PSYCH10 - UCLA CLARK
Piaget's view
each stage builds on the previous stage through one of these learning processes (assimilation or accommodation)
syntax
sentence structure and word order
can animals learn language?
yes they can; washoe monkeys can acquire 100s of words an average 4 year old human knows 10,000 words so yes, animals can but not as good as humans
formal operational 11+
• Become capable of flexible and abstract thought • Hypothetical situations • If then statements
imprinting
- sensitive period when young animals become strongly attached to a nearby adult - contact comfort is important in social development
Piaget's stages
- sensorimotor0-2 - preoperational 2-7 - concrete operational 7-11 - formal operational 11+
morphemes/words
- smallest unit of meaning - can be words, suffixes, prefixes, parts of compound words dog - 1 morpheme dogs - 2 morphemes (dog + -s)
phonemes
- smallest unit of sound p vs b - regional differences
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- strong version = thoughts and behavior are determined by the language - Most psychologists believe in a weaker hypothesis that languages influences our habitual thinking about the world
theory of mind: the Sally-anne task
- the ability to understand how other people think, feel and behave. 1. sally puts marble in basket 2. sally leaves 3. ann moves marble to box 4. where will sally look for her marble? correct answer: in the basket because there is no reason for her to look for it in the box; Kid that doesn't pass will say that sally will know where the block is
variations on milgram
- the closer the confederate, the more likely to continue - the closer the experimenter was giving instructions, the more likely the participant would continue - more white coats, more likely to continue - more people delivering shocks around yo more teachers, you're more likely to continue
factors affecting theory of mind
- the more older siblings you have, the earlier you develop - autism spectrum disorder - if caregivers use language about feelings, more likely to develop this earlier - watch people around you fight more, the more you realize that different people have different views
developmental psychology
- the study of continuity and change across the life span, not just infants and children - nature vs nurture
challenges of studying infants
- they don't speak - they can't follow instructions - ethical issues, can't consent - short attention spans
conjunction fallacy
- thinking 2 events are more likely to occur together than either individual event separately - ex: Linda is a 31 years old, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy and as a student she cared deeply about social justice. Is Linda a) a bank teller b) active in the feminist movement c) a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement more likely to choose c even though a and b are more probable
Patient HM
- unable to encode new explicit memories (anterograde amnesia) -trouble explicit memories from STM to LTM due to removal of hippocampus. -Performance improved on a mirror tracing task even though he didn't remember practicing before
how to improve encoding
- use deep encoding strategies - connect new info to prior knowledge - space out learning
well-defines problems vs ill-defined problems
- well-defined: solution has a right answer ex: math problem - ill-defined: no "right" answer
Soloman Asch Line Experiment
-Participants were asked to say out loud which of 3 lines matched the line on -75% of participants went along with the norm what the actors were saying at least once and gave the wrong answer -On average people conformed ignoring the right answer on 1/3 of 12 trials
influences on conformity in Asch Line Studies
-Presence of an ally decreases conformity -People conform less when confederates will not hear their responses - # of confederates (really big groups might not make you conform)
schema
an organized unit of knowledge that the child uses to try to understand a situation; Maybe you have an idea that a bird flies and is alive
recall vs. recognition memory
*recall*: ability to retrieve and reproduce information encountered earlier (fill in the blank or essay) -less cue support *recognition*: ability to identify information you have previously seen read, or heard about; You see a tomato and decide if you need it -More cue support - Ex- multiple choice or T/F
insight
- "aha" experience - sudden realization of a solution
language deficits
- Broca's Aphasia - Wernicke's Aphasia
How do we know newborns recognize their native language?
- DV is sucking rate - If they can tell a diff lang is spoken then dishabituation happens (suck faster) -If they cant tell difference then no dishabituation
childhood/infantile amnesia
- inability to remember events from early childhood - infant memories are NOT out, they just become increasingly harder to retrieve as the child grows older
5. suggestibility
- incorporating misleading info from external sources into recollections - misinformation effect - planted memory: met bugs bunny at disneyland
Criticisms of Piaget
- May have underestimated children's abilities - Vague with respect to the processes and mechanisms of change; Ex- mickey mouse track - kids could understand object permeance earlier • - Stage model doesn't account for variability in children's performance - Undervalues the influence of sociocultural environment (other people)
development starts in the womb
- Newborns prefer to listen to their moms voice over another womans voice, and their moms native language over another language -The acoustics of a newborns cry exhibits distinctive characteristics of the language - Young infants recognize stories and music they were exposed to while still in the womb - Amniotic fluid flavored by what the mother has eaten; show preferences for flavors they were exposed to in utero
Patient KC
- Severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia -Old semantic memories (facts and general knowledge) intact but not episodic - Could remember how to change a tire (steps) but cant remember if he has ever
how do we study infants?
- habituation paradigms - preferential-looking technique - looking time examples
why conform?
- advantageous to being part of a group; more resources=stronger -normative and informational influence; We looks what's right and most popular assuming its good info
4. misattribution
- assigning a recollection to the wrong source - ex: Ronald Cotton case; woman incorrectly identified her rapist and sent him to prison - memory test contamination: repeated testing, time between testing, low confidence can build up to high confidence over repeated testing
habituation paradigms
- babies pay attention to novel (new and unfamiliar) things - eventually, they get bored by repetition - suddenly regain interest if they think something novel has occurred
experiment: connect ribbon to hanging mobile and to baby's foot
- baby shakes foot to move mobile, making it happy - later, the ribbon is not there, the baby shakes foot, proving that it DOES remember the memory of shaking its leg and something desirable occurring
theories of language development
- behaviorist perspective - nativist perspective - interactionalist perspective
deindividuation
- being in a group can lead you to do things you wouldn't normally do on your own ex: stanford prison experiment - deindividuation: no names, don't have to act like yourself - power of social roles: fill the role of guards - participants as guards were brutal to participants who were prisoners
Broca's Aphasia
- damage to Broca's area - broken speech - region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left
Wernicke's Aphasia
- damage to Wernicke's Area - nonsensical speech, inability to comprehend speech - located in the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain and is responsible for the comprehension of speech,
DVD in the head analogy
- encoding-recording on an electronic disk - storage- store disk in a drawer - retrieval- play disk back in DVD player
3. blocking
- failure to retrieve info even when you know it - "tip of the tongue" experience
1. transcience
- forgetting with the passage of time - specific knowledge turns into general knowledge - proactive interference - retroactive interference
experiment: Harlow's Rhesus Monkeys
- infant rhesus monkeys warm, fed, and safe but had NO social contact the first 6 months of their lives developed behavioral abnormalities - when these females matured, they ignored, rejected, sometimes even attacked their own infants - when socially isolated monkeys were put in a cage with 2 artificial mothers, one with cloth and one that was wire but dispensed food, the monkey clung to the cloth one, only leaving for short bits to get food from the other "mother"
interactionalist perspective
- innate capacity for language interacts with experience - social interactions are important -Supported by "motherese" (you speak different to kids than adults)
availability heuristic
- judging the probability of events based on examples the readily come to mind - ex: do more people die each year from shark attacks or being hit on the head by calling coconuts? easier to think of death by shark attacks so more likely to answer with shark attack
2. absentmindedness
- lapse in attention leads to memory failure - failure in prospective memory: what you need to do in the future -ex leaving your kid at the store
behaviorist perspective
- learn language through reinforcement - nurture Ex- child is praised for calling a ball a ball problems: - parents often reply to content but not speech structure - kids generate things they've never heard before- reinforcement issues - speech errors reflect overgeneralization of grammar ex- i goed to the store
planted memory
- make people believe that they remember an event that has never happened - suggesting one met Bugs Bunny in Disneyland - suggesting they got lost in the mall when they were a little kid
in groups we're more likely to
- more likely to conform; Deindividualization and Normative influence & informational influence - Less likely to respond to an emergency (bystander effect; Diffusion of responsibility and Uncertainty
preferential-looking technique
- mother hold baby on lap - experimenter looks through peephole on other side of display to note down where the baby is looking
schemas
- organized knowledge structures or mental models that we've stored in our memory - What happens when you go to a restaurant? - Useful because you have expectations going in, but can oversimplify! - Relying on general knowledge
why is spacing good for learning?
- retrieval: spacing repetition and forgetting in between forces you to have to engage in retrieval to remember - variability: each presentation will be encoded in a slightly different state when repetitions are spaced out - attention: massed repetitions get boring
preoperational 2-7
-Can mentally represent objects and think symbolically Limits - Difficulty with logical reasoning/problem solving (juice in glasses ex) -Difficulty representing the psychological experiences/perspective of others (cookie ex) - Children do NOT pass conservation tasks (understanding that altering an object's physical appearance does quantitative properties) until 6 to 7 years of age
Milgram's obedience studies
-Experiment was rigged so participant was always chosen to be the 'teacher' and confederate was the 'learner' -The overall prediction was fewer than 1/10 would actually obey at the most -The actual results were that 65% 2/3 obeyed until the end - really high - Over half of the participants delivered the max amount of shock to the learners inconsistent with researchers predictions
stages of language development
-birth - crying - 1 month - cooing - middle of 1st year - babbling - end of 1st year - patterned speech (sound like words) - 18 months naming explosion - 24 months combining words - telegraphic speech = daddy go - 2+ years - add grammatical morphemes and over regularization
nativist perspective
-children are born with innate mental structures that guide their acquisition of language - consistent around the world - Lang is learned more easily in the critical period (as you get older it becomes 2nd language) or sensitive periods (becomes harder as you grow up)
Most infant testing methodologies are based on 3 assumptions:
1. Infants will attend/orient to stimuli they prefer or find interesting 2. Infants prefer to hear/see stimuli that they have heard/seen before (familiarization) 3. If they have been repeatedly exposed to a stimulus (to the point of boredom) then they should prefer novel stimuli/new stuff (habituation)
the seven sins of memory
1. transcience 2. absentmindedness 3. blocking 4. misattribution 5. suggestibility 6. bias 7. persistence T.A.B.M.S.B.P. - The animal bit my sweet Brian's Pet
retroactive interference
NEW learning gets in the way of remembering OLD information ex: trying to remember an OLD phone number
proactive interference
OLD learning gets in the way of NEW learning ex: trying to remember a NEW phone number
Concrete operational 7-11
Pass conservation tasks and can think logically about concrete situations Limitations -Reasoning is limited to real, present objects -Difficulty with tasks that require mental manipulation -Difficulty thinking abstractly and reasoning hypothetically
delayed gratification (self-discipline)
Putting off (joy) until another time and instead you do something that will give one pleasure sometime in the future - marshmellow test - those who waited delay gratification at 4 years = self-control, attention, planning ability and SAT scores -When resources are scarce (poverty) the rational decision might be to take the immediate benefit & Children's wait times may reflect beliefs about whether waiting would ultimately pay off
If you add a distractor task after having participants encode a list of words what is likely to be true of memory for the list?
Recency decreases only
why would the Stanford Prison Experiment: be unethical today
Unethical - Guards had too much freedom - Psychological harassment for the prisoners Potential issues: -Not an experiment -Demand characteristics - maybe the participants thought that was what the researchers them to do -Problems with the advertisement for the experiment? Biased sample
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
framing effects
changing how an issue is presented can change people's decisions ex: To get a flu shot or not? people emailed with either opt-in or opt-out of getting a flu shot-more people were vaccinated if they had to opt-OUT -loss aversion and sunk cost fallacy
mnemonics
chunking info to make it more meaningful
what phrase obeys syntax but not meaning
colorless green ideas sleep furiously
Conformity vs. Obedience
conformity: peer pressure obedience: following orders
flashbulb memories
detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events - seared into our minds; confidence always high but accuracy varies
misinformation effect
happens when aperson's recall of an episodic memory becomes less accurate bc of post-event info ex: video on car crash --> delay of question asked 3 different questions to different participants: how fast were the cars going when they hit/contacted/smashed*?
memory failure
how we store our experiences in memory depends on our biases, intrepretations, and expectations of them
altruistic behavior
intrinsically motivated behavior that is intended to help others without expectation of reward or acknowledgement
availability bias
items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently, reliance on those things that we immediately think of to enable quick decisions and judgments.
prospect theory
losses matter more than gains
assimilation
new experiences are readily incorporated into child's existing; Maybe you see eagle and say yes that's a bird
looking time examples
newborn will look longer at things that resemble faces
are the sins of memory really sins?
no, they can be construed to other ways: transience: do you really want to remember everything? absentmindedness: focusing on more important things misattribution/suggestibility: good for thinking about future possibilities bias: makes remembering things in a better light better persistence: helps us avoid future dangers
critical lure
non-presented word that was highly related to presented words
sensorimotor (birth-2)
object permanence: understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen
sunk-cost fallacy
people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation ex: you buy expensive tickets to a show but on show day you are very sick. do you stay home or go? most people would go bc they'd already invested the money in the tickets
loss aversion
people tend to want to avoid losses more than they want to achieve gains
components of language
phonemes, morphemes, syntax
periods of development
prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood
anchoring effect
relying on first impression as an "anchor" for our decisions, even when it is completely irrelevant -Ex- apply it to stores that is having a sale. You anchor the original price and love the discount; not completely rational
prospective memory
remembering what you need to do in the FUTURE
Piaget's cognitive processes
schemas, assimilation and accommodation
language
system that relates signals to meaning; symbolism, structured and meaninful, displacement (i want a dog one day), generativity (my unicorn ate my hw)
normative influence
tendency to conform in order to fit in with the group ex: "dress code" to fit in, don't want to go to a black tie wedding while wearing jeans
informational influence
tendency to conform when we assume that the group is right ex: we don't question the police
fundamental attribution theory
tendency to overestimate dispositional influences and underestimate situational influences on someone else's behavior ex: see someone homeless, we think they were unemployed bc of his character if we become unemployed, we blame it on our boss
confirmation bias
tendency to search for confirming evidence over disconfirming evidence
cognitive development
the development of thinking across the lifespan
diffusion of responsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way; If 1 person helps, people will help, Bystander effect may be driven moreby uncertainty
Fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition; ex he failed the test because he's stupid and can't pay attention
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when working in a group
accomadation
theories are modified based on experience - Kids says the butterfly is a bird, gets told no, modifies theory; Add some criteria that it has a beak
social facilitation
when one's performance is affected by the presence of others; depends on your area of expertise - if you're an expert it can make you better
actor-observer effect
when we take a hard test we don't assume it's our fault we say it's the teacher's fault - blame the situation if it goes bad -east coast say you're having a bad day and west coast people blame the situation
