests. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V) is one of many versions used today that tests 1) verbal comprehension, 2) visual spatial, 3) fluid reasoning, 4) working memory and 5) processing speed.

Extinction

Decrease in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS.

depth perception

Depth Perception - our ability to perceive spatial relationships in 3-D. Depth cues of a visual scene are used to establish our sense of depth. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Depth cues: Binocular cues - cue that relies on the use of both eyes. Binocular disparity - slightly different view of the world that each eye receives. Monocular cues - cue that relies on only one eye. Linear perspective - when two parallel lines seem to converge. Interposition - the partial overlap of objects.

Classifying intelligence: the work of Raymond Cattell

Divided intelligence into two components. Crystalized intelligence - acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. Knowing facts. Fluid intelligence - the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Knowing how to do something.

Types of learning disabilities

Dysgraphia A learning disability resulting in a struggle to write legibly. Have difficulty putting their thoughts down on paper. Dyslexia An inability to correctly process letters. Most common learning disability in children. May mix up letters within words and sentences (letter reversals).

Explicit memory, the two types and their characteristics

Explicit (declarative) memory - memories of facts and events we can consciously remember and recall/declare. Explicit memories include two types: Semantic - knowledge about words, concepts and language. Knowing who the President is. Episodic - information about events we have personally experienced. Remembering your 5th birthday party. The what, where, when of an event. Also called autobiographical memory. A small number of people (including actress Marilu Henner) have a highly superior autobiographical memory known as hyperthymesia.

Two types of long-term memory

Explicit and implicit

The 4 partial schedules of reinforcement

Fixed Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Ratio, Variable Interval

Flashbulb theory of memory

Flashbulb memory - a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations. Depending on the age and awareness/interests of the person, certain flashbulb memories can act as generational reference points. Ex: The assassination of President John F. Kennedy, the first human landing on the Moon, or the attacks of September 11, 2001. Flashbulb memory formation may depend on cultural reference and personal investment/involvement. A national leader suddenly resigning may become a flashbulb memory for those citizens only. An athlete suddenly retiring may become a flashbulb memory for fans of that sport or team. 9/11 is the most recent flashbulb memory that has been extensively researched.

Pitfalls to problem solving: functional fixedness

Functional fixedness - inability to perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. Imagine you have a candle, thumbtacks and a box of matches. You need to mount the candle on the wall and light it. What do you do? Very few people think to use the box as a holder for the candle which can be tacked to the wall because they are fixated on its normal function.

multiple intelligence theory

Howard Gardner proposed that each person possesses at least 8 intelligences. Linguistic Logical-mathematical Musical Bodily kinesthetic Spatial Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist Inter and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined and called emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence - the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways.

Implicit bias and perception - study by Atiba Goff

Implicit bias is a form of bias that occurs automatically and unintentionally, that nevertheless affects judgments, decisions, and behaviors. Perception is built from senses and influenced by experiences, biases, and culture. Dr. Atiba Goff's research showed that Black boys are considered more responsible for their actions than White boys of the same age. 264 university students (mostly white females) involved in the study As a group, they overestimated the age of Black children by 4.5 years. (So, a black 12-year-old may seem 15 or even 16 years old.) Also judged Black children over the age of ten as significantly "less innocent" than white children of the same age.

Implicit memory, two types and their characteristics

Implicit memory - memories that are not part of our consciousness. Formed through behaviors. Procedural - stores information about how to do things. Skills and actions. E.g. how to ride a bike, tie your shoe laces, drive. Implicit memory also includes behaviors learned through emotional conditioning. You might have a fear of spiders but not consciously remember why or what occurred to condition that fear.

Muller-lyer illusion

In the Müller-Lyer illusion, lines appear to be different lengths although they are identical. Arrows at the ends of lines may make the line on the right appear longer, although the lines are the same length. When applied to a three-dimensional image, the line on the right again may appear longer although both black lines are the same length.

Factors affecting perception - attention

Inattentional blindness - Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention. Nearly one third of participants in a study did not notice that a red cross passed on the screen because their attention was focused on the black or white figures.

Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning)

Ivan Pavlov experimented with dogs, who salivated in response to a bell tone. Showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions.

Pitfalls to problem solving: the types of biases

Knowledge and reasoning are used to make decisions. However, sometimes our ability to reason can be swayed by biases. Anchoring bias - tendency to focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. Confirmation bias - tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs. Hindsight bias - leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it wasn't. Representative bias - tendency to unintentionally stereotype someone or something. Availability heuristic - tendency to make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision.

Language and components of language

Language - a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. Lexicon - the words of a given language. Grammar - the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon. Phoneme - a basic sound unit (ah, eh,). Morphemes - the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning. Language is constructed through semantics and syntax. Semantics - the meaning we derive from morphemes and words. Syntax - the way words are organized into sentences.

Learning disabilities

Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading. Specific neurological impairments, not an intellectual/developmental problem. Often affect children with average to above-average intelligence. Exhibit comorbidity with other disorders.

sound localizaiton

Localizing sound involves the use of two cues: Monaural cues: One ear Each ear interacts with incoming sound waves differently. Binaural cues: Two ears Provide information on the location of sound along a horizontal axis. Relies on differences in patterns of vibration.

Measures of Intelligence -- Alfred Binet and the Stanford-Binet scale

Measuring intelligence can come in many forms. A person's Intelligence quotient (IQ) is a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Early 1900's - Alfred Binet developed an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school (the test about which face was prettier). Louis Terman (a Stanford psychologist) modified Binet's work by standardizing the administration of the test and testing thousands of children to establish a norm. Standardization - the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent. Norming - giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups. The resulting data provide norms/referential scores used to interpret future scores. Standardization and norming ensure that new scores are reliable. This scale of testing was called the Stanford-Binet scale.

Natural and artificial concepts

Natural concepts: Created "naturally" through either direct or indirect experience. E.g. our concept of snow. Artificial concepts: Defined by a specific set of characteristics. E.g. Properties of geometric shapes (squares, triangles, etc).

The source of intelligence

Nature perspective - intelligence is inherited from a person's parents. The heritability of intelligence is often researched using twin studies. Identical twins raised together and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher correlation between IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins raised together. Nurture perspective - intelligence is shaped by a child's developmental environment. If parents present children with intellectual stimuli it will be reflected in the child's intelligence level. Most psychologists now believe levels of intelligence are a combination of both. Range of reaction Theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup. Genetic makeup is a fixed quantity. Whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon environmental factors.

Noam Chomsky and his theory of language acquisition

Noam Chomsky - proposed that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. Language develops in the absence of formal instruction. Language acquisition follows similar patterns in children from different cultures/backgrounds.

Transduction (relating to smell)

Odor molecules bind to receptors. Chemical changes cause signals to be sent to the olfactory bulb (where the olfactory nerves begin). Information is sent to the limbic system and primary olfactory cortex.

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Operant conditioning: The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future. The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response. Classical conditioning: An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation). The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.

Sensory systems

Our sensory systems are responsible for providing information about our surroundings which allow us to successfully navigate and interact with our environments.

Pitfalls to problem solving: mental sets

Persistence in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past. (A set way of looking at a problem). Becomes a problem when that way is no longer working.

Types of Operant Conditioning

Pleasant consequence/desired result → behavior is more likely to occur again. Go to work - get paid. Unpleasant consequence/undesired result → behavior is less likely to occur again. No work - no pay. Reinforcement - increasing a behavior Positive - to add something. Negative- to take something away. Punishment - decreasing a behavior. Positive Reinforcement Something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Negative Reinforcement Something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Positive Punishment Something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Negative Punishment Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Factors affecting perception - beliefs, values, prejudices, and expectations

Previous beliefs and values can affect how we view situations. Ex: People who hold positive attitudes towards low-fat foods are more likely to rate foods with low-fat labels as tasting better than people with less positive attitudes about low-fat products.

fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement is given to a desired response after specific amount of time has passed. Organisms increase the frequency of responses closer to the anticipated time of reinforcement. Immediately after being reinforced, the frequency of responses decreases. Ex: Teacher gives a weekly quiz every Monday. Over the weekend, there's a flurry of studying. Monday take quiz. Positive reinforcement -good grade. Negative reinforcement - didn't fail the test. Students relax and then start studying again for the quiz.

variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement is provided after a random (unpredictable) amount of time has passed and following a specific behavior being performed. Produces a low, steady response rate since organisms are unaware of the next time they will receive reinforcers. Ex: Rat is given a pellet after 3 minutes, then 5 minutes, then 2 minutes, etc. It will respond steadily since it does not know when its behavior will be reinforced.

fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. Predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement. Ex: A dressmaker gets paid $500 for every 10 dresses she makes.

Different types of taste

Research demonstrates that we have about 6 groupings of taste: Sweet Salty Sour Bitter Umami - associated with a taste for monosodium glutamate. Some research suggests we possess a taste for the fatty content of food.

Measures of Intelligence -- the bell curve

Results of intelligence tests follow the bell curve. In psychological testing, this graph demonstrates a representative sample/normal distribution of a trait in the human population. Representative sample - a subset of the population that accurately represents the general population. Usually requires a large sample size. The average IQ score is 100. Standard deviations - describe how data are dispersed in a population. One standard deviation in IQ testing is 15 points. A score of 85 is one standard deviation below the mean (average). Any score between one standard deviation above and below the mean is considered and average. 82% of the population have an IQ score between 85 and 115.

Classifying intelligence: Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory identifies three types of intelligence: practical (street smarts and common sense), creative (imaginative and innovative / problem-solving), and analytical (academic problem-solving and computation).

Schemata -- role and event

Schema - a mental construct consisting of a collection of related concepts. When a schema is activated, we automatically make assumptions about the person/object/situation. Role schema - makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave. What assumptions come to mind about a librarian? Event schema (cognitive script) - a set of routine or automatic behaviors. Can vary widely among different cultures and countries. Dictate behavior. Make habits difficult to break. E.g. when riding in an elevator, we automatically stand facing the door.

Characteristics of short-term memory

Short-term memory/working memory - a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. Lasts about 20 seconds. Capacity is usually about 7 items +/-2 Short-term memories are either discarded or stored in long-term memory.

Social learning theory

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Steps in the Modeling Process Attention - focus on the behavior. Retention - remember what you observed. Reproduction - be able to perform the behavior. Motivation - must want to copy the behavior.

Factors affecting perception - motivation

Sometimes we think we hear something such as a phone ringing when it is not because we are motivated to perceive it (such as waiting for an important phone call). Signal detection theory - change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state.

Stages of language development

Stage 1 -- 0-3 months -- reflexive communication Stage 2 -- 3-8 months -- Reflexive communication; interest in others Stage 3 -- 8-13 months -- intentional communication; sociability Stage 4 -- 12-18 months -- first words Stage 5 -- 18-24 months -- simple sentences of two words Stage 6 -- 2-3 years -- sentences of three or more words Stage 7 -- 3-5 years -- complex sentences; has conversations

Arousal theory of memory

Strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories. Triggers the release of neurotransmitters which strengthen memory. Evidenced by flashbulb memories.

The role that suggestibility plays in memory

Suggestibility is the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories. Can cause people to claim to remember something that was only a suggestion someone made. Memories are fragile making them vulnerable to the power of suggestion. An important area of study has been the role of suggestibility in eyewitness testimonies.

Transduction (relating to taste)

Taste molecules bind to receptors and cause chemical changes within the sensory cell. These changes result in neural impulses being sent to the brain.

Genetics and IQ

The correlations of IQs of unrelated versus related persons reared apart or together suggest a genetic component to intelligence.

the case of Genie

The effects of language deprivation during the critical period can be seen in the case study of Genie. Was found at age 13 after being raised in neglectful and abusive conditions. Grew up with virtually no social interaction and was unable to speak when found. With help, Genie was able to acquire vocabulary but was not able to learn the grammatical aspects of language.

Gestalt principles of perception - similarity

The idea that things that are alike tend to be grouped together.

Gestalt principles of perception - proximity

The idea that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together.

Gestalt principles of perception - continuity

The idea that we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines.

Gestalt principles of perception - closure

The idea that we organize our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts.

.Gestalt principles of perception - figure-ground

The idea that we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground. Figure - the focus of the visual field. Ground - the background. Our perception can vary depending on what we view as figure and what we view as ground.

aquisition

The initial period of learning.

Absolute thresholds and examples

The minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time. Ex: Vision - A candle flame on a clear dark night = 30 miles. Hearing- A ticking watch in a quiet room = 20 feet. Taste -Tablespoon of sugar dissolved in two gallons of water. Smell -Perfume dissolved in one house = 1 drop (500 ml.) Touch - Pressure of the wing of a fly falling on a cheek from .4 inches.

just noticeable difference

The minimum difference in stimuli required to detect a change or a difference between stimuli. Ex: the packaging on Doritos being slightly changed

spontaneous recovery

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.

Primary reinforcers and how they work

They have innate reinforcing qualities (e.g. food, water, sleep, sex, pleasure). The value of these reinforcers does not need to be learned. Primary Reinforcers are responses that naturally move us toward a goal, like eating food to relieve hunger.

secondary reinforcers and how they work

Those that have no inherent value. There value is learned and becomes reinforcing when linked with a primary reinforcer. For example: When you give your dog a food treat and tell him "good boy," he's getting both the primary stimulus of the treat and the secondary reinforcer of the verbal praise. Secondary reinforcers are things that are learned by an animal to be associated with Primary Reinforcers, and thus eventually elicit a similar response through classical conditioning.

Types of problem-solving strategies and when to use them

Trial and error - continue trying different solutions until problem is solved. Algorithm - step-by-step problem-solving formula. Heuristic - general problem-solving framework. Short-cuts. A "rule of thumb". Working-backwards - begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result. Breaking large tasks into a series of smaller steps. When do people use heuristics? When one is faced with too much information. When the time to make a decision is limited. When the decision to be made is unimportant. When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision. When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment.

John B. Watson and Little Albert

Used principles of classical conditioning in the study of human emotion. Behavior could be studied as a stimulus-response reaction. Albert was a 9-month-old baby who had not previously demonstrated any fear of rats. In the beginning of the experiment, when Albert was 11 months old, John Watson placed a rat (in addition to some other animals and objects with fur) on the table in front of Albert, who reacted with curiosity and no sign of fear. He then began making a loud noise behind the baby by pounding on a steel bar with a hammer on several separate occasions while showing Albert the rat. Albert cried in reaction to the noise and, after a period of conditioning, cried in response to the rat even without the loud noise. When presented with the other animals, he also responded with varying degrees of fear despite not ever hearing the loud noise when presented with those animals.

vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

Vicarious reinforcement - process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior. Vicarious punishment - process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior.

opponent-process theory

When staring at a colored stimulus, the color parings of the opponent-process theory lead to a negative afterimage. Afterimage - continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus.

Cognitive map

a mental picture of the layout an environment.

Instincts

behaviors triggered by a broader range of events Ex: aging, change of seasons

Pheromones (relating to smell)

chemical messages sent by another individual. Many species respond to pheromones sent by another individual. Usually communicate information about the reproductive status of a potential mate.

What are the 3 processes of memory?

encoding, storage, retrieval

Taste buds (relating to taste)

groupings of taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the central pore of the taste bud. Have a life cycle of 10 days to 2 weeks.

Equipotentiality hypothesis

if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function.

Observational learning

learning by watching others and then imitating. Model - the individual performing the imitated behavior.

Habituation

learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. Ex: a new sound in your environment, such as a new ringtone, may initially draw your attention or even be distracting. Over time, as you become accustomed to this sound, you pay less attention to it and your response will diminish.

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it.

Reflexes

motor/neural reactions to a specific stimulus. Ex: quickly removing your hand from a hot stove, catching a ball before it hits you in the face

Factors affecting perception - Sensory adaptation

not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time. For example, when you first enter a quiet room you may hear the clock ticking. Over time you become unaware of the ticking. The ticking is still affecting sensory receptors but you are no longer perceiving the sound.

sensation

occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli.

operant conditioning

organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Perception

the way that sensory information is interpreted, organized, and consciously experienced

stimulus generalization

when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. Ex: Little Albert generalizes fear of furry objects

stimulus discrimination

when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar. Ex: You give a dog a treat when it barks at a certain person, but not when it barks at another person. Then that first person becomes a Stimulus Discrimination that control the dog's barking behaviors.

Associative learning

when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.