Psychology Ch. 1-3

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

hypothesis

tentative explanation

subcortical structures

thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system

cognitive psychology

the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions.

clinical psychology

the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

theory

the best understanding that we have of that part of the natural world

neurotransmitters

the chemical messengers of the nervous system

membrane potential

the difference in charge across the membrane

action potential

the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals

genotype

the genetic makeup of an individual

forebrain

the largest part of the brain. contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex (subcortical structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system

auditory cortex

the main are responsible for processing auditory information

soma

the nucleus of the neuron

population

the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

resting potential

the state of readiness of a neuron membrane's potential between signals

participants

the subjects of psychological research

correlation

there is a relationship between two or more variable but the relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect

debriefing

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

heterozygous

when someone has a combination of alleles for a given gene

homozygous

when someone has two copies of the same allele

William James

-first American psychologist who supported a different perspective on how psychology should operate -accepted Darwin's theory of evolution as an explanation of an organism's characteristics -believed psychology's purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world -perspective known as funtionalism

functionalism

-focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment -interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism

health psychology

-focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors -interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, and research (biopsychosocial model)

developmental psychology

-the scientific study of development across a lifespan -interested in processes related to physical maturation -focus not only on aging but cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes

negative correlation

-the variables move in opposite directions -when one variable goes down so does the other

positive correlation

-the variables move in the same direction -as one variable increases so does the other

psychological research

-try to debunk information to see if it's true or not -ex. The D.A.R.E. program continues to be popular in school systems around the world even though there is no evidence that it is effective

Jean Piaget

(developmental psychology) -demonstrated that very young children do not demonstrate object permanence, which refers to the understanding that physical things continue to exist, even if they are hidden from us. -was focused on cognitive changes during infancy and childhood

introspection

(internal perception) a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed

biopsychology

-explores how our biology influences our behavior -psychologists want to understand how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior -research interests include sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior, reproductive behavior, neurodevelopment, plasticity of the nervous system and biological correlates of psychological disorders -focuses on the immediate causes of behavior

illusory correlations

-false correlations -occur when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

-consists of institutional administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members -charged with ensuring that all experimental proposals require the humane treatment of animal research subjects

autonomic nervous system

-controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control. -further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

pituitary gland

-descends form the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it -aka "master gland" because it's messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system

inductive reasoning

-empirical observations lead to new ideas -uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Conclusions drawn may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based

motor skill deficits in the left side of her body

Kelsey had a CT scan that showed a tumor in the right frontal cortex. Which of the following behavioral symptoms most likely prompted the scan to take place?

conditioned reflex

an animal or human response to a stimulus and, over time, condition to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus

hippocampus

an essential structure for learning and memory

all-or-none

an incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation

pancreas

an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon

peer-reviewed journal articles

articles read by several other scientists with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

range of reaction

asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall

parasympathetic nervous system

associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations

cause and effect

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

agonists

chemicals that mimic a neurotrans

myelin sheath

coats the axon and acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels

Psychology

coined at a time when the concepts of soul and mind were not as clearly distinguished

nervous system

composed of two basic cell types: glial cells and neurons

identical twin

develop from a single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the same in each

fraternal twins

develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so the genetic material varies as with non-twin siblings

sympathetic

dilates, pupils, inhibits salivation, increases heart rate, dilates bronchi, inhibits digestion, inhibits contraction of bladder

psychotropic medications

drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

Broca's area

essential for language production

somatosensory cortex

essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain

epigenetics

study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes

sport and exercise psychology

study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior

counseling psychology

focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy

Psychoanalytic theory

focuses on the role of a person's unconscious, as well as childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades

experimental group

group designed to answer the research question

biopsychosocial model

health psychology focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

synaptic vesicles

house neurotransmitters

Wernicke's area

important for speech comprehension

amygdala

involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories

motor cortex

involved in planning and coordinating movement

sympathetic nervous system

involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities

psychotherapy

involves examining unconscious aspects of the self and relationships, often through the relationship between the therapist and the client

deception

involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where it could be considered harmful

psychoanalysis

involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves; popularized by Freud and is still used today

threshold of excitation

level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active

chromosomes

long strings of genetic material known as DNA

axon

major extension of the soma

independent variable

manipulated or controlled by the experimenter

semipermeable membrane

neuron's outer surface; allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules

reuptake

neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it

diabetes

not enough insulin is produced

clinical or case study

observational research study focusing on one or a few people

naturalistic observation

observing behavior in its natural setting

placebo effect

occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation

empirical method

one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms on logical argument of previous authorities

observe behavior in its natural context

one of the best ways to gain information

single-blind study

one of the groups are unaware as to which group the are in while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group

genetic environmental correlation

our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

cerebral cortex

outer surface of the brain; associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory.

observer bias

people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fir their research goals or expectations

scientific method of research

proposing hypothesis, conducting research, and creating or modifying theories based on results

receptors

proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes "matching" different neurotransmitters

glial cells

provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is build, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses

Electroencephalography (EEG)

provides a measure of a brain's electrical activity

soul

psyche

attrition

reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts

reliability

refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result

validity

refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it's supposed to measure

phenotype

refers to the individual's inherited physical characteristics

experimenter bias

refers to the possibility that a researcher's expectations might skew the results of the study

personality traits

relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior

thyroid gland

releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite

Psyche

represents the human soul's triumph over the misfortunes of lief in the pursuit of true happiness

prefrontal cortex

responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

primary visual cortex

responsible for interpreting incoming visual information

Psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

gonads

secrete sexual hormones

evolutionary psychology

seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior

genes

sequences of DNA that control or partially control a number of visible characteristics, known as traits

neurons

serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system

control group

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study

Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, Noam Chomsky

Select the correctly ordered list of psychological theorists, with the earliest theorist listed first.

reticular formation

The ________ extends through the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

parasympathetic

The ________ nervous system is responsible for stimulating digestion and causing the bladder to contract.

cerebellum

The ________ receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills.

breathing

Which of the following higher level processes is not a function of the cerebral cortex?

examination of anatomy and physiology

Which of the following is an example of an objective measure used by functionalists?

audition

Which of the following senses is associated with the temporal lobe?

smell

Which of the following senses is not routed through the thalamus?

collection by scavenger vesicles left over from the neurotransmitter release

Which one of the following processes does not occur to excess neurotransmitters in the synapse?

Behavior is biological, and our behavior is influenced by our interactions with others.

Why is psychology considered a social science?

one-thousandth

Wundt could measure reaction time to _________ of a second

dopamine

________ is a neurotransmitter involved in mood, reward, addiction, and motor behavior.

beta-endorphin

________ is a neurotransmitter with roles in pleasure and pain modulation.

electroencephalography (EEG)

________ is a technique often used in studies investigating sleep patterns. Researchers place electrodes at various locations on a person's head in order to record brainwaves.

forensic psychology

a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system

scientific theory

a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence

the Skinner box

a chamber that isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button

institutional review board (IRB)

a committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution's administration, scientists, and community members

scientific research

a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs

inter-rater reliability

a measure of reliability that asses the consistency of observations by different observers

Psyche

a mortal woman whose beauty was so great that it rivaled that of the goddess Aphrodite

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a person is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field

humanism

a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

Gestalt

Which of the following does not influence perception?

pons

-"bridge" -serves to connect the brain and spinal cord -also involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

B. F. Skinner

-American psychologist -a behaviorist -concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences -famous for the Skinner box -his focus on positive and negative reinforcement of learned behaviors had a lasting influence in psychology that has wanted somewhat since the growth of research in cognitive psychology. (pigeon missile)

Noam Chomsky

-American psychologist -very influential in the early days of the Cognitive Revolution -dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. -believed that psychology's focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior

Sigmund Freud

-Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from "hysteria" and neurosis -in his view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness -started off by studying cocaine -usually relates to sex -thought the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to people's minds and through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue popularized psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler

-German psychologists -introduced many American psychologists to various Gestalt principles -deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts related to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception

Wilhelm Wundt

-German scientist -first person to be referred to as a psychologist -viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience -believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how these components combined to result in our conscious experience

Ivan Pavlov

-Russian physiologist -studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex -worked on a salivation reflex

operational definition

-a description of how we will measure our variables -important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment

correlation coefficient

-a number from -1 to +1 that indicated the strength and direction of the relationship between variables -represented by the letter r

thalamus

-a sensory relay for the brain -all our senses, except smell, are routed through here before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing

industrial-organizational psychology

-a subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings -I-O psychologists are often involved in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment; often sought to make the best hiring decisions as well as to create an environment that results in high levels of employee productivity and efficiency

theory

-a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena -repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once

Stanley Milgram

-an American social psychologist who is most famous for research that he conducted on obedience -conducted research to determine whether or not it was true that German soldiers only tortured people in concentration camps because they were just following orders

John B. Watson

-an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University -thought the study of consciousness was flawed -focused directly on observable behavior (behaviorism)

somatic nervous system

-associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary -involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons

hormones

-chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. -secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them

statistical analysis

-conducted to find out if there are meaningful differences between the two groups -determines how likely any difference found is due to chance

social psychology

-focuses on how we interact with and relate to others -psychologists conduct research on a wide variety of topics that include differences in how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts -also seeks to determine how being among other people changes our own behavior and patterns of thinking

personality psychology

-focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique -Gordon Allport contributed to early theories of personality -attempted to explain how an individual's personality develops from his or her given perspective -focused on identifying personality traits, measuring those traits, and determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given situation

Carl Rogers

-humanist -American psychologist -used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy -believed that a client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session -believed that a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of his approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy

Abraham Maslow

-humanist -American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior -believed that the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential

deductive reasoning

-ideas are tested against the empirical world -begins with generalization--one hypothesis--that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world

parietal lobe

-immediately behing frontal lobe; involved in processing information from the body's senses -contains somatosensory cortex

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

-involved in brain function and sleep -decreased anxiety and decreased tension

Norepinephrine

-involved in heart, intestines, and alertness -increased arousal and suppressed appetite

Glutamate

-involved in memory and learning -increased learning and enhanced memory

Serotonin

-involved in mood and sleep -modulated mood and suppressed appetite

Dopamine

-involved in mood, sleep, and learning -increased pleasure and suppressed appetite

Acetylcholine

-involved in muscle action and memory -increased arousal and enhanced cognition

Beta-endorphin

-involved in pain and pleasure -decreased anxiety and decreased tension

limbic system

-involved in processing both emotion and memory -the sense of smell projects directly here which means smell can evoke emotional responses in ways that other sensory modalities cannot. -made up of the hippocampus, amygdala, and the hypothalamus

computerized tomography (CT) scan

-involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person's body or brain -x-rays pass through tissues of different densities at different rates, allowing a computer to construct an overall image of the are of the body being scanned -often used to determine whether someone has a tumor, or significant brain atrophy

surveys

-lists of questions to be answered by research participants and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally -allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be afforded by other research methods

hindbrain

-located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord -contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

occipital lobe

-located at the very back of the brain; contains the primary visual cortex -close relationship between the position of an object in a person's visual field and the position of that object's representation on the cortex

frontal lobe

-located in the forward part of the brain extending back to a fissure aka the central sulcus. involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. -contains the motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, and Broca's area

substantia nigra & ventral tegmental area (VTA)

-located in the midbrain -contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine; critical for movement

temporal lobe

-located on the side o the head (temples); associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language -contains auditory cortex and Wernicke's area

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

-made up of thick bundles of axons, called nerves, carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body -has two major subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

hypothalamus

-regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure. -serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in regulation of sexual motivation and behavior.

Gestalt psychology

-roughly translates to "whole" -deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts related to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception

Functional magnetic resonance imagine (fMRI)

-shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels. -provides more detailed images of the brain's structure, as well as better accuracy in time

archival research

-some researchers gain access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participant, using existing records to answer various research questions -relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships

multicultural psychology

-studying any one group can not be extended to another group -can't just study one group of people (caucasian) and apply that to groups of people across the world

genetics

A difference in ________ can explain why one person dies from a disease and another person survives.

receptors; receptors

Agonists bind to ________ and antagonists bind to ________.

object permanence

If you show an adult a toy, and then hide it behind a curtain, the adult knows that the toy still exists. However, infants act as if a hidden object no longer exists. What does this exemplify?

industrial-organizational

Oona wants to conduct research on personnel management, workplace environment, and what type of environment results in high levels of employee productivity and efficiency. Oona should conduct research in the area of ________ psychology.

biopsychologist

Penelope studies how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior. She is a ________.

only the right visual field

People who have their corpus callosum severed for medical reasons would be able to tell you about which images shown to ________.

more than one gene

Polygenic means that most traits are controlled by ________.

a person's unconscious

Psychoanalytic theory focuses on ________ and early childhood experiences.

biology

Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the ________ that contributes to certain behaviors.

spinal cord

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the ________.

fast; long-lasting

The effects of neurotransmitters tend to be ________, whereas the effects of hormones tend to be ________.

Evolution by natural selection

The theory of ________ states that organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off.

the late 1800s

When did psychology become accepted as its own academic discipline?

neuroticism

When studying personality traits, someone who is calm, even-tempered, and secure will score low on the ________ trait.

forensic

Which kind of psychologist would be consulted in jury selection and witness preparation?

American Psychological Association (APA)

a professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

longitudinal research

a research design in which date-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time

cross-sectional research

a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time

allele

a specific version of a gene

homeostasis

a state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such as body temp) are maintained at optimal levels

random simple

a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

sample

a subset of individuals selected from a population

mutation

a sudden, permanent change in a gene

hypothesis

a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as as in-then statement

synapse

a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs

random assignment

all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

dominant allele

allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual the possesses that allele

recessive allele

allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele

fight or flight response

allows the body access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that is might fight off a threat or run away to safety.

corpus callosum

allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other and allows for information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other side

antagonist

blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor

double-blind study

both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

dendrites

branching extensions of soma; serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons

replicate

can repeat the experiment using different samples to determined reliability

falsifiable

capable of being shown to be incorrect

endocrine system

consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones

parasympathetic

constricts pupil, stimulates salivation, slows heart rate, constricts bronchi, stimulates digestion, causes bladder to contract

terminal buttons

contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters

polygenic

controlled by more than one gene

medulla

controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

Positron emission tomography (PET)

create pictures of the living, active brain

confounding variable

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor changes in both variables

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

biological perspective

view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

dependent variable

what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had