Psychology 230 Exam 3
Be familiar with the different types of play in early childhood. What do children vs. adolescents describe as important dimensions of friendship?
-Between 2-5 years of age we begin to see gradual progression of play behavior Onlooker play: not much reciprocity Solitary play: children maybe showing curiosity towards other kids, but mainly playing on own Parallel play: children playing next to each other, not much interaction Associative play: more interaction between kids during play Cooperative play: higher level of interaction between kids, interaction revolves around theme and each person has a role in that theme Friendships in school years and adolescent years: -Friendships develop in 3 phases Phase 1: ages 4-7 Friends are those who play together Phase 2: ages 8-10 Trust and helping each other are important aspects of friendship Phase 3: age 11 and up Loyalty and intimacy become important
Be familiar with the research on when emotions develop and when self-recognition develops.
-Emotional development in infants 1st emotions (w/in hours): distress By 4-7 months: begin to see anger 1st days of life: see half-smile By 6 weeks: see a social smile By 3-4 months: see laughter Earliest laughter and anger is due to having or losing control over an object (e.g. rattle) -Emotional development in toddler years Anger intensifies by age 2 Toddlers get better at handling it Emotional regulation (major dev task) Smiling and laughter become more selective by 12 months of age -By 15-24 months most kids recognize themselves as separate Experiment: mirror and rouge task
Know the stages of grief in the Kubler-Ross model and be able to identify what stage someone is in by their behavior & beliefs. Be familiar with euthanasia and with hospice's role in dying. Understand what a living will is. Understand what the typical developmental changes are in understanding and viewing death and what constitutes typical vs. problematic forms of grieving. What are the other models of grieving discussed in the book?
-Kubler-Ross' Phases of Grief: Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance -Euthanasia: The act of painlessly ending the lives of persons who are suffering from incurable diseases or severe disabilities; sometimes called "mercy killing." ("easy death") is the act of painlessly ending the lives of individuals who are suffering from an incurable disease or severe disability. Sometimes euthanasia is called "mercy killing." Distinctions are made between two types of euthanasia: passive and active. Passive euthanasia occurs when a person is allowed to die by withholding available treatment, such as withdrawing a life-sustaining device. For example, this might involve turning off a respirator or a heart-lung machine. Active euthanasia occurs when death is deliberately induced, as when a lethal dose of a drug is injected. -Hospice is a program committed to making the end of life as free from pain, anxiety, and depression as possible. Traditionally, a hospital's goals have been to cure illness and prolong life; by contrast, hospice care emphasizes palliative care, which involves reducing pain and suffering and helping individuals die with dignity. -Living will, a legal document that reflects the patient's advance care planning.
Be able to describe the different types of peer problems and what their effects are - especially peer rejection.
-Rejected children: disliked by most classmates -Controversial children: both liked and disliked by most classmates -Neglected children: ignored by most classmates
What is attachment? What is the critical factor in attachment? When is it firmly established? What is Bowlby's theory of attachment? Be familiar with ethological theory and how it is applied to attachment. Be able to identify what stage a child is in by his/her behaviors.
Attachment: -Bond that develops between a child and another person characterized by mutual affection and a desire to be physically close -Critical aspect: Infant will attach to whoever responds appropriately to their needs Ethological Theory of Attachment: -Developed by John Bowlby in 1969 -Attachment is initiated by pre-programmed behaviors (e.g. sucking, crying, smiling) -It is maintained by environmental events (closeness, comfort) Phases of attachment -Pre-attachment (birth-6 weeks) All nature Actions that bring adults in If crying, not for specific adult -Attachment in making phase (6 weeks-6 months) Nurture starts to kick in and take over Infant begins to show discrimination Cries more for certain caregivers -Clear-cut attachment phase (6 months-3 years) Attachment with specific caregivers is solidifying 2 signs Separation anxiety: infant cries when mom or dad leaves the room Stranger anxiety: when a stranger approaches, infant looks towards parents usually -Goal-corrected system (3 years and up) Child gets better and better able to cope with anxiety, separation, and new people
What do teens stress as important to friendships? Know about peer pressure and when it may be more influential.
Beginning in early adolescence, however, teenagers typically prefer to have a smaller number of friendships that are more intense and intimate than those of young children. Adolescents are more likely to conform to their peers when they are uncertain about their social identity and when they are in the presence of someone they perceive to have higher status than they do
Know about the biochemical theory of love, the attachment theory of love, and Sternberg's theory of love. Be able to describe them and know their components
Biochemicals involved -Gray (1993) -Intense attraction to a person triggers the release of amphetamine in the body -phenylethylamine (PEA) -Over time the response decreases In some cases this person becomes a trigger for the release of endorphins -(calmness and contentness) Love as attachment -Hazan and Shaver (1987) -People relive their early bonding with their parents in their adulthood Secure love (56%) Anxious-ambivalent love (20%) Avoidant love (24%)
What do we know about imaginary friends in the preschool years?
Children with imaginary friends have developed a more complex form of play.
Be familiar with the trait theory of personality and be able to identify a particular trait based on a description of someone's behavior. How stable are personality traits throughout the lifespan?
Current trait theory: -Costa and McRae's model: The BIG FIVE 1) Openness: high=open to new experiences 2) Conscientiousness: high=punctual, timely, detail oriented 3) Extroversion: high=life of party, like being around people, outgoing 4) Agreeableness: high=go with the flow 5) Neuroticism: high=has more anxiety, depression, anger By age 30 our rankings on each are set and remain stable over time
Be familiar with the psychodynamic theories, Erikson's theory, and Bandura's theory about personality development.
Erikson's: -Erikson argues that middle-aged adults face a significant issue in life—generativity versus stagnation—which is the name he gave to the seventh stage in his life-span theory. Generativity encompasses adults' desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation.
Be familiar with qualities of attachment and be able to identify what type of attachment a child has when given an example.
Four primary attachment styles: Secure attachment (approx. 67%): use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. When in the presence of their caregiver, securely attached infants explore the room and examine toys that have been placed in it. When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might protest mildly, and when the caregiver returns these infants reestablish positive interaction with her, perhaps by smiling or climbing onto her lap. Subsequently, they usually resume playing with the toys in the room. Avoidant attachment (approx. 20%): show insecurity by avoiding the mother. In the Strange Situation, these babies engage in little interaction with the caregiver, are not distressed when she leaves the room, usually do not reestablish contact with her on her return, and may even turn their back on her. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away. Resistant/ambivalent attachment (approx. 10%): often cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. In the Strange Situation, these babies often cling anxiously to the caregiver and don't explore the playroom. When the caregiver leaves, they often cry loudly and push away if she tries to comfort them on her return, then want to be held again. Disorganized attachment (approx. 5%): are disorganized and disoriented. In the Strange Situation, these babies might appear dazed, confused, and fearful. To be classified as disorganized, babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviors, such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver.
Know how friendships change over time and what the gender differences are in friendships.
Friendships in adulthood: -People have the most friends during young adulthood years (20s and 30s) -The number of friends and quality of friendships is positively related to life happiness In senior years: -# of friendships becomes less predictive of joy -Quality of friendships better predicts life happiness than quality of family relationships Gender differences in adult friendships Men's friendships are based on shared activities rather than confiding Women's friendships are based on communication, intimacy, and support This begins in childhood and continues through senior years
What are the gender differences in love and romance?
Gender differences in love and romance -Men tend to: Focus more on physical attractiveness Focus more on passion Believe in love at first sight Believe love is magical and impossible to understand Believe love is either present or not Be less motivated to work on a relationship -Women tend to: Focus more on intimacy and commitment Approach relationships w/ more caution Be more pragmatic about relationships Focus on financial security as important Believe that love doesn't conquer all Be more willing to work at relationship
What are differences between gender roles, gender norms, and gender stereotypes?
Gender roles: A set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, or feel. are sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel. During the preschool years, most children increasingly act in ways that match their culture's gender roles. Gender norms: Are a set of "rules" or ideas us the way women and men "should" look. Too of- about how each gender should behave. Gender stereotypes: Are general impressions and beliefs about females and males. For example, men are powerful; women are weak. Men make good physicians; women make good nurses. Men are good with numbers; women are good with words. Women are emotional; men are not
Be familiar with parent-child interactions, parenting styles, and their effects. Be able to identify a parenting style by an example of behavior. Also be familiar with the effects of power-assertion methods of punishment. How do parent-child relationships change in adolescence?
How do children affect parents? -Can bring great joy to parents -Can also cause stress by: Increasing financial responsibilities Decreasing parents' sleep time Decreasing parents time together Temperamentally difficult children can cause stress Parents affect children via 2 dimensions -Parental warmth: how affectionate and involved a parent is Warm parents have children who are secure, happy, and better behaved -Parental control: how controlling and demanding a parent is A moderate level of control is desirable 1) Authoritarian (autocratic) style: -Characteristics: Very strict Many rules imposed Strict obedience expected No explanation for rules and consequences Use of forceful, punitive methods to curb behavior -Effects on child: Want to be told what to do May distrust feelings May be very compliant May be very rebellious Low creativity Moody Vulnerable to stress 2) Permissive style: -Characteristics: Nonpunitive, accepting of child's desires and behaviors Child part of policy decisions Child expected to regulate own behavior Parent condones all the children do -Effects on children: Difficulty with limits May take care of parents Low social responsibility May be insecure May be angry May be confused 3) Rejecting-neglecting style (laissez-faire) style -Characteristics: Parent seems indifferent to child Little time spent with children Little effort made to parent Does not deal with inconvenient aspects of parenting -Effects on child: Low self-esteem Confusion Feels unworthy of love May act out in attempts to get attention High risk for abuse 4) Authoritative (democratic) style -Characteristics: Directs child in a rational manner Gives verbal reasoning w/ give and take Parent has firm control but tries to allow for individuality Gives alternatives and allows learning by consequences -Effects on child: Cooperative Respect rules Self-disciplined Understand cause and effect Self-determined Cheerful and friendly -What are some reasons for avoiding spanking or similar punishments? They include the following: When adults punish a child by yelling, screaming, or spanking, they are presenting children with out-of-control models for handling stressful situations. Children may imitate this behavior. Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance. For example, spanking the child may cause the child to avoid being near the parent and to fear the parent. Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to do. Children should be given constructive feedback, such as "Why don't you try this?" Parents might unintentionally become so angry when they are punishing the child that they become abusive (Knox, 2010).
What are the short and long-term consequences of divorce on adults and children? What factors influence these consequences and outcomes?
Immediate consequences of divorce for adults Anger/conflict, stress, depression, uncertainty Practical: economics, child rearing -Most couples improve after two years and relate civilly to each other Consequences for children: -Short term: Sadness, guilt, anger, anxiety, school achievement decline in middle childhood, regression in early childhood, rebelliousness in teens -Long term: Kids adjust pretty well if parents cooperate, don't put kids in the middle, and keep parenting consistent
Know difference between different theories of sex-role development including the biosocial, psychoanalytic, social learning, cognitive, and gender schema theories and be able to ID examples of each.
Social learning theory: -We learn to behave more masculine or feminine due to: Being directly rewarded and punished for "gender appropriate vs. inappropriate" behavior Seeing others behave in more masculine or feminine ways--modeling Doesn't address: how is it that little boys seem to know that male figures are more similar to them, and little girls know female figures are more similar to them Cognitive developmental theory: -Proposes that we develop our sex-role identity by: -First acquiring a cognitive understanding of the permanence of our sex- gender constancy -How does gender constancy develop? -Gender labeling-preschool years Kids can correctly label their sex and others' sex Believe sex can be changed however -Gender stability-later preschool years Kids believe boys will grow up to be boys and girls to be girls Still believe gender can change by changing appearance -Gender consistency- ⅘ years of age Know sex is due to genitals Know that sex remains constant despite changes in appearance or behavior Gender schema theory: Early on (from infancy) children learn sex-typed behaviors through social learning They organize these experiences into gender schemas that they use to interpret world Once they can label their own sex they pick gender schemas that are consistent w/it They attend to gender consistent info and ignore or distort gender inconsistent info
What are the facts about physical and sexual abuse of children? How prevalent are they? What are the different types of abuse? What are the causes of abuse? Which children are at most risk?
Some facts about sexual abuse It's more common than we'd like to think 64% of sex abuse occurs before age 12 85-90% of sex abuse involves someone that the child knows and trusts Most offenders don't use violence Threats, power, bribes Sex abuse is typically a planned event How prevalent is sexual abuse of children Estimates vary widely Sex contact ranges: 7% to 45% of females and 3% to 5% of males Noncontact ranges: 10-62% of females and 3-16% of males Recent overall estimates: 27% of females and 16% of males experienced some form by 18 years In 1997 National Institute for Justice revealed that of 22.3 million 12-17 year olds, 1.8 million were victims of severe sexual abuse Prevalence estimates -Each year: In America 500,000-2.5 million children are abused in some way Approx. 2000 children die from abuse and neglect More than 150,000 are seriously injured by abuse -Overall abuse findings in 2002 896,000 children w/founded abuse or neglect reports Types of Abuse: Physical Abuse: intentional activity that inflicts injury or impairment to functioning Sexual Abuse: Exploitation of a child for gratification or profit of an adult Neglect: Deprivation of necessary and available resources that creates risk of impairment Psychological or emotional abuse: Willful destruction of a child's sense of competence Many factors contribute to it: Cultural factors: US condones spanking SES- lower SES has more stress Parents with poor coping skills Socially isolated families Some parents who were abused as kids--most do not go on to commit abuse Families w/substance abuse, mental illness Families where violence is already present Children who are at higher risk for abuse? Children who are born prematurely Children with chronic health problems/hard to take care of Children born to adolescent parents Difficult to soothe children Children who missed parental contact during first months of life
Know Sternberg's components of love, how they combine to create different styles of love, and how they change over time in romantic relationships
The basic components of love (robert sternberg) -Passion- physiological desire -Intimacy- sharing thoughts and actions -Commitment- willingness to stay together through the bad times Results in 7 types of love -Liking: intimacy with low commitment and passion -Infatuation: passion with low intimacy and commitment -Empty love: commitment with low passion and intimacy -Romantic love: passion and intimacy, low commitment -Fatuous love: passion and commitment, low intimacy -Companionate love: intimacy, commitment, low passion -Consummate love: all three components present Love and romance overtime -Early in a relationship: Infatuation is high High passion, low commitment/intimacy -As the relationship progresses: Commitment and intimacy increase Move to more romantic and consummate and then compassionate relationships
Be familiar with the research on temperament styles - be able to identify which temperamental characteristic is being shown by different behaviors. Also be familiar with Thomas' and Chess' temperament styles, the three dimensions of temperament, and Jerome Kagan's view of temperament.
The role of nature: temperament -Def: relatively consistent basic dispositions that lead to consistent patterns in an infant's behaviors -Many dimensions proposed-3 agreed on: 1) Emotionality Low emotionality: infant is easy going, not upset easily, upset times don't last long, can calm down relatively quickly, distress isn't huge High emotionality: gets upset frequently, get upset easily, when upset it is big, hard to calm down 2) Activity Low activity: sleep more, not as active, not restless High activity: active, moving around, awake more, more alert 3) Sociability Low sociability: not interested in people, more on own High sociability: like people, like being around people
Why do people wait longer to get married? What factors predict marital success? What is fair fighting? What is the typical developmental course of marital satisfaction in families?
Waiting longer (until older) to get married -Why? Changing attitudes toward single status Single women no longer seen as "old maids" Prolonged career preparation Pre-marital sex seen as more acceptable Career aspiration of women What factors predict marital success? 1) Age First time brides and grooms under age of 20 are 3x more likely to divorce than those who are over the age of 20 6 times more likely to divorce than 1st times brides and grooms at age in 30 Why? self identity, career, goals, etc are better formed in older persons 2) Homogamy: similarity of values and interests between partners Examples include: SES background Family history Religion Ethnicity 3) When partners feel that they equally share in: Household duties Child-care responsibilities Time at work vs time at home Providing own unique contributions Example: husband maintains home repairs but wife balances budget/bills How does marital satisfaction change over time? -The family life cycle and marital satisfaction Beginning families--married without children Childbearing families--birth to 30 months Preschooler families--3 to 6 years School age families--6 to 13 years Teen-ager families--13 to 17 years Launching families--first child gone to last child leaving Empty Nest and retirement Aging families