Psychology Ch. 4

What findings in psychology support (1) the stage theory of development and (2) the idea of stability in personality across the life span?

(1) stage theory is supported by the work of Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (moral development), and Erikson (psychosocial development).

teratogens

(literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

What 3 issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

- nature and nurture -continuity and stages -stability and change

Kohlberg's 3 basic levels of moral thinking

1. Preconventional Morality 2. Conventional Morality 3. Postconventional Morality

1. Infancy 2. Toddlerhood 3. Preschool 4. Elementary school 5. Adolescence 6. Young adulthood 7. Middle adulthood 8. Late adulthood

1. Trust vs. mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. Initiative vs. guilt 4. Competence vs. inferiority 5. Identity vs. role confusion 6. Intimacy vs. isolation 7. Generativity vs. stagnation 8. Integrity vs. despair

Label each of the following developmental phenomena (I-VI) with the correct cognitive developmental stage: (a) sensorimotor, (b) preoperational, (c) concrete operational, or (d) formal operational. 1. Thinking about abstract concepts, such as "freedom." 2. Enjoying imaginary play (such as dress-up). 3. Understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form. 4. Having the ability to reverse math operations. 5. Understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sight, as when Mom "disappears" behind the shower curtain. 6. Having difficulty taking another's point of view (as when blocking someone's view of the TV).

1. d 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. a 6. b

1. early adulthood 2. middle adulthood 3. late adulthood

1. roughly 20s and 30s 2. up to 65 3. 65 and above

3 factors as to why people who live together before marriage end up divorcing or have marital dysfunction:

1. those who live together tend to be initially less committed to the ideal of enduring marriage 2. they may become even less marriage-supporting while living together 3. it's more awkward to break up with a cohabiting partner than with a dating partner, leading some cohabiters to marry someone "they otherwise would have left behind"

Only a small proportion, about _____ percent, of U.S. teens wish they were someone else.

20

The period of adolescence is lengthening in industrialized cultures such as in Europe, the United States, and Australia. Adolescents are taking more time to finish their education and establish careers. The average age for a first marriage in the United States has increased more than 5 years since 1960, to _____ for men and _____ for women.

29; 27

A single act of intercourse is half as likely to produce a pregnancy for a woman between the ages of ______as it is in women aged 19 to 26.

35 to 39

According to the textbook, approximately _____ percent of friendships formed in the seventh grade dissolve by the end of eighth grade.

75

Sexual desire tends to wane after the age of:

75

What are some newborn abilities?

Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes.

How do cross-sectional and longitudinal studies differ?

Cross-sectional studies compare people of different ages at one point in time. Longitudinal studies restudy and retest the same people over a long period of time.

challenges of growing old

Decline of: - muscular strength - reaction times - stamina - sensory keenness - cardiac output - immune system functioning Increase of: - risk of cognitive decline

rewards of growing old

Decrease of: - anger - stress - worry - social-relationship problems - negative emotions Increase of: - positive feelings

Which statement is true with respect to the elements of impulsivity in adolescence?

Impulse control continues to improve throughout adolescence

The main difference between Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of development is that:

Piaget stressed the child's independent discoveries, whereas Vygotsky stressed that supportive interactions with parents and others played a key role in cognitive development.

What does theory of mind have to do with autism spectrum disorder?

Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others' mental states. Those with ASD struggle with this ability.

Although Piaget's stage theory continues to inform our understanding of children's thinking, many researchers believe that a. Piaget's stages begin earlier and development is more continuous than he realized. b. children do not progress as rapidly as Piaget predicted. c. few children progress to the concrete operational stage. d. there is no way of testing much of Piaget's theoretical work.

a

Stroke a newborn's cheek and the infant will root for a nipple. This illustrates a. a reflex. b. nurture. c. a preference. d. continuity.

a

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behavior

sense of integrity

a feeling that one's life has been meaningful and worthwhile

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

In Piaget's theory, a schema is:

a mental representation of the world.

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Piaget believed that each child:

actively tries to make sense of his or her environment.

accommodate

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

the selection effect

adolescents tend to select out similar others and sort themselves into like-minded groups

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Amir is concerned because he cannot remember events before he was about 4 years old. This is called infantile _____.

amnesia

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

With respect to parenting style, coercive is to confrontative as _____ is to _____.

authoritarian; authoritative

The Markowitz family has a son, Noah, who has exceptionally high intelligence and excels in math. However, he lacks social and communicative skills, which limit his ability to sustain normal peer relationships. Noah will MOST likely be diagnosed with:

autism spectrum disorder

Amelia is 3 years old and fights with her mother each morning on what to wear. She insists on dressing herself. Her mother almost always tries to convince her that her mismatched outfit is not suitable for an outing but eventually gives in because of Amelia's persistence. Amelia is dealing with which issue based on Erik Erikson's theory?

autonomy versus shame and doubt

Which of the following is true of motor-skill development? a. It is determined solely by genetic factors. b. The sequence, but not the timing, is universal. c. The timing, but not the sequence, is universal. d. It is determined solely by environmental factors.

b

Although development is lifelong, there is stability of personality over time. For example, a. most personality traits emerge in infancy and persist throughout life. b. temperament tends to remain stable throughout life. c. few people change significantly after adolescence. d. people tend to undergo greater personality changes as they age.

b.

Marquis is the son of a teenage mother. She could not handle taking care of him and put him up for adoption when he was 4 weeks old. Marquis was placed in a foster home where he was abused. He was never adopted. It is MOST likely that Marquis will:

become an abusive parent with aggressive tendencies.

generativity

being productive and supporting future generations

Maturation refers mainly to _____ development.

biological

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Body organs first begin to form and function during the period of the ; within 6 months, during the period of the , organs are sufficiently functional to provide a good chance of surviving and thriving. a. zygote; embryo b. zygote; fetus c. embryo; fetus d. placenta; fetus

c.

authoritarian parents

coercive; they impose rules and expect obedience

Jean Piaget proposed a stage theory of _____ development.

cognitive

This week Andrea is babysitting twins, Cassy and Nikki. She bakes the girls brownies and Cassy complains that her sister has more brownies than her. Andrea divides one of Cassy's brownies in half and asks her if it is now fair. Cassy replies, "No, all you did was cut it in half." Cassy is now in which stage of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory?

concrete operational stage

authoritative parents

confrontive; They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

Five-year-old Otto complained to his mom that the pizza was not big enough. Otto's mom cut the pizza into smaller slices, thus making Otto happy, because he believed the pizza had become larger. Otto lacks the concept of:

conservation

Two sealed, pyramid-shaped containers contain what are clearly identical amounts of a liquid. However, a child suddenly judges them as holding different amounts of liquid after one container is inverted. The child apparently lacks a concept of _____.

conservation

Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting _____________; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting ______________

continuity; stages

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Compared to a century ago, menarche now occurs _____ in life and adult independence begins _____ in life.

earlier; later

Malcolm was contemplating dropping out of high school when he was asked to enroll in a volunteer program. Every week he worked in a local day-care center, helping children with their projects. The children appreciated his help. After a few months, it is MOST likely that Malcolm will:

feel better about himself and not drop out.

In Erikson's stages, the primary task during adolescence is

forging an identity

Between ages 3 and 6, the human brain experiences the greatest growth in the _____________ lobes, which enable rational planning and aid memory.

frontal

Marcia has the intense desire to create a mentoring program at her company. According to Erik Erikson, she is likely experiencing the _____ versus stagnation state.

generativity

Marcia is 48. She has the intense desire to create a mentoring program at her company. According to Erik Erikson, she is likely experiencing:

generativity

Infants' ______________ to repeated stimulation helps developmental psychologists study what infants can learn and remember.

habituation

Ten-year-old Janelle is sad. She is crying. Her older brother looks at her and then continues watching television. He may be showing signs of:

impaired theory of mind

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood

egocentric

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

assimilate

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Jenny has a job, a cat named Joker, and 31 candles on her birthday cake. She is worried about finding the right partner. She frequently spends nights alone and knows she is not getting any younger. According to Erik Erikson, Jenny is in the stage of development called _____ versus _____.

intimacy; isolation

Individual differences in learning and memory abilities are greatest during _____ adulthood.

late

Freud defined the healthy adult as one who is able to __________and to _______________ .

love; work

The biological growth process called ______________ explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months.

maturation

In Erikson's theory, early adulthood is to intimacy as _____ is to _____.

middle age; generativity

Dr. Towne believes that genetics is primarily responsible for personality traits. Dr. West believes that experiences are primarily responsible for personality traits. The two psychologists are on different sides of the _____ debate.

nature and nurture

Developmental researchers who consider how biological, psychological, and social-cultural forces interact are focusing on _______________ and _______________.

nature; nurture

Five-year-old Ami is beginning to show signs of being able to plan ahead in a somewhat rational manner. At her age, this development is likely due to:

neural networks sprouting in her frontal lobes.

Object permanence, pretend play, conservation, and abstract logic are developmental milestones for which of Piaget's stages, respectively?

object permanence - sensorimotor stage pretend play - preoperational stage conversation - concrete operational stage abstract logic - formal operational stage

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

Nutrients and oxygen are transferred from a mother to her developing fetus through the:

placenta

Mark believes that choosing to violate government laws is morally justifiable if it is done to protect the lives of innocent people. Lawrence Kohlberg would suggest that this illustrates _____ morality.

postconventional

Jarrud thinks he should obey his teachers only if they are carefully watching him. Lawrence Kohlberg would suggest that Jarrud demonstrates a(n) _____ morality.

preconventional

According to Kohlberg, ______________morality focuses on self-interest, ________________morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles, and _________________morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules.

preconventional; postconventional; conventional

Adolescence is marked by the onset of

puberty

By age 65, a person would be most likely to experience a cognitive decline in the ability to

recall and list all the important terms and concepts in a chapter

When an infant gazes more intently at a new stimulus compared to an older stimulus, researchers conclude that the infant recognizes that stimulus as being new. It follows that the infant

remembers the older, original stimulus, thus making the new stimulus seem different.

cross sectinal study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

Three-year-old Ross happily explores the attractive toys located in the dentist's waiting room while his mother is in the room. However, if she briefly leaves and then returns, he will return periodically to her side for brief moments. Ross MOST clearly displays signs of _____ attachment.

secure

In Piaget's view, cognitive development consisted of four major stages:

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational

Dr. Babineaux asks a sample of 8-year-old children to complete measures of several personality traits. When the same children are 16 years old, she asks them to complete measures of the same traits. Dr. Babineaux then computes correlations between the two sets of measures. Her results are MOST relevant to the _____ issues.

stability and change

Questions about the extent to which maladaptive habits learned in childhood can be overcome in adulthood are MOST directly relevant to the issue of:

stability and change

An 8-month-old infant who reacts to a new babysitter by crying and clinging to his father's shoulder is showing _____________________.

stranger anxiety

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, moral reasoning is defined as the aspect of cognitive development:

that has to do with how an individual reasons about moral decisions.

Gabriel recently signed up for a website that reunites one with former classmates from grade school. He is curious to see if many of his former friends still look and act the same. Research on stability and change would predict:

that some things about his friends will be the same while other aspects will be quite different.

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

menarche

the first menstrual period

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

negligent parents

uninvolved; They are neither demanding nor responsive. They are careless, inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children

permissive parents

unrestraining; They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment.

Prenatal Development Stages

zygote: conception to 2 weeks embryo: 2 to 9 weeks fetus: 9 weeks to birth