PSYCHOLOGY CH 5-7

3 conditions of Confabulation

1. You have thought, heard, or told others about the imagined event many times (imagination inflation) 2. The image of the event contains lots of details that make it feel real. 3. The event is easy to imagine.

Who is little Albert

11-month-old placid child that was conditioned to fear rats and then his fear generalized to all furry objects.

Define Thinking

1The process of one's mind that produces thoughts. Thinking mentally manipulates the environment. Thinking has given us computers/technology and highway system.

Distinguish between reinforcement and punishment.

2 types of consequences: Reinforcement - Strengthens or increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Punishment - weakens or decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

Who is B.F. Skinner?

B.F Skinner - called his approach radical behaviorism because he wanted to distinguish it from the behaviorism of John Watson who is the father of behaviorism. The skinner box was a rat in a cage that pressed a lever to get a pellet of food or a drop of water.

How is behaviorism associated with learning?

Based on observable behavior. Behaviorism looks at observable and measurable behavior.

In classical conditioning, ________ occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

Which of the following is true about the use of extrinsic versus intrinsic rewards?

Extrinsic rewards should be used carefully and not overdone.

Years ago vivid recollections of emotional event were labeled

Flashbulb memories (a picture in the mind's eye)

Who is George Miller and what are his contributions to the study of memory?

George Miller estimates a magic number of working memory capacity to be 7 plus or minus two items of information (most people can only retain between 5 and 9 items at a time.

Which type of amnesia did H.M live with and why?

H.M. lived with anterograde amnesia due to the surgery.

What is positive reinforcement and positive punishment?

Positive Reinforcement, adding stimulus to increase the likelihood of a response. Ex Your teacher praises you for studying hard. When a pleasant consequence makes a response more likely it is known as positive reinforcement. Positive Punishment - Adding stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a response. EX Your dating partner ridicules you for studying so much.

What is primary reinforcer?

Primary reinforces satisfy a physiological need.

What is the purpose of priming.

Priming measures implicit memory, and tests to see to see whether its effects performance on another type task.

What are the principles of operant conditioning

Principles of Operant Conditioning (the same principle in classical conditioning) - Extinction: (weakening) it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. - Stimulus Generalization:response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) -Stimulus Discrimination (spontaneous recovery) - Discrimination stimulus (reinforcement) (shaping)

What effect does classical conditioning have on reactions to medical treatments.

Reacting to medical treatments you learn to associate specific stimuli with illness

Define reasoning

Reasoning - purposeful mental activity that involves operating on information to reach a conclusion.

Define repression

Repression is a defense mechanism that causes you to bury or repress uncomfortable feelings and emotion. Text book definition- in psychoanalytic theory, involuntary pushing of threatening or upsetting information into the unconscious.

What are the different types of long term memory?

Types of long term memory 1. Semantic memories (general knowledge) explicit memory 2. Episodic memories (Personal experiences) explicit memory 3. Procedural memories are memories of how to do something EX: Ride a Bike Implicit Memory 4. Declarative memories is an explicit memory because you have to declare or state the response.

ivan Pavlov studied the reflexive flow of saliva in dogs. He used meat powder or other food to trigger the salivation. It was later observed that the salivation in the dog was triggered when the dog saw its dog dish, even before the food was placed in it. In this instance, the dog dish is the ________.

Unconditioned Stimulus

Define confabulation

What is confabulation? Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you, or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened.

Define source misattribution

What is source misattribution? The inability to distinguish an actual memory of an event from information learned about the event elsewhere.

Explain when punishment works/Fails

When Punishment works. Punishment fits the crime. Punishment is consistent. When Punishment fails. Problems with reward: Extrinsic Reinforces/ Intrinsic Reinforces. The recipient of harsh or frequent punishment often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage.

Explain eyewitness testimony

When is eyewitness testimony most likely to be inaccurate? When the suspect is of a different ethnicity.

What takes place during classical conditioning

You learn to associate stimuli, rather than learning to associate a stimulus with a response. CC is a passive type of learning.

Define Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Define Heuristic and explain its impact on problem solving and decision making.

heuristic - a rule of thumb that suggest a course of action in problem solving (there is no correct solution.)

Define latent learning

latent learning (Edward Tolman) - A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response and occurs without obvious reinforcement.

Define shaping and instinctive drift

shaping- An operant-conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced. Instinctive drift- During operant learning, the tendency for an organism to revert to ingrained behavior.

What is behaviorism?

study of observable behavior

Child hood amnesia also called infantile amnesia is the inability to remember event from the first 2 or 3 years of life. What are the 3 explanations for childhood amnesia.

a. Brain Development- The prefrontal cortex, and other parts of the brain involved in the formation or storage of events, are not well developed until a few years after birth b. Cognitive development- self-concept emerges later around age 2 allowing you to have a self to remember. c. Social Development- preschoolers have not yet learned what is important to other.

The use of operant techniques in real world settings such as classroom, the athletic fields, prisons, mental hospitals, nursing homes, child care centers or in real world settings is called.

behavior modification

In Watson and Rayner's "Little Albert" study, each time the rat was presented to the boy, it was accompanied by a loud noise. In this experiment, Albert's reaction of fear upon hearing the loud noise was the

conditioned response

Melinda gives her son a quarter every time he makes his bed; she is using

continuous reinforcement.

Where are memories made?

- Amygdala - Formation, consolidation, and retrieval of emotional memories. - Frontal Lobes- working memory tasks - Prefrontal Cortex and parts of the temporal lobes- responsible for efficient encoding of words and pictures, working memory, source monitoring. - Hippocampus- formation of long term explicit memories, aids in the retrieval of specific memories. - Temporal Lobes- temporal lobes contain areas involved in hearing, emotion, memory, visual processing, and in the left lobe- language comprehension. - Cerebellum- responsible for the formation and retention of simple classically conditioned responses. - Cerebral Cortex- Storage of long term memories

Describe the process of counterconditioning and systematic desensitization.

- Counterconditioning uses new and different pairing and association leads to new learning that overrides old learning. - Systematic Desensitization is a treatment for phobias in which the patient is exposed to progressively more anxiety producing stimuli and taught relaxation techniques.

Why do we forget

- Decay - memories eventually disappear if not accessed. - Replacement - new information entering memory can wipe-out old information. - Interference- Similar items of information interfere with each other in either storage or retrieval. o Retroactive interference - new information interferes with the ability to remember old information. o Proactive interference - old information may interfere with the ability to remember current information. - Cue- dependent forgetting- the inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall. - State dependent memory - your mental or physical state may act as a retrieval. - Mood Congruent Memory- mood is consistent with emotional nature.

How we remember?

- Encoding remembering information correctly encoding the information using the senses (hear, see, taste, touch, or smell) - Rehearsal- the review or repetition of material while you are learning it (maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, deep processing) - Retrieval- the repeated retrieval of an item of information from memory- it is necessary if the memory is to undergo consolidation and remain available for a long time. - Mnemonics - Stategies and tricks for improving memory Ex: PEMDAS

What is the difference between explicit memory and implicit memory?

- Explicit memory is the conscious intentional recollection of an event or item of information. - Implicit memory is unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions

What are the important features of Classical conditioning

- Extinction is the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response. - Spontaneous Recovery is the appearance of a learned response - Higher Order conditioning is when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS through association. - Stimulus generalization- responding to similar stimuli - Stimulus discrimination - two or more stimuli are similar but the dog for example only responds to a specific stimulus.

What is the difference between recall and recognition

- Recall - the ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously encountered material (fill in the blank, essay, questions) measure recall. - Recognition - is the ability to encounter previously encountered material (multiple choice and true /false questions) measure recognition.

What are the 2 types of Amnesia

- Retrograde Amnesia- loss of memories that formed before the onset of amnesia. - Anterograde Amnesia - new memories cannot be formed.

How does classical conditioning explain learned reactions to foods and odors.

1. Accounting for taste and odors by pairing them with drugs that make you sick, in other words pairing the specific food to a negative reaction.

Describe 3 models of memory

1. Information processing model of memory 2. The three-box model of memory (Sensory register holds information for 1 or 2 secs, short term memory holds memory for 30 seconds, Long term memory holds unlimited capacity and can retain memory forever) 3. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model of memory

Distinguish psychogenic amnesia and traumatic amnesia

1. Organic conditions such as brain disease or head injury explain memory loss/amnesia. Psychogenic amnesia begins immediately after the precipitating event, involves massive memory loss including loss of personal identity, and usually ends suddenly, after just a few weeks. Traumatic amnesia- (more controversial) may be seen as not remembering due to convenience) Allegedly involves the burying of specific traumatic events for a long period of time, often years. When the memory returns, it is supposedly immune to the usual processes of distortion and confabulation, and is recalled with perfect accuracy.

How might higher order conditioning contribute to the formation of prejudices?

A child may learn a positive response to the word birthday because of its association with gifts and attention. Conversely, the child may learn a negative response to ethnic or other demographic labels if the labels are paired with words that the child has already learned are disagreeable, such as dumb or lazy. Higher-order conditioning, in other words, may contribute to the formation of prejudices. ( Words become associated with emotion)

What is chunk

A chunk is a meaningful unit of information; it may be composed of smaller units.

Define working memory

A form of short-term memory that actively retains information for brief periods and keeps it available for current use.

According to classical conditioning, how are fears learned?

A good example of Classical Conditioning is the Little Albert experiment.

What is dialectical reasoning.

A process in which opposing facts or ideas are weighed and compared, with a view to determining the best solution or resolving differences.

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers.

What is conditioning?

A type of learning involving pairing and association. Associations among environmental stimuli and an organism behavior.

Define Algorithm and explain its impact on problem solving and decision making.

Algorithm- a strategy to solve a problem and get a correct solution. It is guaranteed to produce a solution even if the user does not know how it works. Ex recipe.

Explain the basic elements of cognition.

Concepts- are a mental category that groups objects, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties Ex. Dog careers chairs or a piece of furniture. Prototypes -an especially representative example of a concept. Propositions -units of meaning made up of concepts and express a single idea. Schemas -mental framework for describing and thinking about various aspects of the world Ex. Cognitive schema, gender schema Mental Images -picture in the mind's eye

Differentiate continuous reinforcement and intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement- (reward every desired behavior) Intermittent -(Partial) schedule of reinforcement (rewarding desired behavior sometime but not every time)

Why do we tend to remember emotionally arousing events more clearly than un-arousing ones?

During arousal and stress, the adrenal gland releases hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine that can enhance memory but too much stimulation from these hormones could have serious consequences.

Explain B.F Skinners Skinner box

Early in his career, Skinner (1938) used the Skinner box for a classic demonstration of operant conditioning. A rat that had previously learned to eat from the pellet-releasing device was placed in the box. The animal proceeded to scurry about the box, sniffing here and there, and randomly touching parts of the floor and walls. Quite by accident, it happened to press a lever mounted on one wall, and immediately a pellet of tasty rat food fell into the food dish. The rat continued its movements and again happened to press the bar, causing another pellet to fall into the dish. With additional repetitions of bar-pressing followed by food, the animal began to behave less randomly and to press the bar more consistently. Eventually, Skinner had the rat pressing the bar as fast as it could.

Explain Edward Thorndike puzzle box.

Edward Thorndike set the stage for operant conditioning research by observing cats as they tried to escape from a "puzzle box" to reach a scrap of fish located just outside the box. At first, the cat would scratch, bite, or swat at parts of the box in an unorganized way. Then, after a few minutes, it would happen upon the successful response (loosening a bolt, pulling a string, or hitting a button) and rush out to get the reward. Placed in the box again, the cat now took a little less time to escape, and after several trials, the animal immediately made the correct response. According to Thorndike, this response had been "stamped in" by the satisfying result of getting the food. In contrast, unsatisfying results "stamped out" behavior. Behavior, said Thorndike, is controlled by its consequences.

Who is Edward Thorndike and what contributions did he make for operant conditioning.

Edward Thorndike- most associated with operant conditioning (Puzzle box experiment- A cat learns to escape a maze type box to get a scrap of food) Operant.

Who is Henry Molaison? (H.M)

In 1953, when Henry was 27 years old, surgeons made a last-ditch effort to cure his unrelenting epileptic seizures by removing his hippocampus, most of his amygdala, and a portion of his temporal lobes. The operation achieved its goal: Henry's seizures became milder and controllable with medication. But there was a major side effect: He could no longer remember new experiences for much longer than 15 minutes.

Which of the following statements reflects the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, the response is reflexive, but in operant conditioning it is typically more complex.

Distinguish formal reasoning from informal reasoning.

In formal reasoning problems—the kind you might find, say, on an intelligence test—the information needed for reaching a solution is specified clearly, and there is a single right (or best) answer. In informal reasoning problems, there is often no clearly correct solution. Many approaches, viewpoints, or possible solutions may compete, and you may have to decide which one is most "reasonable."

Define consolidation

It is the process in which a long-term memory becomes durable and stable.

Who was Josh Foer

Joshua Foer, author of a book titled "Moonwalking with Einstein" used the memory palace strategy to become a memory athlete/champion.

What are 3 other types of learning discussed in the textbook?

Latent Learning- learning that is not currently being expressed. observational learning- learning by watching social-cognitive learning- environment and thoughts impact behavior

Define memory

Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve information and structures that account for this ability.

How conscious is thought?

Much of mental processing is not conscious. Subconscious processes/thinking- occurs outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary ex. Knitting, typing, driving a car, decoding the letters in a word in order to read it multitasking rarely works - thought switching. Nonconscious processes/thinking occurs outside of conscious awareness and not available to conscious awareness ex. Implicit learning - you learn a rule or adaptive behavior with or without conscious intention but you don't know how you learned it.

What is negative reinforcement and negative punishment?

Negative reinforcement - Removing stimulus to increase the likelihood of a response Ex: Your teacher stops scolding you when you attend class regularly. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of something unpleasant. Negative punishment- Removing stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a response. EX Your parents take away your driver's license because you've been texting while driving

Define observational learning

Observational Learning - Learning by watching others individuals learn a new response by observing the behavior of another (a Model) rather than through direct experience

What are 2 types of conditioning

Operant and Classical Conditioning

According to operant conditioning, how does learning /conditioning occur?

Operant conditioning is a type of learning or conditioning as a result of consequences.

What is actually learned in classical Conditioning?

Pairing and association learning. You learn to associate stimuli, rather than learning to associate a stimulus with a response.

Who is Ivan Pavlov?

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was studying salivation in dogs as part of a research program on digestion. One of his procedures was to make a surgical opening in a dog's cheek and insert a tube that conducted saliva away from the animal's salivary gland to measure it. To stimulate the reflexive flow of saliva, Pavlov placed meat powder or other food in the dog's mouth. - REASON FOR Classical Conditioning.

Who is Sir Frederic Bartlett

Sir Frederic Bartlett concluded as a result of his research that memory is largely a reconstructive process.

Define Social Cognitive learning

Social Cognitive learning - emphasis how behavior is learned and maintained through observation of others and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs

In classical conditioning, ________ occurs when a stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response.

Stimulus generalization

Who is John B. Watson?

The Father of American behaviorism and promoted Pavlovs ideas Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the experiment with Little Albert.

Explain the importance of the leaky bucket associated with memory

The Leaky bucket if it did not leak the bucket would overflow with information. So information is always trickling through the bucket. Some things remain and other things are lost.

List and explain the barriers to reasoning outlined in the texbook.

o Exaggerating the Improbable (exaggerating the probability of rare events) - Affect Heuristic - You reason using emotion - Availability Heuristic- reasoning based on availability oAvoiding Loss - Framing effect: the tendency for choices to differ depending on how they are presented (wording matters) o Biases and Mental Sets - fairness bias (the Ultimatum game) - hindsight bias (hindsight is 20/20) - confirmation bias (taking the advice that confirms what you want) - mental set (a tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked in the past on similar problems.) ex. Duct, duck, duk tape Overcoming Cognitive biases- know where your blind spots are

For classical conditioning to be most effective, the stimulus to be conditioned should

precede the unconditioned stimulus.