Psychology exam 1
Experiments
A test or procedure carried out under controlled conditions to determine the validity of a hypothesis or make a discovery.
What part of the ear allows air to enter to help equalize pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane?
Eustachian tube
reinforcer
Event or stimulus that increases the frequency of the response that it follows
punishment
Event that DECREASES behavior that it follows
antisocial effects
Ex: Abusive parents may have aggressive kids Men who beat their wives had men battering dads Negative news about observational learning
Combating jet leg
Exercise on board
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone
What do you know about the plasticity of the brain?
It changes and adapts over time
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Source: Anterior Pituitary Target: ovaries/testes Action: stimulates egg/sperm production
Progesterone
Source: Ovaries Target: Reproductive system Action: puberty, menstrual cycle, development of gonads
Estrogen
Source: Ovaries Target: Reproductive system Action: puberty, menstrual, development of gonads
Parathyroid Hormone
Source: Parathyroid Target: bone matrix Action: raises blood calcium
Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
Source: Posterior Pituitary Target: Kidneys Action: Water balance/ blood pressure
Calcitonin
Source: Thyroid Target: Adrenal cortex Action: lowers blood calcium
Two muscles in the iris control the size of the pupil and how much light enters the eye. (True or False)
True
Extinction
When a conditioned stimulus no longer brings about the conditioned response.
Extinction
When an association erodes between stimulus-response (classical) or behaviour-reinforcer (operant) a behaviour is extinguished.
fovea
tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual activity is greatest at this point
experimental - variable:
everthing we come in contact with is available
trichromatic theory
holds the human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different light wavelengths
Circulating hormones
hormones synthesized within endocrine cells from either cholesterol or amino acids
humanistic psychology
perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
behaviorism
science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only (must be directly seen or measured) prosed by John B Watson
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
All-or-Nothing principle
the action potential either occurs, or it doesn't, ie: you can't "half-fire" a gun
Manifest content
the actual dream itself
Socrates
"Knowledge is innate." Known as first and greatest teacher of all time, emphasized introspection.
Stage Two
"baseline" of sleep, brain wave cycle slows, occupies 45-60% of sleep
Thinking
-the remains of sorting, scanning, and sifting process
NOVA Dreaming
...
How much information about a person's surroundings reaches the brain through the eyes?
90%
Time it takes for body to adjust?
One day per time zone crossed
Action Potential
a nerve impulse
behaviorism
an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior
D- (Dismissing/Avoidant) Adults
attachment is devalued, thought is separated from emotion, idealized picture of childhood without supporting memories.
elicited
drawn forth
Neutral stimulus
A stimulus that does not revoke a response.
Antagonists
BLOCKS neurotransmitters
brain stem
Connects the brain and spinal cord
Sulcus
Shallow wrinkles of the brain
empiricism
The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation
central NS
brain & spinal cord
Nucleus and soma
functional unit of the neuron
relaxed wakefulness
rhythmic alpha waves
stage 1 sleep
small, irregular brain waves
similarity
things alike are grouped
Margaret Washburn
First woman to receive a PhD in psychology in 1894.
A psychologist who was a proponent of the Structuralism movement:
Tichener
Wilhelm Wundt
"Founder" of psychology. Credited with making psychology an independent science. Set up first laboratory in Leipzig, Germany 1879. Studied conscious experience: sensations, images, and feelings.
Stage 3 & 4
"delta" sleep or "slow wave" sleep, lasts 15-30 minutes, brain activity dramatically decreases.
cerebellum
"little brain" - relatively large and deeply folded structure located adjacent to the back of the brainstem
Endorphins
"morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
EGO "the adult"
"the I", mediates id and reality. Operates on reality principle, recognizes the world doesn't always obey our desires.
ID "the child"
"the it", animalistic instincts, passions that must be subdued to be civilized. Works on pleasure principle where wish=reality and desire is unrestrained.
Phenomenology
"the study of that which appears" the philosophical study of the structures of subject experience and consciousness
Operant Conditioning
(Skinner) Behaviour influenced by effect of behaviour than by stimulus. (reacting to behaviour is poor, unlikely it will be repeated)
Narcolepsy
(kind of sleep seizure) Consists of sudden onset of RM sleep during otherwise waking hours. When a person suddenly slips into REM sleep during the day. Can happen suddenly without warning.
modern perspectives:
- humanistic perspective -cognitive perspective -social cultural perspective -biosychological perspective -evolutionary perspective
violence-viewing effect
- kids likely to IMITATE what they see - see something bad often, they get desensitized -violent tv programs enforce violence and aggression in their viewers
Sleep Disorders
-Snoring -Sleep Apnea -Insomnia -Narcolepsy -Restless Legs Syndrome -Periodic Limb Movement Disorder -Hypersomnia -Enuresis (Bed wetting) -Bruxism -Jet Lag -Somniloquy -Sleep Terror Disorder (also known as night terror) -REM Behavior Disorder and Sleep -Somnambulism (Night walking/ Sleep Walking)
Examples of Circadian Rhythms
-Temperature -Sleep -Alertness -Hormone levels
concussions
-a bruise like injury of the brain -occurs when the soft tissue of the brain collide against the skull -bump head, contact sports, car accident -cause headache, drowsiness, confusion, lose consciousness -wear a helmet
What are other ways to enrich encoding?
-Visual imagery: (link verbal to visual) -Self-referent: motivation to remember because it pertains to you -Chunking: grouping familiar stimuli and storing them as a singular unit -Mnemonics
Peripheral Nervous System
-consists of all the nerves located outside of the central nervous system -connects nerves to the rest of the body -involved in both voluntary and involuntary actions -43 pairs of nerves -12 pairs originate in the brain -31 pairs orginate in the spinal cord -1 nerve in each pair goes to the left side of the body and the other goes to the right
What have researchers discovered about hypnosis?
-hypnosis as a normal state of consciousness characterized by dramatic role playing opposing view: -hypnosis as a variation in consciousness creating a dissociation in consciousness (highway hypnosis) People vary in how hypnotizable they are.
3 Domains of Positive Psychology or "Three Lives"
-positive emotions -engagement -meaning
Deal With Problems
-reflect what we think about -resolve/ conflict
Activation-synthesis
-you are trying to make sense of neural activity in your brain -physiological -accordingly, dreams should be bizarre and disjointed in terms of their meaning
Does the Season Affect Mood?
...
Dream Theories
...
Sleeping Disorders
...
The Body's Clock
...
The Rhythms of Sleep
...
Theories of Dreaming
...
Theories of Hypnosis
...
When the Clock is out of sync
...
r strength
0-1, 1=perfect (strongest)
firing neuron
1 action potential shoots down 2 neurotransmitter released into synapse 3 if receptor on dendrites, they bind 4 if strong enough, process begins again
goals of psych
1 describe 2 explain 3 predict 4 control/change
neuron functions
1 receive info from many other neurons 2 integrates all info 3 sends info out
Self improvement techniques
1) state goal 2) engage in desired behavior 3) reinforce the desired behavior 4) reduce rewards gradually
Punishment effects
1) suppressed not forgotten 2) teaches discrimination 3) teaches fear 4) encourages aggression
Disadvantages of Case Studies
1. Can be less than objective (since interview interprets) 2. May be unusual case (generalizability?)
What are the steps of research?
1. Formulate a Hypothesis 2. Select/Design a Research Study 3. Collect the Data 4. Report the Findings
The scientific method
1. Making observations 2. Defining a problem 3. Proposing a hypothesis 4. Gathering evidence/ testing the hypothesis 5. Publishing results 6. Theory building
study of behavior and 2 major aspects
1. behavior -any observable or measurable activity 2. cognition - any mental process (thinking and problem solve)
Name the three zones of the adrenal cortex and the hormones produced in each zone.
1. Zona glomerulosa: thin, outer layer composed of spherical cells that synthesize mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosteroid regulates the ration of Na+ and K+ in our blood and body fluids by altering the amounts excreted by the kidney into the urine), a group of hormones that help regulate the composition and concentration of electrolytes in body fluids. 2. Zona fasciculata: the middle layer and largest region of the adrenal cortex. The primary glucocorticoids synthesized in this region are cortisol and corticosterone. 3. Zona reticularis: the innermost region of the cortex with cells capable of secreting minor amounts of sex hormones called gonadocorticoids (e.g., androgens).
psychology 4 goals
1. description 2. explanation 3. prediction 4. control
What are the three reflex mechanisms for regulating secretion of hormones?
1. hormonal stimulation 2. humoral stimulation 3. nervous stimulation
Distinguish between the two types of organization of endocrine glands.
1. single organ with only endocrine function 2. cells housed in small clusters within organs that have some other primary function
Controversies in Sociobiology
1. to say a trait/behaviour has genetic basis implies it is morally desirable/inevitable. 2. emphasis on genetics invalidates environmental impact (genetics sets limits, environment influences expression) 3. biggest difficult is distinguishing between Proximate and Ultimate Causation
critical thinking
1. what is it i'm being asked to believe 2. what is the evidence 3. can the evidence be interpreted? 4. what evidence supports other explanations? 5. what is the most reasonable explanation?
Cognitive Revolution
1950s-60s, several lines of development created a switch to the scientific study of mental processes, so the black box was rejected and thought processes became the object of interest.
concurrent schedules
2 or more schedules available at the same time; organism can choose which one to work on and can switch back and forth
circadian rhythms
24 hour biological cycle; example: body temperature, blood pressure
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
5. Self-actualization 4. Self-esteem 3. Love & belonging 2. Safety 1. Physical needs
A relearning measure requires subjects to A. memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved. B. select previously learned information from an array of options. C. reproduce information on their own without any cues. D. indicate whether a given piece of information is familiar
A
According to Cowan, the capacity of short-term memory has been ___ because researchers have not controlled for __ by participants. A. overestimated; covert chunking B. underestimated; covert chunking C. overestimated; serial positioning D. underestimated; serial positioning
A
As part of a memory test, Yosra was given a list of words that included dog, pail and hate. Later, she recalled these words as log, whale, and late. Yosra's errors in recall suggest that she encoded the original word list A. phonemically. B. structurally. C. semantically. D. retroactively
A
Darnell trained raccoons that would deposit single tokens into a slot but the raccoons could not seem to learn to deposit two tokens into a slot. Instead, the raccoons would rub the two coins together as they would normally do to clean food they had picked up. A. instinctive drift towards food-washing behavior. B. poor conditioning of token placing. C. insufficient reinforcement of token placing. D. lack of stimulus generalization.
A
Psychoanalysis
A Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing the unconscious mind as the drive for behavior. Believe that human nature is inherently bad & animalistic.
taste aversion (learning)
A biological constraint on learning in which an organism learns in one trial to avoid a food whose ingestion is followed by illness
Split Brain
A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
Punishment
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior
Positive punishment
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus
Operational Definition
A definition in terms of operations (that is, actions) used to measure something
Nightmare
A dream arousing feelings of intense fear, horror, and distress.
Bowlby's Internal Working Model
A kind of mental map between child and caregiver where by repetition, availability and responsiveness impact the kind of behaviour demonstrated by the child.
Conditioned response (CR)
A response learned through classical conditioning
Conditioned Response (CR)
A response that becomes associated with a previously unrelated stimulus as a result of pairing the stimulus with another stimulus that normally elicits a response
Gyrus
A ridged or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface.
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response.
Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)
A therapeutic approach that uses the concepts of operant conditioning to modify behaviors. Most often used in the treatment of pervasive developmental disorders in children, including the treatment of autism
Constant
A value that does not change
Double-Blind Study
An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo
Instinct
An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli. Also known as a fixed action pattern
Sensitization
An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one very strong stimulus
What are stimulants and what do they do?
Amphetamines, cocaine: elation, excitement, increased alertness, increased energy, reduced fatigue. Side effects = increased BP, HR, talkativeness, restlessness, irritability, insomnia, sweating, urination, anxiety, paranoia, aggressiveness, panic; reduced appetite Medical TX: hyperactivity, narcolepsy, cocaine: local anesthetic
Prediction
An ability to accurately forecast behavior.
Token economy
An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors
Cognitive behaviorism
An approach that combines behavioral principles with cognition (perception, thinking, anticipation) to explain behavior.
Humanism
An approach to psychology that focused on human experience, problems, potentials, and ideals. Believe that people want to achieve self-actualization and human nature is inherently good.
What do we know about the search for identity?
Adolescent Q = "Who am I?" Identity statuses: -Id diffusion - state of rudderless apathy; no connection to an ideology -Id foreclosure - premature commitment to visions, values, and roles (typically from parents), associated with not being very open to new experiences -Id moratorium - delaying commitment for a while to experiment with other ideologies and careers. -Id achievement - arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities.
Scientific observation
An empirical investigation that is structured so that it answers questions about the world.
What evidence do we have that we HAVE different types of memory?
Amnesia cases (H.M. - no episodic & A.M. - no semantic);
association
Ability to naturally connect events that occur in sequence
Rationalism
Ability to use logic - may not always be affective
Aggressive Instinct
Aggression leads to stronger individual procreating, since fighting and mating are similar. However, there is little evidence for innate aggression in humans.
What's the difference between an "agonist" vs. an "antagonist?"
Agonist will attach to a receptor site vs. blocks receptor sites by binding to them
The Strange Situation
Ainsworth - Used to study parenting styles and infants' reactions to these styles. It tests the reactions of toddlers to a period of temporary absence on the part of the caregiver, during which the child is left alone with a stranger. Also called Ainsworth's Stranger Paradigm
Unconditioned response
An innate reflex elicited by an uncontrolled stimulus.
What is DBS?
An invasive procedure where a surgeon implants electrodes within the bassal ganglia
What is an operational definition?
An operational definition is the operations or actions used to measure the variable.
Behaviourism and Attachment Theory
Attachment types reflect predictable responses to different reinforcement schedules (Operant Conditioning). Avoidant = extinction due to unresponsiveness Resistant = increase due to intermittent reinforcement Secure = reliable reinforcement schedule
Compare autocrine and paracrine signaling that occurs through local hormones.
Autocrine: stimulating the same cell that the hormone was released from Paracrine: stimulating neighboring cells
Combating jet leg
Avoid fatty food to allow easier and more rapid suggestions
Combating jet leg
Avoid leg crossing during flight which could limit circulation
-external events -internal sensations -yourself as the unique being experiencing these things -your thoughts about these experiences
Awareness of:
Which of the following statements MOST accurately describes how visual information is transmitted to the brain? A. Signals from each eye only go to the corresponding (same) hemisphere of the brain. B. Signals from both eyes go to both hemispheres of the brain. C. Signals from each eye only go to the opposite hemisphere of the brain. D. Signals from the fovea of each eye go to the left hemisphere, and signals from the remaining areas of the retina go to the right hemisphere.
B
Which of the following statements about conditioning is FALSE? A. Conditioning was originally thought to be a "mechanical" process where no cognition was thought to be involved. B. Latent learning supported the idea that internal, mental processes were not involved with conditioning. C. By showing that the predictive value of the conditioned stimulus correlated with the strength of conditioning, Rescorla showed that cognition was involved with conditioning. D. Both "latent learning supported the idea that internal, mental processes were not involved with conditioning" and "by showing that the predictive value of the conditioned stimulus correlated with the strength of conditioning, Rescorla showed that cognition was involved with conditioning"
B
Motor strip
Band running down the side of the frontal lobe that controls all bodily movements
Describe Bandura's findings on what determines whether we will imitate a model
Bandura and others demonstrated that we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished. An we tend to imitate models we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable.
Mary Calkins
Became first female president of the APA in 1905. Studied memory with William James at Harvard.
Why is attention important for memory?
Because it focuses awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli - enables encoding
cognitive/behavioral model
Beck thoughts/behaviors/mood all connected
Supported by Watson and Skinner - A movement in psychology which suggested that only overt behavior & environmental factors be studied in order to understand human behavior:
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov
Behaviorist. Classical conditioning. Known for bell, meat, spit studies.
John B. Watson
Behaviorist. Objected strongly to the study of the mind or conscious experience & felt that introspection was unscientific. Known for "Little Albert" experiment.
Aristotle
Believed that natural laws govern the natural world, that we are born a blank slate. Theorized that the natural law that governed life is that people go towards pleasure & avoid pain.
What are the risks of binge drinking?
Binge drinkers claim that they are more likely than nonbinge drinkers to drink and drive, engage in unplanned or unprotected sex, do something they later regretted, miss class or fall behind with class work, argue with friends, get hurt or injured, get in trouble with police
Discuss the way negative punishment, positive punishment, and negative reinforcement differ, and list some draw-backs of punishment as a behavior-control technique
Both positive punishment and negative punishment attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes something undesirable to increase the frequency of the behavior. Punishment's undesirable side effects may include suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors. Punishment's undesirable side effects may include suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching aggression, creating fear, and encouraging discrimination, and fostering depression and feelings of helplessness
an electrical impulse in the brain; periodic firing of neurons the frequency of firing neurons depends on incoming stimulus, and the same neuron can fire at a high or low frequency at different times -> this periodic firing is called neural oscillation recorded by an EEG device; the oscillation is displayed as waves of activity and rest
Brain Wave
Neuron
Brain cell
John Bowlby
British psychoanalyst - concerned with impact of mother-child separation (post WW2). Also studied ethology (animal behaviour) and used both to write "Attachment & Loss"
behavior modeling
Business organizations use this to train communications, sales, and costumer service skills
How does stopping after each paragraph & writing a word or several about the main concepts of the paragraph helpful for memory?
By doing this, you are more likely to recall the main concepts of the paragraph by chunking together the larger ideas
After watching his father wash his car, five-year old Carlos washes his bike. This is an example of... A. superstitious behavior B. classical conditioning C. observational learning D. positive reinforcement
C
Chemotherapy patients often become nauseous after treatments. Over time, chemotherapy patients find fewer and fewer foods to be appetizing. This is a case of... A. instinctive drift B. stimulus generalization C. conditioned taste aversion D. extinction
C
The idea of multifactorial causation in drug effects suggests that... A. taking several different drugs at the same time reduces their effects. B. taking several different drugs at once increases their effectiveness. C. the effects of a drug depend on the dosage and the user's personal makeup and experience. D. each person will have the same physiological response to a drug, but there can be different psychological responses.
C
The pathway for pain that results in the experience of pain being less localized and longer lasting is the A. thalamic pathway. B. endorphin pathway. C. slow pathway. D. generic pathway.
C
We often perceive a series of dots on a printed form as a "solid" line because of the Gestalt principle of A. constancy. B. similarity. C. closure. D. symmetry.
C
When you listen to a lecture, the information is held in ___ memory until you write it in your notes. A. trace B. sensory C. short-term D. long-term
C
How does extinction occur?
CS without US; behavior without consequence
Advantages of Naturalistic Observation
Can observe phenomenon as it naturally occurs
Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation
Can only give descriptive information, not casual
What: derived from the hemp plant; contains THC (marijuana) How: -THC attaches to cannaboid receptors, chemically similar to Anandamide (important in regulation of feeding behavior, and the neural generation of motivation/pleasure) Downside: increased heart rate, anxiety, sluggish mental functioning, impaired memory, amotivation Withdrawal: anger, aches, depression, inability to concentrate, sleep disturbances, decreased appetite, and sweating
Cannabis
adaptability
Capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with changing circumstances
Describe the conditions that influence the number of receptors available for a specific hormone.
Cells alter the number of receptors available in response to changes in hormone concentration within the blood. Changes in receptor number also occur as a consequence of developmental maturity, the cell's state of activity, and the different stages of the cell.
What are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?
Central and Peripheral
What are the different types of glial cells and what do they do?
Central vs. Peripheral: Central- Astrocites: Provide nutrients/ most abundant, Microglial: Clean up after everything in the brain, Ependymal: circulation for the spin, oligodendrocytes: keeps all the protons inside the neuron instead of leaking out, Peripheral: Schwaan Cells: Mylenates (encompasses the axon) to keep the electricity in/so it moves smoothly down the axon, Satellite Cells: Provide nutrients
Observer affect
Changes in a person's behavior brought about by an awareness of being observed.
Psychodelics
Cholinergic psychodelics (drugs altering acetylcholine transmission) include physostigmine, scopolamine, and atropine. Drugs that alter norepinephrine transmission include mescaline and ecstasy . Drugs that alter serotonin transmission include LSD and psilocin. Other drugs in this category include the psychedelic anesthetics phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine. Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Po-Re/Psychoactive-Drugs.html#ixzz3NzehTF00
Insomnia
Chronic inability to fall asleep or remain asleep for an adequate length of time.
24 hour biological cycles -regulation of sleep/other body functions -Ex: blood pressure, hormones, and cognitive performance
Circadian Rhythms
A specialty of psychology that involves studying the factors involved with developing, maintaining, and treating a mental illness:
Clinical Psychology
Types of Applied
Clinical, Educational and School, Industrial/Organizational and Health Psych/Behavioral Medicine
Research Step 3
Collect the data (Ex. direct observation, questionnaire/psychological test, interviews, archival data, and physiological readings)
What is a family study?
Compares members of the family, see how genetics play a role. Ex. disease.
What are the effects of sleep deprivation?
Complete: weariness, irritability, paranoia, lapses in attention, memory deficits, "microsleep," hallucinations Partial: inconsistent effects, increased sleepiness, cognitive sluggishness, increased risk of accidents (awake for 24+ hrs = .08 BAC effects) Rebound effects: skip right past light and go to REM or SWS (which ever one was deprived)
What is the name of the mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and covers the front of the eye?
Conjunctiva
the awareness of internal and external stimuli
Consciousness
Combating jet leg
Consume complex carbs to increase muscle glycogen and intake water to replace lost fluids
Unconscious
Contents of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially impulses and desires not directly known to a person.
What is the endocrine system?
Controls and produces hormones throughout the body. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together.
The pathway of light goes through these parts of the eye in order:
Cornea Aqueous humor Pupil Lens Vitreous humor
Non-experiments
Correlation studies. No cause and effect statements.
How do the stages of sleep cycle throughout the night?
Cycles through all 4-5 times per night. 1st half: slow wave sleep (SWS), 2nd half: REM sleep
The perception of timbre corresponds to a sound wave's A. pitch. B. panache. C. amplitude. D. purity.
D
What are the different types of neurotransmitters and the functions they are normally associated with? For example, what does DA, NE, GABA or 5-HT do?
DA- dopamine, attention, learning, and reward NE- Neuropronepherine- Arousal, consolidation of memories, GABA- Controls inhibitory reactions, signals neurons will send 5-HT: Serotonin- Mood, depression, appetite, learning, temp control
Explain the control of thyroid hormone by the hypothalamus and pituitary.
Decreased levels of thyroid hormone and certain stimuli cause the hypothalamus to secrete thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which causes release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary. TSH reaches the thyroid gland and causes release of thyroid hormone (TH) from a stored precursor. This interactive sequence is referred to as the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Thyroid hormone increases metabolism with a subsequent increase in body temperature. To support the higher metabolic rate additional glucose and fatty acids are released into the blood, heart rate and force of contraction are increased, and breathing rate is increased.
DBS stands for?
Deep Brain Stimulation
An example of a philosopher who contemplated how the mind works:
DesCartes
What are the goals of psychology?
Describe, explain, predict and control the behavior and mental processes of others.
Dissociation
Dissociation is a split in the mind in which there can be two independent streams of consciousness occurring at the same time, allowing some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. According to some, dissociation is the foundation of hypnosis - the hypnotized person is able to maintain control of certain thoughts and behaviors, while others are being influenced by the hypnotist.
Day residue (consists of waking life that spill into dreams) Lucid dreaming (dreamers realize they are dreaming)
Dream Types
are mental experiences that have a story-like quality not exclusive, but prominent in REM sleep *can inspire; many books and inventions came from dreams
Dreams
Freud theory why we dream- EGO
EGO - As they grow up, toddlers develop an Ego. This is the part of the psyche that allows us to understand that other people have needs, and that acting impulsively can hurt us. This "reality principle" makes sure we meet the needs of the Id without conflicting with the laws of the Ego.
MDMA—how does the effect differ depending on dosage?
Ecstasy: A type of stimulant at low doses; hallucinogen at high doses
Tolman and the End of Behaviourism
Edward Chase Tolman - studied rats in mazes, noticed behaviour that couldn't be explained by stimulus-response. Rats exhibited mental processing, so Tolman introduced the mind back into psych.
impact of any drug depends on user and drug factors
Effect
What is a primary type of local hormone?
Eicosanoids
What is "empiricism" and "rationalism" and why are these principles used when doing research?
Empiricism is the idea that knowledge should be acquired through observation. Rationalism is the idea that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching. These principles are used during research to determine and get to as rational a conclusion as possible.
Bacon
English Empiricist philosopher-- scientificc utopia
Combating jet leg
Ensure better sleep with earplugs, eye shades, and a neck pillow
What is an adoption study and how might you argue that it is a better method to estimate heritability than family study?
Environment, nature vs. nurture
Give examples of teratogens
Environmental agents that can cause developmental malformations (aka birth defects): -Maternal malnutrition and/or stress -Drug exposure -Disease -Radiation exposure
extraneous vs. confounding variables
Extraneous variables are those that produce an association between two variables that are not causally related. Confounding variables are similar to extraneous variables, the difference being that they are affecting two variables that are not spuriously related.
Diseases and Disorders of the Sensory System
Eye Conjunctivitis Cataract Ear Hearing Loss Otitis Media Nose Common Cold
Each general sense receptor is capable of perceiving many types of feelings. (T or F)
False
The sense of taste is more sensitive than the sense of smell. (T or F)
False
Vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch are part of the integumentary system. (True or false)
False
Cognitive Psychology
Focuses on "higher" mental processes such as memory, reasoning, information processing, language, problem solving, decision making, and creatitivity
Research Step 1
Formulate a hypothesis
Descartes
French rationalist; believed in innate ideas; body and soul two opposed substances
psychodynamic
Freud physical problems w/o physical cause unconscious important bc it influences behavior (tough to be objective bc lack of tech)
Unconscious (where your needs, wishes, and conflicts reside) Pre-conscious (where accessible but less than conscious material resides (long term memory)) Consciousness *Iceberg metaphor
Freud: Levels of Awareness
Carl Jung
Friend of Freud, moves away from libido/aggression toward mystical understanding of consciousness., 1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation
What is stimulus discrimination vs. stimulus generalization? Examples for classical vs operant?
Generalization - applying one stimulus to all similar stimuli (ex. classical: one clown makes all clowns scary; operant: bear that gets treat from one ranger approaches all humans) Discrimination - responding only to that very specific stimulus (ex. classical: one clown makes most clowns scary, but not Ronald MacDonald; operant: bear that gets treat from one ranger approaches only rangers after)
continuity
Gestalt grouping principle; our tendency to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
closure
Gestalt grouping principle; we fill in "gaps" to create a full, complete object
Cells of the brain
Glia and Neurons
What don't glial cells do?
Glial cells do not transmit information, but they provide the structural framework to ensure neurons stay connected
Describe the enzymatic pathways that alter nutrient levels within the blood.
Glucose metabolism (liver and muscle tissue): 1. glycogenesis: formation of glycogen from glucose 2. glycogenolysis: breakdown of glycogen to glucose 3. gluconeogenesis: formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate source (e.g., amino acids) Lipid metabolism (adipose connective tissue): 1. lipogenesis: formation of triglycerides from glycerol and fatty acids 2. lipolysis: breakdown of triglycerides to glycerol and fatty acids Protein metabolism (all cells, especially muscle): 1. protein anabolism: synthesis of protein from amino acids 2. protein catabolism: breakdown of protein to amino acids
Experimental Group
Group being tested (the group of interest)
Radial Glia
Guides migration and growth of immature neurons
realiability
HOW CONSISTENTLY A MEASURE IS MADE
First person to establish a psychological laboratory in the United States and founded American Journal of Psychology:
Hall
What is LSD?
Hallucinogen (acid): increases sensory awareness, euphoria, altered perceptions, insightful experiences -- no medical use
primary reinforcers
Innately reinforcing stimulus - one that satisfies biological needs (food)
Ivan Pavlov
He studied what is called classical conditioning AKA respondent conditioning. In classical conditioning, learning refers to involuntary responses that result from experiences that occur before a response.
Hearing
Hearing is one of the five special senses.
One of the first physiologists to be able to measure nervous system activity:
Helmholtz
theory of mind
Helped by mirror neurons Children's empathy and ability to infer another persons mental state
Learned helplessness
Hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Dog escaping room with shock collar experiment
Health Psychology
How psychological factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of physical health
Contingency "schedule"
If a consequence does not contingently (reliably, or consistently) follow the target response, its effectiveness upon the response is reduced. But if a consequence follows the response consistently after successive instances, its ability to modify the response is increased. The schedule of reinforcement, when consistent, leads to faster learning. When the schedule is variable the learning is slower.
For women: something to keep in mind
If you choose to drink alcohol, drink in moderation. One drink refers to one (12 oz.) bottle of beer, one (5 oz.) glass of wine, or one (1.5 oz.) of 80-proof liquor. Each of these has about 0.6 oz of ethyl alcohol. Limit your alcohol consumption to no more than 2 drinks per day for males or 1 drink per day for females.
How would "inappropriate encoding" affect whether or not we forget something (e.g. doing structural encoding when we'll later be asked about the meaning of things)?
If you use a lower level of processing than necessary, you will be unable to recall things that require a higher level of processing
-fatigue, decreased concentration, sleep disorders -jet lag: biological clocks keep usual time while official clock changes -rotating work shifts = disrupted rhythm
Ignoring Circadian Rhythms
-ignoring rhythms is becoming more common in the USA -average night of sleep 100 years ago was 10hrs; now is 6.9 hours
Ignoring Circadian Rhythms Continued
Stage 2
In stage 2, eye movement stops and brain waves become slower with only an occasional burst of rapid brain waves. When a person enters stage 3
What are the different reasons why we might forget information?
Ineffective encoding (pseudoforgetting), inappropriate encoding, decay, interference: proactive (previously learned information interferes with you learning new information) & retroactive (newly-learned information interferes with you remembering previous information), retrieval failure: misinformation effect & source monitoring error, motivated forgetting (aka repressed memories): your mind—unconsciously—represses negative events in your unconscious
What is pseudoforgetting and what causes it?
Ineffective encoding, never really learning it in the first place; causes: lack of attention / being distracted (you can't actually multi-task)
Experimental method
Investigating behavior through controlled experimentation.
Reflex
Involuntary response to a stimulus
Personality
Involved in describing/understanding individuals' consistency in behavior
Major Figures in Attachment Theory
John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, Mary Main
Collective Unconscious
Jung - concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
Personality theory
Jung - divided the conscious mind into functional modes and attitudes towards the world, which were divided into polarities (intuition vs. sensation, thinking vs. feeling, extroversion vs. introversion) that are continually in tension with each other.
Archetypes
Jung - patterns of experience/behaviour that reflect ancient and fundamental ways of dealing with universal life situations. Reside in collective unconscious. (mother, child, hero, feminine)
cell body
Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm
Explain how latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning
Latent learning, as shown in rats' learning of cognitive maps or children's delayed imitation of others' behavior, indicates that we can learn from experience, without apparent reinforcement. AN external reward's ability to undermine our interest and pleasure in an activity weakens the idea that behaviors that are rewarded will increase in frequency
Cogito Ergo Sum
Latin "I think therefore i am"
observational learning
Learning by observing others
Traveling westward does what to the day?
Lengthens the day
Which of these parts of the eye help to refract light rays to focus them on the retina?
Lens Aqueous humor Vitreous humor (All of the above)
What is treatment for Parkinsons Disease
Levadopa
Licit (legal) Illicit (illegal)
Licit v. Illicit
Hearing and the Ear
Like all special senses, it receives stimuli and sends the impulses to the brain to be interpreted. After receiving sound waves, the ear carries the information to the brain where it is translated into hearing.
Hemispheric Specialization (lateralization)
Localization of activity or function in one side of the brain.
Agonists
MIMICS neurotransmitters example: morphine, runner's high
Three Adult Attachment Styles
Main - D-Adults (Dismissive) = Avoidant Babies E-Adults (Enmeshed, later Preoccupied)=Resistant Babies F-Adults (Free)=Secure Babies
How does "elaboration" affect our success in encoding information?
Makes a memory easier to remember by adding personal details or developing the idea further
Describe the controversy over Skinner's views of human behavior
Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognition and biological constraints on learning. They also engaged in a vigorous intellectual debate with him over the nature of human freedom and the strategies and ethics of managing people
Research methods
Naturalistic observation, correlational method, experimental method, clinical method, survey method.
corpus callosum
Nerves that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
One model of the memory process was shared with you. Describe it. What capacity and durational limits are involved? How might those limitations be overcome?
No such thing as "learning styles"; teaching "visual students" via visual techniques do not perform any better than non-visual students; neurons need time to build connections -- no such things as "I'm bad at...."; overcome by time & effort
Do disease symptoms in a pregnant woman reflect the amount of damage which may occur in the developing fetus?
No, chicken pox for the mother can cause severe birth defects in the fetus
Is the adolescent period a period of turmoil? Why do some say it is? What do the rest of the researchers say?
Not really; "in flux" as they are in various statuses of deciding what person they want to become, relations between adolescents and their parents. Maybe because there is an increased frequency of arguments (about non-serious issues like the type of clothes one is wearing); tend to bother the parents, more so than the adolescent.
Levels
Number of ways the variable is manipulated
Bandura
Observational learning researcher Kids exposed to aggressive adult vs not exposed Behavior modeling
The nerve cells that receive stimuli for the sense of smell are _______ receptors.
Olfactory
Maslow's Triangle
Once basic biological needs are met, focus moves upward. Cannot focus on needs if the needs below it are not met.
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
One cell can create several segments of myelin sheath and cover more than one axon
How long does it take to metabolize alcohol?
One drink per hour
Roger Sperry
One of two psychologists who originated split brain surgery in animals.
What is "lateralization" and how does the "split-brain" procedure show evidence of lateralization?
One side of the brain is in control of the opposite side of the body. Patients won't be able to access certain skills that a particular side has to offer.
fixed ratio schedule
Operant - reinforcement schedule Reinforcers response only after specific number of responses
variable ratio schedule
Operant - reinforcement schedule Reinforces responded after unpredictable number of responses
variable interval schedule
Operant - reinforcement schedule Reinforces response at unpredictable time periods
fixed interval schedule
Operant - reinforcement schedule Reinforces response only after specific time has passed
Skinner
Operant chamber Shaping Operant conditioning researcher
reinforcer
Operant: event that STRENGTHENS behavior it follows
shaping
Operant: reinforcers guide behavior towards closer and closer approximations of the desired target behavior
discriminative stimulus
Operant: stimulus that elicits response after association with reinforcement
Negative Correlation
Opposite directions
Know the different types of research tools that we can use to study the brain. •
PET? A basic image of the brain; radioactive, ex. show depression etc. MRI? A very detailed image of the brain; non-interactive CT scan? A very basic image of the brain. Transcranial magnetic stimulation? TMS/fMRI Lesions? Cutting parts of the brain, hands on/direct fMRI: can stimulate the brain. MRI: a stale image of the brain
What is higher-order conditioning?
Passing the power; CS functions as UCS
Do you know of some myths about psychology research?
People only use 10% of their brain, Playing Mozart music to infant's makes them more intelligent, etc.
What two fields did psychology originate from?
Philosophy & Physiology
-Light levels -> retina -> suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus -> pineal gland -> secretion of melatonin -Melatonin: a hormone that adjusts biological clocks
Physiological pathway of biological clock:
What is the name of the visible part of the outer ear?
Pinna
A movement in psychology that involves studying the positive aspects of psychological phenomena:
Positive Psychology
prosocial behavior
Positive constructive helpful heavior
What is the function of the sensory system?
Receive stimuli to allow the body to react to changes
PET "Positron Emission Tomography"
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses trace amounts of short-lived radioactive material to map functional processes in the brain. When the material undergoes radioactive decay a positron is emitted, which can be picked up be the detector. Areas of high radioactivity are associated with brain activity.
Jet lag causes
Pressure changes. Air is often recirculated which harbors pollutants. Long flights can cause dehydration because of high altitude and low humidity. This pulls moisture out of the passengers at a rate of 10 ounces an hour.
modeling
Process of observing behavior and imitating a specific behavior
Third Force Psychology
Psych was dominated by Behaviourism (academic) and Psychoanalysis (clinical), Humanism wanted to be the next great force.
chemical substance that modifies mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning
Psychoactive Drug
A movement which first proposed a concept called the "unconscious":
Psychoanalysis
What divisions does UNC's psychology & neuroscience department have?
Psychology is the study of the brain's behavior, while neuroscience is the study of the neurological system of the brain. There is a lot of overlap.
Two kinds of sleep:
REM (rapid eye movement ) sleep & non-REM (NREM) sleep
B.F. Skinner
Radical behaviorist. Operant conditioning. Believed that mental events aren't needed to explain behavior. Said that our behavior is controlled by rewards- positive enforcers. Worked mostly with rats & pigeons.
REM sleep behavior disorder
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder is a sleep disorder in which you physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep — sometimes called dream-enacting behavior.
spontaneous recovery
Reappearance - after pause- of a conditioned response
Extinction burst
Refers to an initial increase in a conditioned response when reinforcement is stopped. In other words, the behavior response will increase before you see the process of extinction begin to weaken the conditioned response.
Positive reinforcement
Refers to the addition of something positive.
learning
Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Describe the homeostatic system involving growth hormone.
Release of GH from the anterior pituitary is controlled by the release of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) from the hypothalamus. Growth hormone stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) (somatomedin) from the liver; both GH and IGF stimulate target cells (especially muscle) to increase protein synthesis, mitosis, and cell differentiation; liver to increase both glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; and adipose connective tissue to increase lipolysis.
Research Step 5
Report the findings (Publish or perish)
Current Divisions of Psychology
Research and Applied
What differentiates "research" from "applied" divisions of psychology?
Research psychology mainly works to find out the reasons about a certain behavior whereas applied psychology works to solve a problem or disorder by using the facts obtained from the research psychology.
Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling
Research shows that children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior is prosocial or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe
Discrimination
Responding differently to different stimuli.
Generalization
Responding in a similar way to different stimuli.
The cells that are used for vision in the dark or dim light are _______.
Rods
operant chamber
SKINNER BOX EXPERIMENT- operant: chamber containing bar or key that animal has to click to get water or food as reinforcement
Freud theory why we dream- SUPER-EGO
SUPER-EGO - By the age of five, we develop the Super-ego. This is our moral brain, that tells us the difference between right and wrong. However it doesn't make special allowances - it is up to the Ego to decide.
Positive Correlation
Same directions
Identify the primary types of pancreatic islet cells and the hormones they produce.
Scattered among the pancreatic acini are small clusters of endocrine cells called pancreatic islets. A pancreatic islet cell is composed of two primary types of cells: alpha cells that secrete glucagon, and beta cells that secrete insulin.
SSRI
Selective Seratonin Reuptake Inhibiters -prevents reuptake, or the neurotransmitters coming back video example: slow movements of depressed girl, loss of hope
Combating jet leg
Set watch to new destination time and try and adjust the day before
Traveling eastward does what to the day?
Shortens the day, more stressful
What is a correlation and why can't we make causal conclusions from correlations?
So, when a cause results in an effect, that's a causation. In other words, correlation between two events or variables simply indicates that a relationship exists, whereas causation is more specific and says that one event actually causes the other. One can't make solid conclusions about the two because there is no solid evidence that could support that claim.
One of the most famous behaviorists who suggested that free will was an illusion:
Skinner
Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner (1904 - 1990)
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike's (1905) law of effect. OC, a.k.a. instrumental conditioning. In operant conditioning, learning refers to changes in behavior as a result of experiences that occur after a response. Skinner believed in the existence of the mind but he specified that in order for psychology to be a real science, it cannot study anything that's not directly observable.
usually complete 4-5 cycles of sleep per night, with REM cycles getting progressively longer
Sleep Cycle
-Complete deprivation (3/4 days max) -Partial deprivation/sleep restriction (impaired attention, reaction time, coordination, and decision making) -Selective deprivation (REM and slow-wave sleep: rebound effect (keeps trying to go back into REM cycle))
Sleep Deprivation
Sense of Smell
Smell is one of the five special senses. The nose is the organ that controls this sense.
Know about the different parts of a neuron and what their functions are.
Soma: Cell body (nucleus) Dendrite: Recieve signals Axon: Sends the signal Myelin Sheath: Action potential can die out if it doesn't have the sheath b/c protons die, keeps protons form leaving, keeps action potential propagating down the neuron
Stage 1
Stage 1 is light sleep where you drift in and out of sleep and can be awakened easily. In this stage, the eyes move slowly and muscle activity slows. During this stage, many people experience sudden muscle contractions preceded by a sensation of falling.
Scientific Method
Steps a scientist uses to arrive at a valid conclusion (involves rationalism and empiricism)
aka "uppers" What: increases CNS activation and behavioral activity -Ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines How: forces release and inhibits reuptake of epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine, and dopamine Downside: restlessness, anxiety, paranoia, insomnia, stroke, and possible schizophrenia Withdrawal: fatigue, irritability, severe depression
Stimulants
insight
Sudden realization of the solution to issue Light bulb
What is the treatment for cataracts?
Surgical replacement of the lens of the eye
The four basic tastes and their regions of the tongue are:
Sweet tastes at the tip. Salty tastes near the tip. Sour tastes at the sides. Bitter tastes at the back. The sense of smell also influences taste.
Astrocytes
Synchronizes communication between neurons, nurtures cells and removes waste products
Inferential Stats
T-test, Chi-test, F-test, Multiple Regression, etc - a mathematical calculation that tells you whether or not it is okay to generalize from sample results to population
Taste and the Tongue
Taste is one of the five special senses. The tongue is the organ that controls this sense. It is a mass of muscle tissue that contains projections called papillae, which contain "taste buds." When food is moistened in fluid or saliva, taste buds are activated. The receptors in the taste buds send a signal to the brain to detect the flavor of the food.
generalization
Tendency for stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus to trigger similar responses
What does it mean to be a "stage theory?" What are common problems of stage theories?
That one stage must occur in order to move on to the next stage. Problems = Mixing of stages, not following the proper order of the stages
hilgard's hidden observer
The "hidden observer" is therefore dissociated from what is being suggested by the hypnotist and can continue to have an amount of objectivity about the hypnotic experience that they are involved in, and even when they are very absorbed and engaged in the hypnosis, this objectivity and reality check still observes from the background.
Acquisition
The development of a learned response
Positive punishment
The addition of something undesirable.
Describe the structure and location of the adrenal glands.
The adrenal glands are anchored on the superior surface of each kidney and have both an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Each adrenal gland is a two-part gland that secretes stress-related hormones. The adrenal cortex produces corticosteroid hormones (e.g., cortisol), and the adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Jet Lag
The cumulative physiological and psychological effects of rapid air travel across multiple time zones
Neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons
Explain what is meant by the half-life of a hormone.
The half-life is the amount of time necessary to reduce the hormone concentration within the blood to one-half of what had been secreted originally. *Note: the shorter the half-life of a hormone, the more frequently it must be replaced
Inner Ear
The inner ear is the most complex section of the ear.
Cognitive Neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition ( including perception, thinking, memory and language).
Middle Ear
The middle ear is a small chamber in the temporal bone.
Black Box Theory of Mind
The mind is an opaque black box between stimulus and response. As no one can see inside it, it is not worthy of study. = Antimentalism
Partial reinforcement effect in extinction
The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement than following partial reinforcement
Self-actualization
The ongoing process of fully developing one's personal potential & becoming the best person possible.
Describe the anatomic relationship of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland is inferior to the hypothalamus and connected to it by the infundibulum. The hypothalamus communicates with the posterior pituitary via the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract, which contains axons from two nuclei in the hypothalamus: the supraoptic nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus. The hypothalamus communicates with the anterior pituitary via the hypothalamo-hypophsyeal portal system, a vessel network that transports hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.
Dual Processing
The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
Latent inhibition
The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is already familiar compared to when the conditioned stimulus is unfamiliar
Neo-dissociation: split consciousness with two streams of mental activity Role playing: subject is actually just acting out the role of a hypnotized person
Theories of Hypnosis
Common Cold
There is no cure for a cold. Treatment involves rest and medications to relieve symptoms.
auditory canal, external auditory meatus
This canal contains special glands that secrete wax to protect the ear. Sound waves are collected and channeled through the canal to the tympanic membrane, or eardrum.
tympanic membrane, or eardrum
This membrane vibrates when sound waves hit it, and it separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
Law of effect
Thorndike's view that reinforcers promote learning, whereas punishers lead to the unlearning of responses
Introspection
To look within; to examine one's own thoughts, feelings, or sensations.
When you want to know how much genetics plays a role in behavior, what types of studies can be done to give you heritability estimates?
Twin Studies, Family Studies, and Adoption Studies
What are the advantages vs. disadvantages of each type of method to estimate heritability?
Twin study: Didn't necessarily live the exact same environment Family Study: Genetics aren't always the same Adoption Study: Biological factors unknown
What part of the ear is also known as the eardrum?
Tympanic membrane
Survey method
Using questionnaires and surveys to poll large groups of people.
Empiricism
Using your senses to arrive at a conclusion (seeing = believing) - However our senses can trick us
Where do neurotransmitters come from?
Vesicles of the Axon Terminal, or Food
A psychologist who strongly believed that, theoretically, he could mold a child to become anything, by manipulating the child's environment:
Watson
Little Albert
Watson studied baby Albert in 1920, conditioning the baby to be terrified of white, furry things by pairing a fuzzy rat with a horrible clanging noise. This conditioning was still present after the study.
Major Figures of Behaviourism
Watson, Thorndike, Skinner
Major Figures of Gestalt Psychology
Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler
any substance, natural or artificial, other than food, that by its chemical nature alters structure or function in the living organism
What is a Drug?
Withdrawal
Withdrawal is a term referring to the feelings of discomfort, distress, and intense craving for a substance that occurs when use of the substance is stopped. These physical symptoms take place because the body had become metabolically adapted to the substance. The withdrawal symptoms can range from mild discomfort resembling the flu to severe withdrawal that can actually be life threatening.
Structuralism
Wundt & Titchener -Analyzes consciousness -Careful, systematic observations -broken down into essential elements -introspection
Edward Titchener
Wundt's pupil- popularized his ideas of Structuralism.
discrete trial training
a component of applied behavioral analysis that identifies a specific behavior to modify and then uses specific antecedents and reinforcements to successfully shape the desired behaviors
sedatives
a depressant, sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system (CNS) activation & behavioral activity
PET
a view of brain activity showing where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
postsynaptic potential
a voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane
Classical or Associative Conditioning
a.k.a. Pavlovian. Subject is conditioning to respond in a specific way to a particular stimulus.
selective attention
ability to attend to only a limited amount of sensory information at one time
discrimination
ability to distinguished the conditioned stimulus from other stimuli that are similar treatment
psychokinesis
ability to move objects with one's mind
case studies
an individual is studied in great. a detailed analysis of a person or group from a social or psychological or medical point of view
Otitis Media
an infection of the middle ear caused by a bacteria or virus. It is common in young children and often follows a sore throat.
Areas of Psychology-Quantitative
analyze data to make sense
Rods
are used for vision in the dark or dim light.
Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
motor strip
band running down the side of the frontal lobe that controls all bodily movements
sensory strip
band running down the side of the parietal lobe that registers and provides all sensation
Where does myelination occur?
begins in the hindbrain, then spreads to the midbrain and then the forebrain
B.F. Skinner
behaviorism; ; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history and environment; worked with manipulating animals behavior
Mary Main and Adult Attachment
built on Bowlby's internal working model to consider the way adults represent attachment relations.
Nerves
bundled axons that formed neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Excitatory neurotransmitter
chemical messengers that help promote the action potential
Inhibitory neurotransmitter
chemical messengers that suppress the action potential
E- (Enmeshed/Preoccupied/Resistant) Adults
cannot turn away from attachment, flooded with memories but cannot create an objective narrative. Contradictions, rapidly changing view of relationships. Emotion over thought.
ear canal/ auditory canal
carries sound waves into the ear
Hallucinogens (LCD or WEED)
causes brain to alter its interpretations of sensations . cn produce sensory distorations very similar to synthesia
Soma
cell body - contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells
components of the nervous system
central & peripheral
psychoactive drugs
chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning; three types: depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens
neurotransmitters
chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another
Opiates
chemicals, such as opium, morphine, and heroin, that depresses neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
Insomnia:
chronic problems in getting adequate sleep - occurs in three basic patterns (1) difficulty in falling asleep initially (2) difficulty remaining asleep, and (3) persistent early-morning awakening
reinforcement contingencies
circumstances or rules that determine wheter responses lead to presentation of reinforcers
light & shadow
close objects reflect more light, father ones appear dimmer
where does transduction occur in the ear
cochlea- the inner ear
cognitive
cognitive development problem solving role of thoughts on feeling/behavior
F- (Free/Secure) Adults
coherent accounts of childhood relationships, answers balance emotion and thought.
Pineal gland
composed of pinealocytes that secrete melatonin, a chemical that helps regulate the circadian rhythm along with the hypothalamus
Reinforcers
consequences of behaviour. (ice cream after a tantrum = more tantrums, ice cream is the reinforcer)
Area of Psychology- Personality
consistency of behavior over time & situation
Wolfgang Kohler
credited with founding Gestalt Psychology
hertz (Hz)
cycles per second; unit of measurement for the frequency of waves
Random Assignment
decreases chances that your groups differ from one another before the experiment
Fissures
deep grooves in the brain
response unit hypothesis
define response as what is required to get reinforcement; PRE is an illusion Ba/Bb=R1/R2
dependent variable
depends on room temperature
monocular cues
depth cues that only require input from one eye; often used in 2D art to create illusion of depth
binocular cues
depth cues that require the combined input of both eyes
taste aversion learning
development of a dislike of or aversion to a flavor or food that has been paired with illness
types of psychologist
developmental,educational, school psychologist, clinical psych, counseling,
What is the EEG and how is it used to differentiate between different stages of sleep?
device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp - the different patterns of EEG activity (amplitude and frequency of brain waves) are associated with different states of consciousness
hypnotizability
differences in the ability of people to become hypnotized; varies person to person/situation to situation
Different neuron shapes =
different neuron functions
hallucinogens
diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental & emotional functioning; distortions in sensory & perceptual experience; LSD (acid); can cause PTSD & schizophrenia
Monoamines
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
Information-Processing Theory
dreams act to sort out & understand the memories that you experience that day, REM sleep does increase after traumatic events ;Rosalind Cartwright
Wish Fulfillment Theory
dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts
stimulants
drugs that tend to increase the CNS activation & behavioral activity
variable duration
duration of time varies around some average
How does conception occur? How long do sperm live? When does ovulation occur? Can conception occur if a woman ovulates on Monday and then has intercourse on Wed.? What test can be used to detect pregnancy? When should such a test be done?
egg + sperm (23 chromosomes EA) = 1 zygote (46 chromosomes - complete human) sperm: 3-5 days; ovulation: 14 days before 1st day of period Yes Home - 10 days after (urine) & clinic 6-8 days after (blood), but 2 weeks after suspected conception = best accuracy
Sigmund Freud
emphasized how childhood experiences and unconscious thought processes influence behavior
differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)
encourages responding at high rates, minimum number of responses has to occur in given period of time to get reinforced; ex: response is only reinforced if it occurs within 5 seconds after preceding response
pituitary gland
endocrine gland at the base of the brain
physical dependence
exists when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness
Stage One
experienced as falling to sleep; transition between wake & sleep; eyes begin to roll slightly; theta waves (brief periods of alpha waves)
experimenter bias
experimental blinding
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by administration of inert substance or condition
Selective Attention
focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
response rate schedules
for this, organisms must respond at a particular rate to get reinforced
operant conditioning
form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences
Conditioned Stimulus
formerly neutral with learned response. (doctor = pain, bell = food/pleasure)
psychoanalytic
freud; unconscious conflicts in childhood
experimental group
group exposed to experiment
experimental group
group exposed to treatment
control group
group not exposed to treatment
Control Group
groups used as comparisons to the group of interest
discrimination hypothesis
harder to tell difference between PR and extinction than between CR and extinction
Amplitude
height of a wave; influences brightness in visual perception and volume in audition
Immediacy "timing"
how immediately a consequence is then felt determines the effectiveness of the consequence. More immediate feedback will be more effective than less immediate feedback. If someone's license plate is caught by a traffic camera for speeding and they receive a speeding ticket in the mail a week later, this consequence will not be very effective against speeding. But if someone is speeding and is caught in the act by an officer who pulls them over, then their speeding behavior is more likely to be affected.
Area of Psychology- Biological/Neuroscience
how medications work, nature of brain, role of genetics contributing to mental illness, bio basis of behavior
Proximate Causation
immediate cause of behaviour (hormonal, neurological, cognitive, interpersonal or cultural) *eating chocolate because it is delicious and sweet*
Reinforcement Conditions
impact of the effectiveness of conditioning: Satiation/Deprivation, Immediacy, Contingency and Size
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not trigger a response
pons
includes a bridge of fibers that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum
Hindbrain
includes cerebellum, medulla and pons
positive reinforcement
increase in the frequency of a target behavior (response) that occurs when a behavior is followed by presentation of a positive reinforcer
negative reinforcement
increase in the frequency of a target behavior (response) that occurs when a negative reinforcer is removed or terminated; (escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning are examples)
2nd reinforcement
increases the probability as a s response by distortions thinking perception emotion behavior
Top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental process, as when we construct perceptions drawing out our experience and expectation.
LaMarckian Evolution
inheritance of acquired characteristics. Animal adapts, then passes on learned behaviour to offspring. No support for this "learned selection", beat out by reality of natural selection.
GABA
inhibitory transmitter
Neurobiological Theory
investigating links between brain and the mind. psychological processes can be linked to patterns of brain activity.
Why is the suprachiasmatic nucleus important for sleep?
it sends signals to the pineal gland, whose secretion of melatonin plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks
Action potential
it's the change in electric potential that's associated with the passage of an impulse along a nerve cell
visual cliff
laboratory device for testing depth perception among infants and young animals; its use demonstrated that, among most species, animals have the ability to perceive depth by the time they are mobile
Ganzfeld procedure
laboratory procedure used to test powers of extrasensory perception by reducing the distractions of other sensory information (e.g. noise cancelling headphones, ping-pong balls over the eyes, etc.)
latent learning
learning that has occurred but is not demonstrated
observational learning (modeling
learning that occurs through watching and imitating the behaviors of others
operant conditioning
learning that occurs when the participant must make a response to produce a change in the environment
classical conditioning
learning that occurs when two stimuli - a conditioned stimulus (originally a neutral stimulus) and an unconditioned stimulus - are paired and become associated with each other
operate conditioning
learning that's strengthen when behaviors is followed by positive reinforcement
What are steroid hormones? Give examples.
lipid-soluable molecules synthesized from cholesterol e.g., steroids from the gonads (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone) and the hormones synthesized by the adrenal cortex (corticosteroids such as cortisol); sometimes calcitrol
subliminal
literally, "below threshold"; stimuli too weak to be consistently detected
rationalism
logic and reason are primary over sense experience; there could be a priori knowledge
limbic system
loosely connected network of structure located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas
Cerebral Cortex: Biological Changes
lower level of motor activity, facial expressions tend to be blank
sclera
made of tough connective tissue and is often referred to as the "white" of the eye. It gives shape to the eye. Muscles attached to the sclera help the eye move.
oval window
membrane across the opening between the middle ear and inner ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea
eardrum
membrane at the end of the auditory canal, vibrates due to sound waves
round window
membrane between the middle ear and inner ear that equalizes pressure in the inner ear
acetylcholine
memory, learning, motor function, attention, arousal
humanistic
mental & emotional growth potential free will therapy
Freud's Pre-Conscious
mental content can enter conscious but not currently there.
perceptual set
mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (for example, due to suggestion or expectations based on prior learning)
Nicotine
mild but nevertheless toxic stimulant
telepathy
mind-to-mind communication; a person sending thoughts to another or perceiving another's thoughts
Psycho-dynamic perspective
modern version of psychoanalysis
relative motion
monocular cue for depth perception; as we move, stationary objects seem to "move" as well. Objects above a fixation point move "with" us, objects below the fixation point move "past" us.
interposition
monocular cue for depth perception; if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer
relative size
monocular cue for depth perception; if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image to be farther away
light and shadow
monocular cue for depth perception; nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes...thus, given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away. Also, shading produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above.
norepinephrine
mood & arousal
Feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimuli, such as shape, angle, or movement.
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Limbic System
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
limbic system
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
types of nerve cells
neuron glial cells (build myelin sheath)
What have researchers discovered about meditation?
o EEG: ↑ alpha waves (drowsy), ↑ theta waves (light sleep) o correlated with: ↓ stress hormones, ↓ anxiety, ↓ BP; ↑ immune function, mood, self-esteem, overall health & well-being o ↓ parietal lobe activity (higher tolerance for pain) o ↑ left prefrontal lobe activity (associated with happiness)
nearsightedness
objects are seen clearly but distant items seems blurry
Proximity
objects placed closely together are grouped into a gestalt
Similarity
objects that are similar are grouped into a gestalt
2 variables
observed or measured and subject to change
reinforcement
occurs when an event following response increases an organism's tendency to make that response
partial/ intermittent reinforcement
occurs when designated response is reinforced only some of the time
Paradoxical Sleep
occurs when during REM sleep brain wave patterns are similar to when a person is awake
Consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Dependent Variable
outcomes we measure
Resistant Children "C-Babies"
overly dependent. Less likely to play with toys even with mother present, great distress during separation. Seek attention during reunion but also resist being soothed via pulling away/kicking. *unreliably responsive parenting*
Avoidant Children "A-Babies"
overly independent. More interest in toys than mother, little distress during separation. Turn away from mother during reunion. *reliably unresponsive parenting*
linear perspective
parallel lines, like railroad tracks, converge in the distance; the more they converge, the farther away
colorblindness
partial or total inability to perceive hues
Dendrites and Denritic spines
parts of the neuron that are specialized to receive information
dichromats
people who are either blind to red-green or yellow-blue
trichromats
people who have normal color vision
tinnitus
people with this hear constant ringing or roaring sound. cause can't always be found- sometimes earwax, ear infections or reaction to antibiotics, many others
choice blindness
people's unawareness of the choices or preferences they make
precognition
perceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome
partial reinforcement effect
phenomenon in which extinction of an operant response following partial or intermittent reinforcement takes longer that extinction following continuous reinforcement
where does transduction occur in the eyes
photoreceptors- the rods and cones
survival
physical, emotional, spiritual and intelectual
Survival
physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual
frequency theory
pitch corresponds to the rate or frequency that the basilar membrane vibrates
Frontal Lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements an din making plans and judgments
Temporal Lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes areas that receive information from the ears
engagement (PP)
pos indv traits *engaged life
PET scan
position emission tomography provides a computerized image of the brain or other body parts
Social Influence Theory
powerful social influences produce state of hypnosis; social factors influence people to believe hypnosis will work
hypothesis
prediction of how things will behave under specific circumstances
schedule of reinforcement
preset pattern for delivering reinforcement
survey
pros -efficient -can be confidential -large # of ppl -can target responses -inexpensive cons -differential response rate -not truthful in responses -attitude/behavior inconsistency
naturalistic observation
pros -observe as naturally occurs -highly useful for generating future study hypotheses -impartial observer cons -expensive & time consuming -lack of stat control -reactivity/reflexivity
cerebral spinal fluid
protects brain
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
provided a detailed image of soft matter of the brain and other body parts
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of an extinguished CR after the passage of time
Spontaneous recovery
reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after sometime has passed
deductive reasoning
reasons general to particular (RATIONALISM)
Define: Adaptive Plasticity
refers to the brains ability to compensate for lost function and/or to maximise remaining functions in the event of brain injury
serotonin
regulation of sleep, eating, aggression depression
Partial or Intermittent reinforcement
responding is reinforced only some of the time (VR, VI, FI, FR, beyond1)
Conditioned Response
response elicited by a conditioned stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus (similar to unconditional response)
Polarization
resting potential (stable at -70 milivolts)
bipolar cells
second layer of neurons in the retina that transmit impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells; rods share these, but cones do not
When is myelination most intense?
shortly after birth
McGurk effect
sight and hearing go together; if we see a person say one thing but hear them say something else, the result is that we will hear a third sound that's a blend of the two
REM sleep
similar to ordinary wakefulness (fast, low-amplitude beta waves)
Blocking
situation in which the conditionability of a CS is weakened when it is paired with a UCS that has previously been paired with another CS
Narcolepsy
sleep disorder in which a person has uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes lapsing directly into REM sleep
slow wave sleep
sleep stages 3 and 4, during which low-frequency delta waves become prominent
Terminal buttons
small knobs that secrete chemicals known as neurotransmitters
Pitch
sound information that depends on frequency (or wavelength) of sound waves
receptor cell
specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy
Sensory receptor
specialized cell that transmits signals to sensory neurons
Why do humans and animals help others at a cost to themselves?
still helps reproductive success if those we are helping share the same genes. Cost-risk decreases as biological relationship grows more distant.
discriminative stimulus
stimulus or signal telling the participant that responding will be reinforced
unconditioned stimulus
stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
Cognitive Neuroscience
subfield of psychology that studies the connections between our brain activity and the processes of thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Physical dependence
substance dependence in which there is evidence of tolerance, withdrawal, or both.
primary reinforce
such as food or warmth value without learning
Cataract Treatment involves
surgical replacement of the lens.
hindsight bias
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have forseen it
color constancy
tendency to expect things to retain their color
Medula
the base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing
Circadian Rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hr cycle
Central Nervous System
the brain and spinal cord
NeuroPlasticity
the concept that the brain can adapt and compensate for damage to certain parts of it. Plasticity is more prominent in younger patients than older.
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
pupil
the opening in the center of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye
Audition
the sense of hearing
retinal ganglion cells
the third layer of retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve.
psychoanalysis
theory and therapy based on the work of sigmund frued
Theories of hyppnosis
there are two views of why hypnosis works. one emphasizes the role of dissociation or splitting the conscious awareness, whereas the other involves a kind of social role playing.
dura mater
thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord
Mary Ainsworth
took attachment theory to the lab, studied individuals first in Uganda then in U.S. Created "the strange situation", classified kids as secure or insecure, attachment status in lab matched those at home.
meditation
trains attention to heighten awareness & bring mental processes under greater voluntary control; effects: (short) beta & theta waves, decline in heart rate & oxygen consumption; (long) improved mood, less fatigue, longevity among elderly
Sleep apnea
type of sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or instances of shallow or infrequent breathing during sleep.
narcolepsy
uncontrollable sleep attacks, lapses directly into REM sleep; unknown causes, treatment is stimulant drugs
Experimental Group
undergoes the experiment
latent content
underlying meaning of a dream
positive psychology
uses theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence
Inferential Statistics
using statistical techniques tot determine if a correlation reflects the general population or is due to chance factors
Cognitive Sciences
using tools of evolutionary psych, linguistics, computer science, philosophy and neurobiology to investigate mental phenomena. One aim is to create complex computer programs to model psychological/brain processes using theories of neural networks.
Extraneous Variable
variables that may influence your results even though you're not interested in its effects
Independent Variable
variables we manipulate
resting potential
when a neuron is in its stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive
sleepwalking (somnambulism)
when a person arises & wanders while asleep; no treatment necessary, common in preteens, genetic predisposition, occurs during early stages (first 2 hrs.)
Somnambulism (sleepwalking):
when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep
synaesthesia
when one sort of sensation (such as hearing a sound) produces another (such as seeing color)
interposition
when things are "stacked", the one that's covered up is farthest, the one that's not covered is closest
synapse
where 2 neurons connect
basilar membrane
which runs the length of the spiraled cochlea, holds the auditory recepetors called hair cells
relative motion
while we move, things close to us appear to move quickly in the opposite direction; things farther away appear to move very slowly or not at all
beta waves
(13-24 cps) alert problem solving; normal waking thought
theta waves
(4-7 cps) light sleep
alpha waves
(8-12 cps) relaxed and resting; deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation
delta waves
(less than 4 cps) deep, dreamless sleep
Where are oligodendroglia found and what do they do?
- Found in the CNS - Produces myelin sheath, which accelerates communication speed of a message - Arms wrap around the axon of a neuron, produces layers of myelin
Where are satellite cells found and what do they do?
- Found in the PNS - Surrounds the cell body/soma - Protects the soma and provides nutrients
What are the three types of neurons?
- Sensory neuron - Motor neuron - Interneuron
Where are sensory neurons located, what do they do, and are they afferent or efferent neurons?
- Sensory neurons are located in the PNS - They detects energy from the environment (eg. sound, light) and carries this information to the CNS - They are afferent neurons
Compare the transport of water-soluble hormones with that of lipid-soluble hormones.
- Water-soluble hormones readily dissolve in the aqueous environment of the blood. - Lipid-soluble hormones must attach to a carrier protein molecule to be transported within the blood.
What are the different types of memory? (e.g. explicit, declarative, implicit, procedural, semantic, episodic)
-Explicit = declarative memory: info you can talk about; types = episodic (time to contextual info - feed into semantic) and semantic (factual information) -Implicit = procedural: action, skills, operations (i.e. muscle memory)
Unconscious Wishes
-Freud -Manifest contest: what we experience and remember -Latent content: unconscious wishes/thoughts being expressed symbolically
What are some problems with Kohlberg's theory of moral development? What things are supported about his theory?
-Ignores a lot of other aspects of moral development. He also formed the theory from his experience with his four children, so a larger study group would have given better results. -Kids generally follow the order he proposed
What are myths about hypnosis?
-It's mostly compliance. -Hypnotized people do not remember what happened during the session. -It's a matter of willful faking.
WW2, Holocaust, and Humanism
-brought the question of meaning into psych -the Existential movement was birthed from this -phenomenology also an influence due to it's focus on complexity of subjective experience.
What are the 3 main regions of the brain that receive and process information?
-cerebrum -cerebellum -brain stem
Areas of Psychology
-clinical -developmental -social -industrial/organizational -personality -biological -behavioral- skinner and watson
Advantages of a Survey
1. Can get difficult-to-observe behavior 2. Easy way to collect empirical observations
Advantages of Case Studies
1. Can give more in-depth view of phenomenon 2. Compelling evidence to support a theory
What are the three general categories of circulating hormones?
1. Steroid hormones 2. Protein hormones 3. Biogenic amines
Continuing to pair a specific CS and UCS, but periodically presenting stimuli similar to the CS and not pairing them with the UCS should result in... A. stimulus discrimination B. stimulus generalization C. extinction D. response attentuation
A
Every Christmas, Gloria's fathers threw a fun party and gave her lots of presents. Nowadays, although her fathers have passed away, when Christmas comes around, Gloria feels very happy. This is an example of A. classical conditioning. B. operant conditioning. C. higher-order conditioning. D. observational learning.
A
Neo-Freudian
A psychologist who accepts the broad features of Freud's theory but has revised the theory to fit his or her own concepts.
occipital lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information
Parietal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.
parietal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.
Learning (Behaviorist Perspective)
A relatively permanent change in behavior that arises from practice or experience (cognition & choice)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a response without any prior experience
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time
Which of the following statements regarding sleepwalking is MOST accurate? A. Sleepwalking is generally a manifestation of underlying psychological problems. B. It is unsafe to awaken a sleepwalker. C. Sleepwalking typically occurs while the person is dreaming. D. There appears to be a genetic predisposition to sleepwalking.
D
Which part of the eye contains neurons? A. lens B. iris C. optic disk D. retina
D
Eating food made cave people very happy. Eventually, just the sight of food made cave people very happy. Cave people then discovered that if they had money, the vendor showed them food. Eventually, money itself began to make cave people happy. This is an example of... A. classical conditioning B. higher-order conditioning C. operant conditioning D. observational learning
B
Diamond is having her eyes checked. The doctor has put drops in Diamond's eyes that will cause the pupils to open wide. As the drops begin to work, Diamond will MOST likely notice that A. she will lose some of her color vision. B. her vision will start to become quite blurry. C. her vision will become extremely sharp and clear. D. colors will appear to be "super" saturated.
B
Every Christmas, Gloria's fathers threw a fun party and gave her lots of presents. Nowadays, although her fathers have passed away, when Christmas comes around, Gloria feels very happy. In this case, what has "Christmas" become? A. unconditioned stimulus B. conditioned stimulus C. positive reinforcement D. negative reinforcement
B
Food is an example of ___; praise is an example of ____. A. a primary reinforcer; a primary reinforcer B. a primary reinforcer; a secondary reinforcer C. a secondary reinforcer; a secondary reinforcer D. a secondary reinforcer; a primary reinforcer
B
Juan was very drowsy, though not quite asleep. What EEG pattern was Juan likely exhibiting? A. beta waves B. alpha waves C. theta waves D. delta waves
B
Learning to ride a bicycle is most likely acquired via the process of... A. classical conditioning B. shaping C. spontaneous recovery D. innate stimulus release
B
Our perception of the brightness of a color is affected mainly by A. the wavelength of light waves. B. the amplitude of light waves. C. the purity of light waves. D. the saturation of light waves.
B
Research suggests that parents who spank their children usually administer spanking A. as a last resort after other punishments have failed. B. for trivial offenses. C. for serious rule violations. D. in public places.
B
-communication between brain and external devices -neuroprosthetics -virtual reality -brain-to-brain interface?
Brain-computer interface (BCI)
human factors psychology
Branch of psychology that explores how people & machines interact and how physical environment can be adapted to human behaviors
Dendrite
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.
Does it matter what kind of a stimulus you choose to be the conditioned stimulus? A. No B. Yes, stimuli are more likely to become conditioned stimuli when they are routine or neutral. C. Yes, stimuli are more likely to become conditioned stimuli when they are novel or intense. D. Yes, organisms learn more quickly when using pain-inducing stimuli.
C
Farkhunda tried sushi for the first time and became terribly sick. Nowadays, Farkhunda feels queasy anytime she sees anything which looks similar to "sushi." This is an example of A. acquisition. B. spontaneous recovery. C. stimulus generalization. D. stimulus discrimination.
C
For the past week, Ahmed has had difficulty falling asleep at night. Even though he goes to bed at his usual time, he lays awake for several hours before he finally drifts off to sleep. It appears that Ahmed is experiencing A. narcolepsy. B. sleep apnea. C. insomnia. D. night terrors.
C
If Professor Martínez-Villanueva were to argue that incoming pain sensations must pass through an opening in the spinal cord and that this opening could be closed, thus blocking ascending pain signals, which theory would Dr. Martínez-Villanueva be arguing? A. place theory B. frequency theory C. gate-control theory D. none of the listed answers
C
Sensation is to ______ as perception is to _______. A. seeing a flower; the stimulation of visual receptors B. skin receptors; visual receptors C. the stimulation of visual receptors; recognizing an object as a flower D. visual receptors; skin receptors
C
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Sensory Adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Narcolepsy:
disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods (person goes directly from wakefulness into REM sleep)
sleep apnea
frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person & disrupts their sleep, can lead to insomnia, heart & lung damage; treatment is surgery, drug therapy, or Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Machine
endorphins
internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects
Natural Law
law from general revelation (humans observe in nature)
Oedipal Period
in phallic stage, age 4-7 -boy falls in love with mom -hates dad, re:mom-love, fears dad's greater strength -thinks he will cut off his penis: castration anxiety -eventually identifies with dad, realizing he will grow up to be him -tada! super ego is formed. (Since women don't have this, have underdeveloped super ego)
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
Insomnia
inability to fall asleep
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize or perceive faces
Hypnotic Amnesia
inability to remember what happened during hypnosis
inductive reasoning
inferring abstract general truths; reasons particular to general (EMPIRICISM)
The Impact of Humanism
influenced: -Carl Rogers person-centered psychotherapy -Fritz Perls gestalt therapy -Victor Frankl's logotherapy -Rollo May's Existential psychoanalysis
myelin sheath
insulated material that encases some axons
Therapeutic Empathy
intellectual understanding from the patient's point of view inspires compassion and connection "I can hear how painful it is for you to talk about this."
Operants
intentional actions that have an effect on the surrounding environment.
Sociocognitive
interaction between the social influence of the hypnotist and the abilities, beliefs and expectations of the subject
Explain how the hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.
Hormonal stimulation triggers the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary. This occurs when specific hormones produced within the hypothalamus are released into the primary plexus and then transported via the hypophyseal portal vein to reach the secondary plexus within the anterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary then releases its hormones into the blood of the general circulation through which they reach target cells.
Personal Unconscious
Jung - the level of awareness that houses material that is not within one's conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten, personal experiences.
Insight Learning
Kohler - studied chimps ability to creatively problem solve and reach bananas. 1. Animals arrived at solution by studying entire environment, they did not focus on one object. 2. Problem not solved by trial/error, reward/punishment - chimp arrived at complete solution all at once. A holistic solution.
associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together Events may be two stimuli (classically) Or events may be one stimuli and one consequence (operantly)
latent learning
Learning that occurs often without you knowing
Size
a "cost-benefit" determinant of whether a consequence will be effective. If the size, or amount, of the consequence is large enough to be worth the effort, the consequence will be more effective upon the behavior. (buying a ticket for a large jackpot vs. a small one) In this example, it's also useful to note that "effort" is a punishing consequence. How these opposing expected consequences (reinforcing and punishing) balance out will determine whether the behavior is performed or not.
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between two images, the closer the object
Meditation
Meditation is a practice of concentrated focus upon a sound, object, visualization, the breath, movement, or attention itself in order to increase awareness of the present moment, reduce stress, promote relaxation, and enhance personal and spiritual growth.
convergence
a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the more the eyes strain to turn inwards to view an object, the closer the object is (note: only a factor at close ranges)
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue. These scans show brain tissue
lucid dream
a dream in which the dreamer is aware of dreaming -they know they are dreaming and feel as though they are conscious
Sigmund Freud
Neurologist who worked on different levels of consciousness, emphasized how the unconscious drives day-to-day life.
sensory adaption
a gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation
visual cliff
a lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
Axon
a long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscle glands
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
habituation
Organisms decreasing repose to a stimuli with repeated exposure to it
Extinction
a term that refers to the disappearance of a conditioned response. The response weakens and eventually disappears due to removal of the reinforcement or punishment in operant conditioning or the removal of the paired stimulus in classical conditioning.
higher-order conditioning
Procedure - a previously conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus - creating a new (weaker) conditioned stimulus
-Gambling, sex, video games, cell phones, social media, eating, shopping -Alter reward and motivation systems in the brain
Process Addictions
cocktail party effect
a person's ability to single out one voice among many others, then to "change channels" to another voice. a person in a crowded, talking room can weed out other voices and converse with one person. then the first person can single out another voice and "tune in" on that person if desired
Placebo Effect
a placebo -- a fake treatment, an inactive substance like sugar, distilled water, or saline solution -- can sometimes improve a patient's condition simply because the person has the expectation that it will be helpful.
peripheral nervous system
made up of all the nerves that lie outside of the brain and the spinal cord
Locke
man is born with a clean slate (tabula rasa); balanced gov
absolute refractory period
maximum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin
central tndency in data?
mean,mediean and mode
Recording and Imaging
modern technology that provides ways of studying the structure and function of the brain without the need of invasive techniques
What are biogenic amines? Give examples.
modified amino acids that are water-soluble (except for thyroid hormone) e.g., catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and thyroid hormone
EEG
monitors the electrical activity of the brain by placing electrodes on the person's scalp
texture gradient
monocular cue for depth perception; a gradual change from course, distinct texture to fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance
Libido "the life instinct"
motivates toward creating, building, meeting physiological needs, reproduction, etc...
Thanatos Instinct "the death instinct"
motivates towards aggression, destruction, depression, suicide, laziness, any deterioration. the energyless state - Entropy. Freud saw life as a disturbance of energy that drives to return to the peaceful rest of non-being, lifeless matter.
Efferent neuron
motor neurons, away from the brain (central > periphery)
bias in self report
multiple methods of assessment
What is muscle atonia and which stage of sleep is this associated with?
muscle paralysis with exception to skeletal muscles -- REM, don't want to be flailing around while dreaming
What is muscle atonia and which stage of sleep is this associated with?
muscle tone is extremely relaxed - so much so that bodily movements are minimal and the sleeper is virtually paralyzed. This happens during REM sleep.
Adult Attachment Interview "AAI"
Semi-structured questionnaire about person's childhood relationship to parents. The way they talk about it is more important than what they say. Also the coherence between generalizations and specific memories.
What part of the ear helps to maintain balance?
Semicircular canals in the inner ear
classical conditioning
Type of learning - someone learns to link 2 stimuli together and anticipate events
operant conditioning
Type of learning- Behavior is strengthened or diminished if followed by a reinforcer or a punisher
Beta (normal, waking thought) Alpha (deep relaxation (meditation)) Theta (light sleep) Delta (deep sleep)
Types of Brain Waves:
Quasi- Experimental Design
When the independent variables can't be manipulated. Subjects cannot be randomly assigned to conditions. Example from class- you can't randomly assign people's gender, ethnicity, if someone is pregnant. This can be bad because other factors may influence outcome of the experiment.
Principles of Perception
Wholes are understood through grouping techniques. - Proximity, Similarity, Closure and Symmetry - (Wertheimer, later Koffka and Kohler)
your consciousness is constantly changing and integrating thoughts and experiences; a constant stream of perpetual experiences that never ceases
William James
the body's attempt to rebalance itself after prolonged use; can even be life-threatening
Withdrawal
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)
afferent fibers running through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal
spontaneous recovery
after a rest period, the reappearance of a previously extinct conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented If the conditioned stimulus (CS) persists alone, the conditioned response becomes extinct again
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in rapid succession
Define: Rerouting
an undamaged neuron that has lost its connection with an active neuron may seek a new active neuron to connect with
Bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info
night terrors
awakenings from NREM sleep with high arousal & the appearance of being terrified; causes accelerated heart beat, no treatment, temporary
afferent nerve fibers
axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body
efferent nerve fibers
axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
believed that the problems of his patients stemmed from conflicts and events that had been buried in their unconscious mind since childhood
meaning
belong/serve pos institution eudiamonic meaningful life
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Bowlby's Concept of Attachment
biologically based, child wants protection/attention of mother. When child is removed, the Attachment System kicks in and child seeks proximity to mother (motivated to security). When child feels secure, the Exploratory System kicks in and they venture forth. If connection is severed, child will experience great sadness, impacting the rest of their life.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
Hypothalamus
brain region controlling the pituitary gland
symphathetic
branch of autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies
psychiatry
branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders
clinical (psychology)
branch of psychology that studies, assesses, treats people with (psychological) disorders
Sleep apnea
briefly stop breathing during sleep, causing the person to choke and gasp
Philosophy
content of study (i.e. mind)
endorphins
contribute to pain relief
medulla
controls breathing, muscle tons, etc - involuntary actions
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
created the humanistic psychology-we are largely due to our environment. empasis on environmental influences on human growth. Spoke about human drive towards personal growth
Empiricism
opposes rationalism; emphasizes inductive reasoning
Otitis Media Symptoms include
pressure or pain in the ear and fever.
conditioned stimulus
previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke conditioned response
Medulla
primarily involved in basic functions like breathing and heart rate, blood pressure, etc.
Operational definition
procedures & measurements used to define a construct as well as components of an experiment
Homeostasis
process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
complimentary colors
produce gray when mixed together
GABA
produces only inhibitory postsynaptic signals
Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
Sympathetic Nervous System
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Parallel processing
the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrast with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
The three main layers of the eye
the sclera (outermost), choroid coat (middle), and retina (innermost).
peripheral nervous system
the section of the nervous system lying outside the brain and spinal cord
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
Neuropsychology
the study of psychological functions that can be directly linked to brain processes.
Psychophysics
the study of relationship between the physical characteristic of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
psychophysics
the study of relationships between physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity and our psychological experience of them
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
Kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts; enabled by feedback from proprioceptors (which provide info about the movement of muscles, tendons, joints)
REM Rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. ex: some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, vice versa
Opponent-Process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; useful for explaining the phenomenon of "after-images"
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory
the theory that the retina contains three different colors receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.
hammer, anvil, stirrup
the three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear
relative height
things seen higher up are perceived as farther away
mediators
think mechanism occurs during treatment (therapeutic alliance) describes how a treatment works
systematic desentization
type of counterconditioning
unconditioned response
unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
Disorganized Children
unlike avoidant and resistant, considered abnormal and usually seen in victims of abuse or pathological parenting. Children do not have a consistent strategy for dealing with parent and may even fear them. *erratic parenting, baby cannot find working strategy*
measures of variability
used to indicate how spread out the data are. are they tightly packed or s\are they widely dispersed.
behaviorism
view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
scientific approach
viewing theories with curiosity, skepticism, humility
naturalistic observations
watching (observer effect)
tolerance
progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug
Cones
receptors cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine details and give rise to color sensation.
where does transduction occur for pain
receptors for pain are free nerve endings in the skin
EEG
recording apparatus, using electrodes placed on the scalp, that records waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface
electrooculograph (EOG)
records eye movement
Wundt
reductionistic, understanding structure of consciousness
extinction
refers to gradual weakening and disappearance of response tendecy because response is no longer followed by reinforcement
acquisition
refers to initial stage of learning something
fixed interval
reinforced the first time after the behavior occurs each time
variable-ratio schedule
reinforcer is given after variable number of nonreinforced responses
Alpha Waves
relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Thalamus
relays sensory information (vision, hearing, taste, etc) to other parts of the brain. It sorts out different information and sends it to the part of the brain that is designed to handle that type of information.
thalamus
relays sensory stimuli to the cerebral cortex. part of the lymbic system that is responsible for gathering and processing information from your senses.
Physiological Psychology (Biological Psychology)
renewed interest in biological bases that underlie mental and overt behaviors
Thorndike's Law of Effect
rewarded behavior more likely to occur (repeated)
What happened to Phineas Gage?
rod went into his cheek and through his head
psychology
science of behavior and mental processes
Hume
scottish empiricist philosohper-> skepticism; didnt believe in miracles, supernatural, or soul being substances
counterconditioning
t procedure based on classical conditioning that replaces a negative response
survey
technique for ascertaining self-reported behaviors for a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample
REM Rebound
tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
lightness constancy
tendency to expect things to retain their lightness
shape constancy
tendency to expect things to retain their shape
Thorndike's Law of Effect
that a response followed by a pleasant consequence will probably be repeated and a response followed by an unpleasant consequence will probably be diminished. *Depends on emotional impact
Cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem, functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
Define: Brain Plasticity
the ability of the brain to change in response to experiences
perceptual adaptation
the ability to adjust to an altered perceptual reality; in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field (as when wearing visual displacement goggles).
Evolutionary Fitness
the ability to pass on one's genes on to the next generation.
Self-Reflective Functioning
the ability to reflect on one's own emotional experiences in a thoughtful and coherent way.
depth perception
the ability to see objects in 3D although the images that strike the retina are in 2D; allows us to judge distance
olfactory bulb
the brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes
psychiatry
the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders
What is the difference between afferent and efferent neurons?
- Afferent neurons sends information up to the brain - Efferent neurons sends information down the spinal cord to muscles, glands, or organs
What are the five glial cells?
- Astrocytes - Microglia - Oligodendroglia - Satellite cells - Schwann cells
What is a "split-brain" procedure? Why ever do this? What are the effects?
- Cutting the corpus callosum; limits the number of neural connections made crossing each side. - To help with severe forms of epilepsy - Has effects on the eyes, cuts of part of the visual field
What are the different ways in which data can be collected?
- Direct Observation - Questionnaire - Interview - Psychological Test - Physiological Recording - Examination of Archival Records
What are the general functions of the endocrine system?
- maintaining homeostasis of blood composition and volume - controlling reproductive activities - regulating development, growth, and metabolism - controlling digestive processes
Positive Psychology
-Seligman -The study of positive emotions and finding meaning and purpose in life. -3 domains
Central Nervous System
-consists of the brain and the spinal cord -control center of the body
Can the mind be reduced to an algorithm?
-philosophical debate, a new branch called Neurophilosophy (often agrees) -William James, Gestalt theorists, and humanists argue that "whole is greater than sum of it's parts" and therefore, no.
Inhibition
A feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus actually predicts the nonoccurence of an unconditioned stimulus
Patent content
According to Freud, dreams have two types of content, each of which contains different meanings to the dreams. One of these type of content is latent content, which is the underlying, more hidden, but true meaning of a dream (as opposed to the manifest content). Freud believed that the latent content was somehow censored by the subconscious which was a way to protect us from the real meanings of the dreams. This was necessary because the dream content may be difficult for people to deal with, so people disguise the real meaning. However, Freud believed that when people were in conflict, if he could uncover or get to the latent content, then he could identify the person's problem and resolve their conflict.
unconscious
contains information that we have no direct knowledge of
Describe normal aging in terms of physical changes and cognitive changes (is it normal to be senile in later age? What physical changes occur)?
Cognitive: -60-70 y/o: decrease in episodic & working memory - speed of processing slows down -Senility and dementia not normal (75+ = 15-20% with dementia, 2/3 of cases = Alzheimer's) Physical: -grey hair, balding, menopause, FAT, decreased vision and hearing result in: decreased functional capabilities, reduced biological resilience in the face of stress, increased susceptibility to acute and chronic disease
What is a twin study and what does the concordance rate tell you?
Probability twins will develop the same disease
Experimental Psychology
Encompasses traditional core of topics focused on heavily in early psychology (sensation, perception, learning, conditioning, motivation, and emotion)
Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud - based on sexual and aggressive drives. First emphases on the role of the unconscious mind.
The Topological Model of Mind
Freud - mind has 3 sections: Unconscious, Pre-Conscious and Conscious.
Structural Model of Mind
Freud - overshadowing topological model, compartmentalized mind into ID, EGO and SUPER-EGO.
Microglia
Functions as a part of the immune system, removes waste products and invaders (such as bacteria and viruses)
Understanding
In psychology, this is achieved when the causes of behavior can be stated.
Which drug has the most beneficial medical uses?
Marijuana
Which drug takes the longest to metabolize and exit your body?
Marijuana - up to 3 months
Peak Experience
Maslow - a state of total awareness and concentration in which the world is understood as a unified, integrated whole where all is connected and no part is more or less important than another. "A moment of full comprehension, where good and evil are fully accepted as part of a complete whole."
Self-Actualization
Maslow - the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
Psychometrics
Measurement of behavior and capacities; usually through development of psychological tests
Single-Blind Study
a study in which the participants are unaware of whether they are in the control group or the experimental group
Describe sexual development. For example, what is the difference between primary sexual characteristics and secondary characteristics?
Primary = puberty (menarche & permarche) Secondary = non essential for reproduction (i.e. pubic hair, BO)
Watson
Rat/noise/tears
unconditioned response (UCR)
Reaction that is automatically produced when an unconditioned stimulus is presented
theory
a system of ideas that explains many related observations
Attachment Styles in Real Life
Secure = better relationships Resistant = overly dependent on teachers/etc Avoidant = overly independent, unlikely to ask for help even when required.
Aldosterone
Source: Adrenal Cortex Target: kidney Action: regulates water balance
Ear
The ear is the organ that controls this sense as well as the sense of balance.
Wernicke's Area
a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression; controls language reception
Biological Psychology
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
bottom-up processing
a progression from individual elements to whole
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories.
Conjunctivitis Treatment involves
antibiotics.
respondent behavior
classical - behavior that occurs as automatic response to some stimulus
Describe the composition of endocrine glands.
composed of secretory cells derived from an epithelium supported by a connective tissue framework; these glands are ductless and have an extensive blood supply that facilitates the rapid uptake of hormones from cells of the gland into the blood
CT scan
computed tomography scan is an imaging technigue in which a computer measures the reflection of a narrow xray beam from various angles as it passes through the brain and other various bodily structures.
Wilhelm Wundt
established first psychology laboratory, conducted first psychology experiment in 1879
Ultimate Causation
evolutionary significance of behaviour, how it impacts reproductive fitness *eating sweet things to survive in resource-scarce environments*
critical thinking
examining assumptions, discerning hidden values, evaluating evidence, assessing conclusions
sympathy
feelings of pity and sorrow for someone else's misfortune
hair cells
finger-like projections on the basilar membrane that stimulate activity of the auditory nerve
Ames room
funky shaped room with angular dimensions. since we expect a room to be at 90° angles, this room fools us
theory
general explanation of a set of operations or facts
endogenous
generated from within -what happens within us
Leibniz
german rationalist; wrote Theodicy and Compatibilist; monistic idealist
What are the three primary nutrients within the blood?
glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
How did Gage's behaviour change?
he became rude, aggressive, irresponsible, hard to get along with (cerebral cortex damage)
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves, aka nerve deafness
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
hypothalamus
involved in the regulation of basic biological needs
Unconditioned Stimulus
natural, unlearned response. (pain from shot, pleasure from food)
Dendrite
neuron extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Neurotransmitters
neuron-produced chemicals that cross synapses to carry messages to other neurons or cells
discrimination
occurrence of responses only to a specific CS
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
gustatory system
system for taste
cochlea
snail-shaped tube in the inner ear that contains fluid that moves in response to vibrations, stimulating activity on the basilar membrane
punisher
stimulus that produces a decreases in responding; may take the form of presentation of a stimulus or termination of a stimulus
Parasympathetic Nervous System
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Somatic Nervous System
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
vitreous humor
the jellylike substance that fills the area behind the lens.
Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
What are protein hormones? Give examples.
water-soluble molecules composed of small chains of amino acids e.g., insulin, glucagon, oxytocin (OT), antidiuretic hormone (ADH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
connectedness
we like things linked or brought together
continuity
we like things that are unbroken
How do the stages of sleep cycle throughout the night?
• ~4-5 times per night • first half: SWS, second half: REM 1-4 and then reverses, goes to REM
Keisha is partially sleep deprived. What are the effects of partial sleep deprivation? A. impaired attention B. impaired motor coordination C. impaired decision making D. all of the listed answers
D
Negative reinforcement involves... A. the presentation of a pleasant stimulus B. the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus C. the removal of a pleasant stimulus D. the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
D
Two major procedures of step 4
Descriptive stats and Inferential stats
positive reinforcer
Event or stimulus presented after the target response that increases the likelihood that this response will occur again
negative reinforcer
Event or stimulus removed after the target response, thereby increasing the likelihood that this response will occur again
Brain Stem
-lies between the cerebellum and the spinal cord -controls your body's involuntary actions (those occuring automatically--ex: breathing and heartbeat)
Experiment 4: Word Games
-recruited volunteers to play a series of word games that demand creative leaps -after the games, the person sleeps, goes through REM sleep -only 1/3 of the volunteers take naps like these, they others rest quietly or are awaken before entering REM sleep then everyone plays a new word game -those who got REM sleep scored 40% higher but rest or N- REM sleep got no benefit -REM sleep helps/boosts creativity- finding new solutions to new problems
Theory 1: Sigmund Freud
-scientist most associated with dreams -saw that dreams had many symbols -mostly had sexual symbols -such symbols took form as the sleeping brain tried to disguise forbidden urges- coming from its unconscious -unconscious sexual drives
What are the two groups of nerves in the peripheral nervous system?
-somatic and autonomic
Spinal Cord
-thick column of nervous tissue -vertebral column surrounds and protects it -also protected by watery fluid and layers of connective tissue (same as brain) -links brain to most of the nerves in the peripheral nervous system -most impulses from the peripheral nervous system travel through here to get to the brain
What are the goals of psychology as a science?
1. Measure & describe 2. Understand & predict 3. Apply & control
variable
A factor that can change in an experiment
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors
Control
Altering conditions that influence behavior.
Empathy
An understanding of another's feelings
Orienting Reflex
An unlearned response in which an organism attends to a stimulus
behavior
Any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism
The theory of hearing that views the basilar membrane as being like a drumhead is A. place theory. B. frequency theory. C. trichromatic theory. D. opponent process theory.
B
When you attempt to recall the name of a high school classmate by imagining yourself back in English class with her, you are making use of (choose the BEST answer) A. retrieval cues. B. context cues. C. schemas. D. recognition cues.
B
Which of the following is MOST true about sleep? A. It is a state when our entire brain is inactive. B. For human sleep, there are five stages and we cycle through these cycles approximately 4-5 times per night. C. Elderly people sleep more than younger people. D. Stage 4 sleep is predominated by sleep spindles and theta waves.
B
Where are auditory stimuli changed into neural signal? A. pinna B. ossicles C. cochlea D. eardrum
C
Which drug is associated with 90% of student rapes and 95% of violent crimes on campus? A. narcotics B. stimulants C. alcohol D. cannabis
C
What characterizes the acquisition phase?
Classical: when an association between the UCS & CS is attained; operant: when behavior becomes associated with consequence
A specialty of psychology that involves focusing on mental activities such as language, memory, and problem solving:
Cognitive Psychology
What kind of effects can neurotransmitters have?
- Excitatory effect causes the following neuron to send a message - Inhibitory effect blocks the activity of the receiving dendrite
Where are microglias found and what do they do?
- Found in the CNS - Microglias are the smallest glial cells - They fight infection, disease, injuries - When activated they migrate to where phagocytosis is taking place - Digests parts of dead neurons - Maintains normal brain functioning
Where are Shwann cells found and what do they do?
- Found in the PNS - Grows myelin sheath - Can only produce myelin for one neuron at a time, therefore works slower than the oligodendroglia - Creates the Nodes of Ranvier - Cleans up debris in the PNS
What do interneurons do and when are they activated?
- Interneurons connect motor and sensory neurons, and carries information between the two - They are involved in reflex actions - Activated when sensory neurons receive an intense sensation (eg. burn)
positive reinforcement
Increases/strengthens behaviors by Giving or presenting something good
What are some sleep disorders & treatments? How do they differ from one another?
Insomnia: difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, or non-restorative sleep, for at least 1 month, TX: teaching good sleep hygiene, benzodiazepines, melatonin Hypersomnia: excessive sleepiness for at least 1 mos, as evidenced by either prolonged sleep episodes or daytime sleep episodes that occur almost daily - non-refreshing sleep, even after a good amount of sleep, TX: stimulants Narcolepsy: irresistible attacks of refreshing sleep that occur daily over at least 3 months, must have presence of one+: cataplexy, hypnogogic or hypnopompic hallucinations, sleep paralysis, TX: stimulants for sleep attacks; antidepressant for REM instrusion Sleep apnea: frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep (can cause insomnia). TX: lifestyle modifications; drug therapy; special masks; upper airway / craniofacial surgery Somnambulism: sleepwalking, may not recall it happening, usually grow out of it after childhood, occurs during deep sleep usually but not REM because we're paralyzed
fMRI "Functional magnetic resonance imaging"
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique for measuring brain activity by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity - when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand blood flow increases to the active area. fMRI can be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain are involved in a particular mental process.
Disagrees with structuralism, Mental adaptions occur for survival, a movement in psychology which was inspired by Darwin's work:
Functionalism
William James
Functionalist. He broadened psychology to include animal behavior, religious experience, and abnormal behavior. Published "Principles of Psychology" which helped establish psych as a field.
What is research?
Gathering information to come to a conclusion
Darwinian Evolution and Psychology
Humans and biological beings and our behaviour is tied to biology. Genetics determines a Possible Range of behaviours and learning/environment determines where we fall on that range.
Where are astrocytes found and what do they do?
- Found in the CNS - Filters nutrients out of blood and transfers them to neurons - Engage in phagocytosis, where they eat and digest harmful organisms so neurons can be healthy
Where are motor neurons located, what do they do, and are they afferent or efferent neurons?
- Motor neurons are located in the PSN -They carry messages from the brain to the muscles, organs, and glands to enable movement - They are efferent neurons
Identify the specific structures associated with the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary.
- Posterior pituitary: 1/4 of mass of pituitary gland; nervous tissue - Anterior pituitary: 3/4 of mass of pituitary gland; endocrine
What theory did Jean Piaget propose? How did he come up with this theory? Know the different concepts included in his theory, e.g. object permanence, lack of conservation, egocentrism, animism, etc.
- cognitive development theory - since children actively explore the world around them, interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way that children think Stage 1) sensorimotor period (0-2 yrs) - object permanence (object there even though you can't see it) Stage 2) preoperational period (2-7 yrs) -egocentrism (unable to see other POV) -animism (feature of egocentrism: belief that all things are living) -irreversibility (water level in different sized beaker example) -centration (focus on one aspect of something, ignore others) Stage 3) concrete operational period (7-11 yrs) - mastery of conservation Stage 4) formal operational period (11+ yrs) - mental operations applied to abstract ideas
What are the major endocrine cells?
- hypothalamus, skin, thymus - heart, liver, stomach - pancreas, small intestine - kidneys, gonads (testes, ovaries)
For Kohlberg's stage theory, use 1 sentence to describe the main point of how personality develops. What is this a theory of? What key terms or tools are associated with this theory?
- moral reasoning rather than overt behavior -moral reasoning -preconventional level (right or wrong because +/- consequences), conventional level ("internalize" rule not to avoid punishment, but to be virtuous), postconventional level (adolescence - working out personal code of ethics)
What are the features the endocrine and nervous systems have in common?
- release chemical substances called ligands - bind to cellular receptors on particular target cells - initiates cellular change in target cells
For Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, use 1 sentence to describe the main point of how personality develops. What is this a theory of? What key terms or tools are associated with this theory?
- social interactions with parents, teachers, older children who provide invaluable guidance - cognitive development -social interaction influences range of function (vs. biological maturation); language acquisition vital for cognitive development (vs. language as just another cognitive function)
Why we Sleep
-Eliminate waste from muscles -Repair cells -Replenishing energy -Strengthens immune system -Improves memory -After 4 days you start hallucinating and can die -Sleep appears to provide a timeout period, so that the body can eliminate waste products from muscles, repair cells, conserve or replenish energy stores, strengthen the immune system, and recover abilities lost during the day -When we do not get enough sleep, our bodies operate abnormally -Sleep deprivation that lasts for four days or longer becomes uncomfortable and soon becomes unbearable -In animals, forced sleeplessness leads to infections and eventually death, and the same seems to be true for people
What are some theories we have to the purpose of sleep? What evidence do we have that sleep is important for organisms? What is the rebound effect?
-Energy conservation (but dolphins...) -Protection against predators (but lions...) -Restore bodily resources (study: rats died when they were prevented from sleeping) -Brain development (fetus sleeps at 35 wks, less REM with age)
Dissociation
-Ernest Hilgard -a split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of others -while most of the mind is subject to hypnotic suggestion, one part is a hidden observer, watching but not participating -one part of the brain operates as a reporter and interpreter of activities carried out unconsciously by other brain parts
Dissociation
-Ernest Hilgard a split consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of others -Hidden observer
What evidence do we have that cognition is involved with learning?
-Latent learning: learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs (rats cognitive mapping of the maze before reinforcement) -Signal relations: environmental stimuli serve as signals that some stimuli are better, more dependable, signals than others ("good" signal allows accurate prediction of the US) -Response-outcome relations and reinforcement: reinforcement is not automatic when favorable consequences follow a response (playing Coldplay when studying for an exam and receiving a high grade, most likely won't continue to play coldplay - you'll know that studying got the good grade and only studying will be strengthened)
Why might airline attendants be at particular risk for miscarriage?
-More exposure to dangerous UV sun rays (aka radiation) -Also statistically more likely to give birth to girls for unknown reasons
Despite rapid growth, infants are always practicing their motor skills. At what ages are children most likely to be able to roll over? sit up? walk without assistance?
-Roll over: 2.75 months -Sit up: 5.5 months -Walk: 11.5 months
What do flashbulb memories have to say about our memories and their duration?
-Seem so strong but degrade like other memories & also may not be any more accurate than other memories, despite how rich they feel -Thought to be unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events
How does "short-term" memory differ from "working memory?"
-Short term memory: 10-20 sec without rehearsal, capacity of 7 + 2 or 4 + 2 items, chunking makes more space for working memory -Working memory = an elaboration of short-term memory: phonological loop (like short-term memory and with capacity limitations), visuospatial sketchpad, central executive system (attention), episodic buffer ("workbench")
Dreams as Unconscious Wishes
-Sigmund Freud -Freud concluded that our nighttime fantasies provide insight into desires, motives, and conflicts of which we are unaware- a royal road to the unconscious -we are able to express unconscious wishes and desires, which are often sexual or violent in nature -every dream is meaningful, no matter how absurd it may seem -if a dream's message arouses anxiety, the rational part of the mind must disguise and distort it -otherwise, the dream would intrude into consciousness and waken the dreamer -in dreams, one person may be represented by another- or even by several different characters -thoughts and objects are translated into symbolic images -we must distinguish the aspects of it that we consciously experience during sleep and may remember upon wakening from the unconscious wishes and thoughts being expressed symbolically -each dream had to be analyzed in the context of the person's associations to the dream's contents -freud concluded that our nighttime fantasies provide insight into desires, motives, and conflicts of which we are unaware
Dreams as Efforts to Deal with Problems
-dreams reflect the ongoing conscious preoccupations of waking life, such as concerns over relationships, work, sex, or health -the symbols and metaphors in a dream do not disguise its true meaning -the problem-focused explanation of dreaming is supported by findings that dreams are more likely to contain material related to a person's current concerns than chance would predict -for example, among college students, who are often anxious about grades and tests, test-anxiety dreams are common: the dreamer is unprepared for or unable to finish a test, or shows up late for the exam -some psychologists believe that dreams not only reflect our waking concerns but also provide us with an opportunity to resolve them -depressed people's dreams tend to get less negative and more positive as the night wears on, and this pattern predicts recovery -the problem-focused explanation is that dreams reflect the ongoing conscious concerns of waking life and may help us resolve them
Theory 3: figure out the future
-during non-REM sleep the brain is taking the past and trying to figure out how that might relate to the future -REM sleep is actually trying to experience the future-move into the future -REM may be simulations which allow us to make challenges and test possibilities -whats important about what happened to us and how that related to everything else thats happened to us in the past and figuring out what that means about our future -step into that future world with no consequences -allowing us to reach our maximum level of potential
Sociocognitive
-holds that the effects of hypnosis result from an interaction between the social influence of the hypnotist and the abilities, beliefs, and expectations of the subject -we willingly submit tot he suggestions of parents, teachers, doctors, therapists, and television commercials -a reaction to the social demands of the situation and the suggestions of the hypnotist -the researchers concluded that the act of remembering another self involves the construction of a fantasy that accords with the rememberer's own beliefs and also the beliefs of others-in this case, those of the authoritative hypnotist
Cerebrum
-largest part of brain -interprets input from the senses -controls movement -carries out complex mental processes such as learning and remembering -divided into right and left half -each half controls slightly different mental activities -different areas control different functions
How do spinal nerves function?
-like a two-lane highway -impulses travel on the spinal nerve in two directions (to and from the central nervous system) -contains axons of sensory and motor neurons -sensory neurons carry impulses from the body to the central nervous system -motor neurons carry impulses in the opposite direction (from the central nervous system to the body)
Theory 4: Ancestors
-many of the bad dreams we have today, are the same as those experienced by our ancient ancestors -ancestors lived in an environment with all sorts of fatal dangers -the same dangers often show up in dreams today particularly of those in children -ancestors had these bad dreams and gave them to us because they force us to go through those similar threatening events -we occur these accounts so that we are more prepared to survive when we have been training in our dreams -rehearsing stressful events stays with us all for our lives but as we grow up, wild animals are replaced by modern horrors -force us to be prepared for similar events in the waking world
Theory 2: Brain Stem
-particular part of out brain stem that triggers REM sleep -sending up signals to the higher parts of the brain that were random and chaotic -dreams were more physiological than psychological -the result of our higher brain doing its best it could to make sense of meaningless neural impulses -dreams have some pattern but they have no purpose
Experiment 2: Video Game Experiment
-person learns how to play a downhill ski simulator- controls the character -they think that as the brain goes to sleep, it will go back to these images -waken repeatedly during non-REM sleep -had dreams about skiing and later in the night included his own memories -refines memories, improves memories -makes memory useful for the future -person performs better on the simulator the next day -the people who dream about it, perform better the next time -non-REM dreams helps us learn
For Erikson's stage theory, use 1 sentence to describe the main point of how personality develops. What is this a theory of?
-personality is shaped by how individuals deal with a psychosocial crisis at each of the 8 stages in a life span -personality theory
Experiment 3: Rats Sleeping
-places electrodes in a rats brain -sees how the rats neurons fire -see unique patterns of brain activity -as the rat sleeps, the patterns happen again -the patterns of the sleep are direct reflections of the ones they see when the animal is awake -Non-REM: dreams play out as bursts of neural activity which mirrors past experience -REM sleep: memories are replayed- played out as if the animal is actually experiencing moving through a world- world is generated from inside- REM= 5 times longer than non-REM
Experiment 1: Non REM and REM dreams
-recorded brain waves as they slept through the night- put electrodes on the the head -REM- sleep when they have dreams- dream sleep -muscle tone goes down to zero - you become functionally paralyzed -body becomes relaxed -paralyzed- can't make your muscles work -calm and non-responsive -state of paralysis -eyes move rapidly -we dream during non-REM and REM sleep -these two dream states are fundamentally different and affect us in different ways when awakened from non-REM sleep: positive emotions- increase in positive regard -when awakened from REM sleep: very negative-change in mood-amygdala -negative emotion- amygdala is highly active- amygdala specializes in handling unpleasant things -normally you fall asleep in non-REM sleep -people with depression go right into REM sleep and stay in REM-spend too much time in REM sleep=negative thoughts
Cerebellum
-second largest part of the brain -coordinates the actions of your muscles -helps you keep your balance
Right half of cerebrum
-sends impulses to skeletal muscles on the left side of the body -associated with creativity and artistic ability
The Reflex Pathway (finger touching sharp object)
-sensory neurons detect stimulus -nerve impulses travel to the spinal cord -nerve impulses return to motor neurons and cause muscles to contract -nerve impulses travel to your brain -you feel pain
60 Minutes: The Science of Sleep
-sleep is critical -sleep is as essential as food -students do 40% worse with a night without sleep than if they had sleep -we need functional sleep: if you don't sleep you will die, and it is a very vulnerable state so there has to be a purpose for it if evolution makes us sleep -benefits of sleep: memory and learning- cognitive functions -sleep enhances memory -you can get more done with sleep -with little sleep for one night, your ability to have high cognitive functioning is decreases significantly -alertness and reaction time are affected with lack of sleep -many car accidents occur because people don't get enough sleep -poor judgements and slow reactions occur with sleep disruption -you can go about 4 or 5 days without sleep -brain waves were very slow without much sleep -affects: memory, irritableness, learning, mood -typing 43123 with their left hand in the morning at night then another group took the same typing test at night then had a good night sleep and did it again in the morning- the group that had the good night sleep performed better
rapid eye movement (REM)
-sleep periods characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone, and dreaming -periods of rapid eye movement (REM) alternate with periods of fewer eye movements , or non-REM sleep, in a cycle that recurs about every 90 min. or so. -the REM periods last from a few minutes to as long as an hour, averaging about 20 minutes in length -whenever they begin, the pattern of electrical activity from the sleepers brain changes to resemble that of alert wakefulness -non-REM periods are themselves divided into shorter, distinct stages, each associated with a particular brain wave pattern
How to Test Evolutionary Significance of Behaviour
-speculation full of prejudice & bias. "woman are supposed to be subordinate to males" -test frequency with a marker of evolutionary significance (altruism vs. levels of relatedness) -test twins/cross-cultural studies
spinal cord injuries
-spinal is cut or crushed -axons are damaged and impulses cannot pass through them -results in paraysis (loss of movement)
Signaling Brain
-takes longer for pain impulses to get to the brain and be interpreted than it does for a reflex action to occur -by the time you feel pain, you've already moved your finger away
Challenges to Conducting Competent Research
-the allure of novelty versus replication -the "challenge" of negative findings: stuff nobody wants to publish -selective outcome analysis: cherry picking measures
60 Minutes Part 2
-the sleep deprived have no sense of their limitations -they think they have adapted and that they are fine -sleep deprived people also have major mood swings -their emotional response is not in check with their decision making processes -most of us need 7.5 to 8 hours of sleep -perfectly healthy people were deprived to 4 hours of sleep for 6 nights and the effects were pre-diabetes -they were also hungry- could lead to obesity -sleep deprivation can be a risk factor of type 2 diabetes -affects mating/sex -amygdala and frontal lobe affected -amygdala: emotional responses and sex drives -frontal lobe: rational thinking and it was disconnected -people who don't get much sleep is seen as higher- culture says that not enough sleep is fine -when you get older, you lose deep sleep -lack of sleep can lead to low levels of Leptin which makes you more hungry- With leptin levels that are too low, you can eat and eat and eat and still be hungry
Is there a such thing as empty nest syndrome?
No, some parents report it, but it's not a clinical condition
REM
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is a stage of sleep characterized by the rapid and random movement of the eyes. Rapid eye movement sleep is classified into two categories: tonic and phasic.[1] It was identified and defined by Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky in 1953. Criteria for REM sleep includes rapid eye movement, low muscle tone and a rapid, low-voltage EEG; these features are easily discernible in a polysomnogram, the sleep study typically done for patients with suspected sleep disorders
where does transduction occur in the nose
Sensitive ends of olfactory neurons in the mucous membranes.
Primary reinforcer
Stimulus that has innate reinforcing properties
negative reinforcement
Strengthens/increases behaviors by Taking or reducing something bad
Disruption of body's clock
The body becomes confused need when it experiences daylight and darkness at the wrong times. The more time zones are crossed the more disruption to the body.
applied psychology
The branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems
Consciousness
The state of being awake and aware of your surroundings.
Describe how the hypothalamus controls the release of gluccocorticoid (cortisol) and the effects of cortisol.
Upon receiving certain stimulation, the hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. ACTH bring about the release of cortisol by the adrenal cortex. This relationship is called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The net effect of cortisol is an increase in blood glucose, release of glycerol and fatty acids into blood, and an increase in protein degradation.
Stage 1
Your brain waves become small and irregular, and you feel yourself drifting on the edge of consciousness, in a state of light sleep. If awakened, you may recall fantasies or a few visual images
Cataract
a condition where the lens of the eye gradually becomes cloudy, which causes blurred or partial vision. The cause is not known. If left untreated, cataracts may lead to blindness.
Signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimuli ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assume that there is no single absolute threshold and that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. (e.g. what determines a "hit", "miss," "false alarm" or "correct rejection")
cocktail party effect
ability to selectively attend to one voice among many
Conjunctivitis
also called "pink eye." It is an inflammation of the eyelid caused by a bacteria or virus, and it is extremely infectious.
nudging
alters behaviors in subtle/predictable ways (goal) ex: auto-deduct retirment
mode
apears often
mean
average
validity
how true?
Corpus Callosum
large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Local hormones
large group of signaling molecules that do not circulate within the blood
forebrain
largest and most complex - includes thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system and cerebrum
cerebral cortex
largest part of the brain, wrinkly part
conditioned response
learned reaction to conditiona stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning
emit
sent forth
theory
set of inter-relatedideas used to explain set of observations
fixed ratio (FR)
set ratio between number of responses and number of reinforcers (FR1, FR5, FR100)
cochlea
shaped like a snail shell. Inside the cochlea, delicate, hair-like cells make up the organ of Corti. The cells pick up sound waves and pass them on to the auditory nerve, which sends the impulse to the brain to be interpreted.
relative size
small things are perceived as farther away
peripheral NS
somatic (control it) autonomic (automatic) -sympathetic (alert, speed up) -parasympathetic (slows down)
pop-out
something is noticeable different than the others, thus pops out to the viewer
hypothesis
testable prediction, often implied by theory
optic chiasm
the crossing of the optic nerves from the two eyes at the base of the brain
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light
Define: Myelination
the growth and development of fatty myelin around many axons, contributing to brain growth
Define: Sprouting
the growth of additional branches on axons or dendrites to enable new connections
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information; enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
Neurobiological Substrates
the set of brain structures that underlies a specific behaviour or psychological state.
Acuity
the sharpness of vision.
Two muscles in the iris control:
the size of the pupil and how much light enters the eye.
critical thinking
the use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desired outcome
structualism
the whole of a situation or behavior is equal to the sum of its parts
Axon
transmits information
culture
widely shared customs, beliefs, norms, and other products of the community that are transmitted socially across generations
Two Treatises of Gov (LOCKE)
work on politics - mixed/balanced gov
postreinforcement pause or preratio pause
zero ratio of responding after each reinforcement; longer with higher ratio requirements, procrastination may be explained by this
What factors are involved with whether or not it is an easy transition into married life? How does parenthood affect individuals?
• Having non-matching expectations will make adjustment more difficult and will decrease satisfaction • Having children is correlated with decreased marital satisfaction.
B-Love
"being love" (Maslow) -based on full acceptance of other person See other as who they are instead of what they can do for us. Healthier and more sustainable.
D-Love
"deficiency love" (Maslow) -grasping, possessive love. "clingy" Sees loved one as a means of fulfilling a deficiency in ourselves.
What are the target cells of the endocrine and nervous systems?
Endocrine: any cell in the body with a receptor for the hormone Nervous: other neurons, muscle cells, and gland cells
Describe the duration of response in the endocrine and nervous systems after a target cell is stimulated.
Endocrine: long-lasting (minutes to days to weeks); may continue after stimulus is removed Nervous: short-term (milliseconds); terminates with the removal of stimulus
Describe the reaction time in the endocrine and nervous systems upon stimulation of a target cell.
Endocrine: relatively slow Nervous: rapid
How do the endocrine and nervous systems' communication methods differ?
Endocrine: secretes hormones into the blood where they are transported within the bloodstream and distributed to target cells throughout the body Nervous: a nerve signal causes neurotransmitter release from a neuron into the synaptic cleft
What type of effect does the stimulation of a target cell in the endocrine and nervous system have on the body?
Endocrine: widespread throughout the body Nervous: localized, specific effects in the body
theories of sleep:
Energy conservation? • but dolphins Protection against predators? • but lions Restore bodily resources? • rats • but sedentary people cognition/learning & memory • Depending on age? • brain development? • species • human lifespan • IQ - gifted children appeared to sleep longer w/ one more REM period • Perhaps multi-purposeful; important!
Identify and briefly describe the function of the six tropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary.
Tropic hormones stimulate other endocrine glands or tissues to secrete hormones. 1. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): regulates the release of thyroid hormone from the thyroid gland. 2. prolactin (PRL): regulates mammary gland growth and breast milk production in females and may help androgen production in males. 3. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)/ 4. luteinizing hormone (LH): collectively called gonadotropins. These hormones act in both females and males, regulating hormone synthesis by the gonads and the production and maturation of gametes. 5. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and secrete glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol). 6. growth hormone (GH): also called somatotropin. GH stimulates cell growth and division and affects most body cells, particularly those within the skeletal and muscular systems. *mnemonic: TP-FLAG
Tears clean the eye and keep it moist. (T or F)
True
Describe postnatal physical development. How does the "growth spurt" relate to sexual development? Are there sex differences in terms of physical growth and sexual growth?
Uneven, occurs in growth spurts, rapid - slows with time: 1 yr 50% greater than birth length, 2 yr 75% greater than birth length Girls hit spurt at 11 y/o, guys at 13 y/o Girls hit physical and sexual growth before boys at every stage (10 y/o for secondary sexual characteristics vs. 11.5 y/o; 11 y/o for growth spurt vs. 13 y/o; 12.5 y/o for puberty vs. 13.5 y/o; 15.5 y/o full height vs. 17.5 y/o)
Ivan Pavlov
Unlearned reflexes can be learned or conditioned through association
Define up-regulation and down-regulation.
Up-regulation is the generation of more receptors, and down-regulation is a decrease in the number of receptors. Being able to change receptor number allows a target cell to modify its responsiveness to a hormone.
someone passed out with alc pos
Victim chokes on his or her own vomit Breathing slows, becomes irregular, or stops Heart beats irregularly or stops Hypothermia (low body temperature) Hypoglycemia (too little blood sugar) leads to seizures Untreated severe dehydration from vomiting can cause seizures, permanent brain damage, or death Even if the victim lives, an alcohol overdose can lead to irreversible brain damag
behaviorism
View that psychology 1)should be objective science and 2) studies behavior without references to mental processes
Vision and the Eye
Vision is one of the five special senses. The eye is the organ that controls this sense. Like all special senses, it receives stimuli and sends the impulses to the brain to be interpreted. After receiving light rays, the eye carries the information to the brain where it is translated into vision, or sight. Vision is considered to be the most important sense. About 90% of the information about a person's surroundings reaches the brain through the eyes.
When do neurons go from electrical to chemical form?
When they cross the synapse
What is jet lag?
When you get out of sync with your circadian rhythm -- your biological clock is not up to date with the official time right away
Are long-term memories permanent?
While they can be stored indefinitely, the exact details of the memory deteriorate
Functionalism
William James -Investigate function of consciousness -serves adaptive purpose in survival
The "Father of Psychology" - First person to open a psychology laboratory:
William Wundt
Physiological Psychology
Examines influence of genetic factors on behavior and the role of the brain, nervous system, endocrine system, and bodily chemicals in the regulation of behavior
Experimenter Bias
Expectations by the experimenter that might influence the results of an experiment or its interpretation
Classical conditioning occurs when
You learn to associate two different stimuli. No behavior is involved. The first stimulus that you will encounter is called the unconditioned stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus produces a response without any previous learning. This response is called an unconditioned response.
Younger Age vs Older Age
Younger: 100 min. of deep sleep- less REM sleep Older: as little as 20 min. of deep sleep- lots of REM sleep
Stage 2
Your brain emits occasional short bursts of rapid, high-peaking waves called sleep spindles. Minor noises probably won't disturb you.
Double blind
Experimenter & subjects both don't know who is receiving treatment
Gestalt Psychotherapy
Fritz Perls (1940s) - completely different from gestalt theory, gestalt therapy combined humanistic psychology, phenomenology (the study of subjective experience), existentialism, psychoanalysis, and gestalt psychology.
frontal lobe
Front of the brain, associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain tasks OR observing another doing so Enables imitation and empathy
Latent content
Frued believed the true meaning of a dream was hidden or latent and only expressed in symbols. ex: water in a tub might symbolize waters of birth and the tub might symbolize the mothers womb.
Discuss the survival value of generalization and discrimination
Generalization has survival value because it lets us extend a learned response to the stimuli in a given category-as in fleeing from all dangerous animals Discrimination also has survival value because its lets us limit our learned responses to appropriate stimuli-as in fleeing from a rampaging lion but not from a playful kitten
What are the different stages of prenatal development and what sorts of things characterize these stages (e.g. when is the most vulnerable period—and why? What is the "age of viability" and what does it mean?)
Germinal stage: 0-2 wks (zygote), within 36 hrs = proliferation, 1 wk = implantation Embryonic: 3-8 wks (embryo), recognizably human, cephalocaudal & proximodistal; most vulnerable period because major organs developing - if it gets screwed up, usually results in miscarriage Fetal: 9-38ish wks (fetus), 12 wks: basic structures completed, can detect stimulation and movement (aka "quickening"); 22-26 wks = "age of viability", which means it has 85% chance of survival
proximity
Gestalt grouping principle; we group nearby figures together
similarity
Gestalt grouping principle; we group similar figures together
connectedness
Gestalt grouping principle; when objects uniform (in color or texture) are linked (no space exists between them) we perceive them as a single unit
Max Wertheimer
Gestalt psychologist. Was the first person to advance the Gestalt viewpoint & promoted it as a way to understand perception, problem solving, thinking, social behavior, art, logic, philosophy, and politics.
Research Step Pre-1
Get to know the topic through observation or indirect observation
Advantages of an experiment
1. Precise control 2. Can make causal conclusions (unlike non-experimental designs)
Disadvantages of a Survey
1. Problems: social desirability, response sets, unrealistic assessment, etc.
Disadvantages of an experiment
1. Situations are artificial (generalizability?) 2. Ethical or practical concerns
Compare and contrast the three types of hormone interactions.
1. Synergistic: hormones work together to produce greater effect (e.g., estrogen and progesterone in female reproductive structures) 2. Permissive: first hormone allows action of second hormone (e.g., prolactin is required to produce breast milk, and oxytocin is required for milk ejection from the breast) 3. Antagonist: one hormone causes opposite effect of another (e.g., glucagon and insulin)
What: -produces profound alterations in perception -LSD, MDMA (ecstasy), mescaline/psilocybin (mushrooms) How: behaves like serotonin and promotes its release Downside: -nightmarish feelings, anxiety, paranoia (bad trip), impaired judgment, jumbled thought processes, some documented cases of suicide -TRIPPING MAJOR BALLSACK Withdrawals: ?
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens and psychedelics do not share a common mechanism of action, but all induce hallucinations . These drugs can either be natural such as mescaline, which is derived from the peyote cactus, or synthetic such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), but they are typically classified pharmacologically according to the affected neurotransmitter system. Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Po-Re/Psychoactive-Drugs.html#ixzz3NzeYkz4h
Assem's parents wanted him to improve his grades. Every time Assem reads three books, his parents give him $50. This schedule of reinforcement is called A. fixed-ratio schedule. B. variable ratio schedule. C. fixed-interval schedule. D. variable-interval schedule.
A
Houssem is thrown from his motorcycle and suffers a severe blow to the head, resulting in loss of memory for events that occurred before the accident. This is an example of A. retrograde amnesia. B. anterograde amnesia. C. motivated forgetting. D. retroactive interference
A
Iman was painting a picture of a jet on a runway; however, in her painting, the sides of the runway are parallel to each other. Iman's picture will seem to lack depth because she has failed to make use of the monocular depth cue of A. linear perspective. B. convergence. C. motion parallax. D. none of the listed answers
A
In Pavlov's "psychic reflex" demonstrations, what was the unconditioned stimulus? A. meat powder B. tone C. salivation D. Both the "meat powder" and "tone"
A
Interference effects on retention are greatest when the interfering material is A. similar to the material to be remembered. B. dissimilar to the material to be remembered. C. unrelated to the material to be remembered. D. not personally relevant.
A
Kwan is driving to campus and his phone rings. Based on the results of studies on divided attention, should Kwan answer the phone? A. No, he would experience a negative impact on his driving behavior since he would focus more on the phone call than on traffic signals. B. He should only answer the phone if he is an experienced driver who is driving in a familiar location. C. Yes, his attention system will allow him to process both traffic information and his phone conversation equally. D. He should only answer the phone if he has a hands-free device, so that he is not distracted by having to hold the phone.
A
Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which... A. responses come to be controlled by their consequences B. an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others' behavior C. involuntary responses are slowly replaced by voluntary responses D. a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a response that was orginally elicited by another stimulus
A
Pseudoforgetting is information loss due to ineffective A. encoding only. B. storage only. C. retrieval only. D. encoding, storage and retrieval.
A
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing the images of the retinas of the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
Shantel is studying for her law exam. While she is studying, she is trying to think of as many examples as she can to illustrate key ideas. In this case, Shantel is using A. an efficient study strategy because examples should help her to recall key ideas. B. an ineffective study strategy that will probably cause her to confuse many of the key ideas. C. shallow processing that does not focus on the underlying meaning of the material she is reading. D. the linking method, to create a more complete semantic network.
A
So far, which of the following has research discovered about dreams? A. people dream mostly about themselves B. dreams occur much more quickly than in "real time" C. fifty percent of the population do not dream D. dreams serve no function
A
Stimulation of sensory receptors of the skin is processed in the A. parietal lobes. B. temporal lobes. C. the heart. D. hypothalamus.
A
The awareness of self, your thoughts, internal sensations, and external stimuli is defined as: A. consciousness B. hypnosis C. sensation D. perception
A
The basic principles of gradual acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalization, and discrimination apply... A. to both classical and operant conditioning B. only to classical conditioning C. only to operant conditioning D. to learning by animals, but not to learning by people
A
The sense associated with the perception of taste is referred to as the A. gustatory system. B. olfactory system. C. vagus system. D. vestibular system.
A
Which is the proper definition for "reinforcement?" A. that which is likely to increase the behavior it followed B. that which produces a pleasurable feeling in the organism C. that which is likely to decrease the behavior it followed D. that which produces a negative feeling in the organism
A
Which of the following does NOT belong with the others? A. cocaine B. LSD C. mescaline D. psilocybin
A
Which type of receptor is slower, but better at adapting to the dark? A. rod B. cone C. cochlea D. visual
A
While at a yard sale, you and your roommate find a great old sofa. As you are trying to decide if it will fit in your dorm room if you rearrange the beds, dressers and desks, you would be using the ___ component of working memory. A. visuospatial sketchpad B. semantic buffer C. executive control system D. phonological rehearsal loop
A
___ occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information. A. Retroactive interference B. Proactive interference C. Retrograde amnesia D. Anterograde amnesia
A
figure-ground
A gestalt perceptual phenomenon; the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.
myelin sheath
A layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon.
Discrimination
A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli
Conditioned response
A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
Classical conditioning
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
Psychiatrist
A medical doctor with additional training in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders. Can prescribe drugs.
Psychoanalyst
A mental health professional (usually a medical doctor) trained with more schooling to practice psychoanalysis.
Negative reinforcement
A method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence
Shaping/method of successive approximations
A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur
Negative punishment
A method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A natural, usually unvarying response elicited by a stimulus without learning or conditioning
What is a neuron?
A nerve cell that receives, transmits, and processes information
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. (ejaculation)
Night terrors
A night terror, sleep terror or pavor nocturnus is a parasomnia or sleep disorder, causing feelings of terror or dread, and typically occurs during the first hours of stage 3-4 non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep
What is a "peer-reviewed journal" and why would we want to use this for research?
A peer-reviewed journal is when a journal goes through an elaborate process that studies the merit and quality of it and determines whether it's good enough to be in a technical journal.
Gestalt
A perceptual whole. The gestalt is created out of the relationship between the parts.
Describe how lipid-soluble hormones reach their target cell receptors and the type of cellular change they initiate.
Hormones that are lipid-soluble stimulate cellular activity by binding to intracellular receptors: The hormone-receptor complex activates a region of DNA, resulting in the production of new proteins.
Describe how water-soluble hormones induce cellular changes in their target cells.
Hormones that are water-soluble bind with plasma membrane receptors; the hormone is the first messenger, and it causes the activation of G protein and the formation of a second messenger through an intracellular enzyme cascade. The cellular response may include activation or inhibition of enzymatic pathways, stimulation of growth through cellular reproduction, stimulation of cellular secretions, change in membrane permeability, and muscle contraction or relaxation. The degree of cellular response is a function of both receptor number and receptor interaction.
A movement that emphasized unique qualities of being human (freedom & personal growth) - psychologists like Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow supported:
Humanism
Abraham Maslow
Humanist. Created the hierarchy of needs.
a systematic procedure that increases suggestibility
Hypnosis
Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a temporary state of heightened relaxation and suggestibility during which some (not all) people are able to become so focused that they experience imaginary happenings as if they were real. Hypnosis is not some trans-like, magical state in which people will engage in behaviors that are completely against their "normal, non-hynotized" will. People often believe that a hypnotist can make you do things you would never do, like take your clothes off and run around a crowded room naked. If you would not do this when you are not hypnotized, then you would not do it when you are hypnotized. However, if there is some part of you that would....well then, that may be a different story.
individual differences
Hypnotic susceptibility
Area of Psychology- Industrial Organization
I: job selection/performance eval O: motivation, teamwork, leadership
Freud theory on dreams- ID
ID - Newborn babies are born with only an Id. The Id is a sense of mind that causes us to act on impulse: to follow our primary instincts and ignore the consequences. The Id runs on the "pleasure principle" - it doesn't care about anything but its own satisfaction.
Otitis Media Treatment involves
If left untreated, otitus media may lead to hearing loss. Treatment involves antibiotics and possibly inserting tubes to relieve the pressure and fluid in the ear.
Why is Intermittent Reinforcement more Resistant to Extinction?
If the subject does not expect reinforcement every time it occurs, they will be less likely to stop the behaviour when it is not reinforced.
Stage 3
In addition to the waves characteristic of Stage 2, your brain occasionally emits delta waves, very slow waves with very high peaks. Your breathing and pulse have slowed down, your muscles are relaxed, and you are hard to arouse.
Animal model
In research, an animal whose behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior. (i.e. animal studies help to understand stress, learning, obesity, sleep in humans.)
Lesson Summary
In review, let's compare Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning alongside each other. Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are processes that lead to learning. Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while operant conditioning pairs behavior and response. The learning occurs before the response in classical conditioning and after the response in operant conditioning. You learn by association in classical conditioning and by reinforcement or punishment in operant conditioning. Also, classical conditioning always works with involuntary responses, while operant conditioning works with voluntary behaviors. Extinction, an extinction burst, spontaneous recovery, and stimulus generalization are different phenomena that can occur.
Description
In scientific research, the process of naming and classifying.
where does transduction occur in the mouth
In the tastebuds - roughly 10,000 are distributed throughout the mouth and throat.
What part of the ear is the most complex?
Inner Ear
Frontal Lobe
Involves judgement, reasoning, problem solving, planning, etc. Damage to this part of the brain can result in being rigid and unreasonable- they show perseveration (repeating actions over and over). They don't have a filter. Interpersonal Stickiness (when someone doesn't pick up social cues that a conversation is over) is also observed. Logorrhea is when someone can't stop talking, and is observed when there is damage with the frontal lobe.
Negative reinforcement
It involves the removal of a negative consequence to increase the likelihood of a response.
Protection of the Eye
It is partly enclosed in a bony socket in the skull. Tears produced in the lacrimal glands constantly clean the eye and keep it moist. The tears flow across the eye and drain through the lacrimal duct into the nasal cavity. Eyelids and eyelashes help keep out foreign materials. Conjunctiva, a mucous membrane, lines the eyelids and covers the front of the eye to provide added protection and moisture.
In relation to the brain, what is "plasticity?"
It means "flexibility" of the brain.
What is the APA publication manual for?
It's a consistent format that helps create a basis for citing, sourcing, and formatting for social sciences through the American Psychology Association.
Why is the suprachiasmatic nucleus important for sleep?
It's the main biological clock in our body - located in the hypothalamus - regulates hormone melatonin which helps with sleep
Observational/ social learning
Learning by observing others.
Operant conditioning
Learning by way of consequences of behavior, good or bad.
Higher order conditioning
Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus also elicit conditioned responding
Latent learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement
Axon
Long fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body of a neuron
MEG "MagnetoEncephaloGraphy"
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) imaging technique used to measure the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain via extremely sensitive devices (magneometers) known as SQUIDs. These measurements are commonly used in both research and clinical settings. There are many uses for the MEG, including assisting surgeons in localizing a pathology, assisting researchers in determining the function of various parts of the brain, neurofeedback, and others.
Correlational method
Making measurements to discover relationships between events.
amplitude (height) frequency (cycles per second)
Measuring Brain Waves
practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes under greater voluntary control -Ex: yoga, zen, transcendental, mindfulness-based -many physiological benefits as decreased chronic pain and improvements in blood pressure
Meditation
What is mindfulness? -focusing on present moment experiences with openness, curiosity, and a willingness to be with what is -improves overall well-being, physical health, mental health
Meditation Continued
cognition
Mental Process by which knowledge is acquired
Critical Signs for Alcohol Poisoning
Mental confusion, stupor, coma, or person cannot be roused Vomiting Seizures Slow breathing (fewer than eight breaths per minute) Irregular breathing (10 seconds or more between breaths) Hypothermia (low body temperature), bluish skin color, paleness
cognitive map
Mental representation of layout of ones environment
Experimental Research
Methodology that works to eliminate all alternative explanations under carefully controlled conditions. pros -random assignment -control of variables
Physiology
Methods to study the mind
ossicles
Middle Ear It contains three small bones. They receive sound from the vibrations of the tympanic membrane and in turn transmit the sound waves to the inner ear.
What is "misinformation effect" and "source monitoring effect?"
Misinformation: where post-event information leads to an alteration of a person's memory Source monitoring effect: where you make an incorrect guess about where the information /memory came from, SO...the person may think they remember something, when actually, it came from misleading post-event information (misinformation leads to this)
What is morning sickness and what does it indicate when someone has it? Do most pregnant women experience this? Why would it be advantageous to experience morning sickness?
Nausea any time of the day/night; indicates hormone levels through the roof No, some don't experience any symptoms of being pregnant (bad) Advantageous because elevated hormone levels mean decreased risk of miscarriage
NIRS "Near InfraRed Spectroscopy"
Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) an optical technique for measuring blood oxygenation in the brain. It works by shining light in the near infrared part of the spectrum (700-900nm) through the skull and detecting how much the remerging light is attenuated. How much the light is attenuated depends on blood oxygenation and thus NIRS can provide an indirect measure of brain activity.
What's the difference between glial cells and neurons?
Neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information, glia cells are found in the nervous system and they provide support for the neurons.
Lobes
Newest part of the brain from an evolutionary standpoint- this is what separates us from animals- this the where we reason, and problem solve, etc.
Are babies born with emotional attachments to their parents? What types of early emotional attachments exist and how do we determine this? How did these different types of emotional attachment styles come about (that is, develop)? How do early emotional attachments influence later relationships?
No - develops over time o secure attachment (60-65%); parenting style = sensitive; future relationships = satisfying long-term o avoidant attachment (20%); parenting style = insensitive (i.e. feeding baby when baby is not hungry); future relationships = shun romance o anxious/ambivalent aka resistant attachment (10-15%); parenting style: inconsistent; future relationships = frequent, short, high-maintenance, needy o disorganized/disorientated attachment (5-10%): parenting style = severe neglect and/or abuse ** as emotional bond to caregivers increases, fear of strangers increases
Is it OK to drink during pregnancy? How does the brain of an infant with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome differ from the brain of a normal infant?
No: Psychologist view drinking as a "dose-effect" phenomenon Smaller, asymmetrical, not developed properly, less fissures and sulci
Is it OK for an obese person to diet when they are pregnant? Why or why not?
No: fetus may not get the macro-nutrients it needs; malnutrition associated with higher risk of birth complications & neurological deficits (i.e. increased rates of schizophrenia)
David Hubel & Torsten Wiesel
Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain
NREM
Non-rapid eye movement sleep, or NREM, is, collectively, sleep stages 1-3, previously known as stages 1-4. Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) is not included. There are distinct electroencephalographic and other characteristics seen in each stage. Unlike REM sleep, there is usually little or no eye movement during these stages. Dreaming is rare during NREM sleep, and muscles are not paralyzed as in REM sleep. People who do not go through the sleeping stages properly get stuck in NREM sleep, and because muscles are not paralyzed a person may be able to sleepwalk.
Naturalistic observation
Observing behavior as it unfolds in natural settings.
What: -opium: plant substance containing morphine and codeine -opioid: drug derived from opium, or synthetic drug with opium-like effects How: specialized opioid receptors were discovered in 1990's Downside: lethargy, nausea, impaired mental/motor functioning Withdrawal: -almost never life-threatening -severe body pain, insomnia, sweating, anxiety, vomiting, diarrhea, rapid pulse, fever
Opiates
What does a narcotic do?
Pain relief, anxiety reduction, euphoria, relaxation. Side effects = lethargy, drowsiness, nausea, impaired coordination, impaired mental functioning, constipation
What is a part of this system and can you give an example of one type of hormone?
Pancreas & glucose
Spontaneous recovery
Refers to the unexpected recurrence of a conditioned response after it has shown extinction. Spontaneous recovery is usually short-lived and a weakened version of the conditioned response.
Describe the function of regulatory hormones.
Regulatory hormones influence the secretion of growth hormone, thyroid hormone, and glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol). Theses are all regulated by negative feedback.
What are the different consequences which can affect a behavior?
Reinforcement: increases response; + (giving a reward for a behavior) or - (taking away the bad thing to increase behavior - ex: taking away shock when rat pushes lever) Punishment: decreases response; + (add something bad like spanking to decrease behavior) or - (take away something like TV for a child when they do something you don't like)
What is "shaping?"
Reinforcements of closer and closer approximations of a desired response; animals don't immediately do the behavior the human wants so the human has to "lead" them in the direction
partial reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time - results in slower acquisition but more resistance to extinction
continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response EVERY time it occurs - quicker acquisition but easy extinction
List the hormones released from the hypothalamus that control the anterior pituitary.
Releasing hormones (e.g., TRH, PRH, GnRH, CRH, GHRH) stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary, and inhibiting hormones (e.g., PIH, GIH) decrease the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.
What's the difference between a "research" division vs. an "applied" division. What divisions does UNC's psychology & neuroscience department have?
Research is the direct observation and conduction of the experiment while the applied division is the psychology that is put into practice, such as counseling.
What is "spontaneous recovery?"
Response to stimuli even after going through extinction process, but usually less than original respone
Punishers
Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
Reinforcers
Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
What is the difference between retrograde vs. anterograde amnesia?
Retro - can't remember information before injury Antero - can't remember information going forward from injury
Functionalism
School of psychology concerned with how behavior and mental abilities help people adapt and thrive in their environment.
Behaviorism
School of psychology that emphasizes the study of overt, observable behavior. Believes environment shapes behavior.
The new notion of "the whole is greater than the sum of it's parts"
Scientific worldview at the time was analytic, very structuralist: "the whole could be reduced to it's parts", gestalt theorists were more concerned with synthetic reasoning "greater than the sum"
Ramachandran
Scientist who discovered the existence of phantom limbs.
Self-Reflective Functioning and Mentalization
Security of attachment based on mother's behaviour as well as psychological sensitivity. Child will develop Self-Reflective Functioning *if* the mother can Mentalize the child's experience (via. Peter Fonagy and Mary Target)
Sedatives & hypnotics
Sedatives and hypnotics depress or inhibit brain activity and produce drowsiness, sedation, or sleep; relieve anxiety; and lower inhibition. Although the depressant compounds do not share a common neural mechanism of action, most of them either decrease the metabolic activity in the brain or increase the transmission of the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Selective Sleep deprivation
Selective sleep stage deprivation is the targeted suppression of one stage of sleep to gain insight into its specific purpose or to replicate some sleep disorders such as sleep apnea.
Phantom Limbs
Sensory fibers that terminate on adjacent areas.
Which type of hearing loss results from damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve and usually cannot be corrected?
Sensory hearing loss
where does transduction occur for kinesthesis
Sensory receptors are nerve endings in your muscles, tendons, and joints
Thalamus
Sensory relay station
-insomnia (sleeplessness) -hypersomnia (sleeping too much) -narcolepsy (immediate transition from waking to REM sleep) -sleep apnea (pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep) -parasomnias (nightmares, night terrors, somnambulism)
Sleep Disorders
-sleep loss can affect physiological processes (cognition, mood, suppression of immune system) -sleep restriction = increased hunger
Sleep Loss and Health
sleep deprivation
Sleep deprivation occurs when an individual fails to get enough sleep. The amount of sleep that a person needs varies from one person to another, but on average most adults need about seven to eight hours of sleep each night to feel alert and well rested. Teens need an average of about nine hours of sleep per night, and children need nine hours of nightly sleep or more, depending on their age.
adaptive theory
Sleep is the product of evolution (Webb, 1992). It proposes that animals and humans evolved different sleep patterns to avoid being present during their predators normal hunting times, which typically would be at night. for example, if a human or a prey animal (one predator will eat) is out and about at night, they are more at risk of being eaten. One of the earliest theories of sleep, sometimes called the adaptive or evolutionary theory, suggests that inactivity at night is an adaptation that served a survival function by keeping organisms out of harm's way at times when they would be particularly vulnerable. Evolutionary theory, also known as the adaptive theory of sleep, suggests that periods of activity and inactivity evolved as a means of conserving energy. According to this theory, all species have adapted to sleep during periods of time when wakefulness would be the most hazardous. Support for this theory comes from comparative research of different animal species. Animals that have few natural predators, such as bears and lions, often sleep between 12 to 15 hours each day. On the other hand, animals that have many natural predators have only short periods of sleep, usually getting no more than 4 or 5 hours of sleep each day.
How do emotions develop?
Smiling / laughter: one of the 1st expressions of pleasure - 4-6 wks Fear: 3 mos- wariness, sober stares -> 6 mos- whimpering, looking away -> 7 mos - true fear, crying -> 13-15 mos- separation anxiety
Reinforcement, + or -
Something happening after an action that will increase the likelihood of the action occurring again.
Somnambulism
Somnambulism (often also referred to as Nocturnal Somnambulism) describes a condition in which an individual repeatedly sleep-walks. In Psychology, it is classified as a dissociative disorder, which also includes amnesia, fugue, and multiple personality disorders. Somnambulism is now thought to be a relatively benign disorder, and is usually not treated. However, there is a risk that the person could be injured accidentally (walking into things, falling down stairs, etc.) during sleep walking.
SUPER-EGO "the parent"
Source of morality, formed through internalization of roles and discipline.
Cortisol
Source: Adrenal Cortex Target: Body Cells Action: weakens immune system/stress
Testosterone
Source: Adrenal Gland, Testes Target: Reproductive System Action: puberty, development of gonads, sperm
Epinephrine
Source: Adrenal Medulla Target: heart, lungs, liver, and body cells Action: primary "fight or flight" responses
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Source: Anterior Pituitary Target: Adrenal Cortex Action: regulates adrenal cortex hormones
Prolactin
Source: Anterior Pituitary Target: Breasts Action: maintains milk secretions
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Source: Anterior Pituitary Target: Thyroid Action: regulates thyroid hormones
Growth Hormone (GH)
Source: Anterior Pituitary Target: body cells, bones, muscles Action: growth and development
Lutenizing Hormone (LH)
Source: Anterior Pituitary Target: ovaries/testes Action: ovulation, sex hormone release
Glucagon
Source: Pancreas Target: Liver body Action: raises blood glucose level
Insulin
Source: Pancreas Target: body cells Action: lowers blood glucose level
Oxytocin
Source: Posterior Pituitary Target: uterus, breasts Action: uterine contractions, milk secretion
Thyroxine
Source: Thyroid Target: Body cells Action: regulates metabolism
Define the different stages of sleep: - Mention EEG pattern of each
Stage 1: Brief transitional stage of light sleep asleep, EEG: theta waves Stage 2: Light, but slightly deeper than stage 1, characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes (spike in brain wave), EEG: theta waves Stages 3: Deep sleep, breathing and heart rate slow, EEG: theta & delta waves < 50% Stage 4: Very deep sleep, metabolism and brain waves slow down, EEG: delta waves > 50% REM Sleep: Rapid Eye Movement, brain waves & metabolism speed up, EEG: alpha & sometimes beta waves (similarities to being awake but asleep called: paradoxical sleep) -Dreaming correlative during REM
What are some behavioral characteristics associated with the differing stages of sleep (e.g. which stage is it difficult to wake people up from? ETC.)
Stages 1 & 2: May report not have been sleeping Stages 3 & 4: Difficult to awaken, groggy if woken REM: Difficult to wake, but can be done with meaningful stimuli
Stimulants
Stimulants produce behavioral arousal. As with the sedatives and hypnotics, there are a variety of substances, each with a different neural mechanism of action. Examples of stimulants are amphetamine, cocaine, antidepressants, caffeine (the most widely used psychoactive drug in the world), nicotine or tobacco, appetite suppressants, and a variety of exotic plant products. Stimulants vary in strength, legal status, and the manner in which they are taken; however, all stimulants have addictive potential. Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Po-Re/Psychoactive-Drugs.html#ixzz3Nze8xe94
How does classical conditioning occur? What factors matter (e.g., timing, saliency of stimulus)?
Stimulus contiguity: timing of the pairing of the UCS & CS): 1) simultaneous presentation (of UCS & CS) - tone & meat are presented and ended at same time, 2) short-delayed presentation - tone begins shortly before meat, but both end at same time, 3) trace presentation - tone is presented & ended right before the meat is presented then ended Saliency of stimulus: stimulus which is most noticeable is more likely a good potential CS (compared with a subtle or difficult-to-notice CS)
secondary reinforcer
Stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties by being associated with a primary reinforcer
conditioned reinforcers
Stimulus that gains reinforcing power through association with primary reinfocer
A movement in psychology which believed that mental experiences should be taken apart into more basic units to be studied:
Structuralism
What movements have influenced psychology?
Structuralism & Functionalism
How do these movements differ from one another (e.g. structuralism vs. functionalism).
Structuralism is the study of the actual structure of consciousness while functionalism investigates the function/purpose of consciousness.
Schools of Psychology
Structuralism- Titchener/ Wundt Functionalism- James Psychodynamic Freud Humanistic- Rogers Cognitive- Beck Positive Psychology- Seligman
Edward Titchner
Studied structuralism. Broke consciousness down into three elements: physical sensations, feeling, and images. Also encouraged introspection
Educational Psychology
Studies how people learn and the best ways to teach them
Developmental Psychology
Studies human development over lifespan
Social Psychology
Studies interpersonal behavior and the role of social forces in governing behavior
Clinical method
Studying psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings.
marijuana
THC (tetrohydrocannabin), difficult to classify, can amplify senses
law of effect
THORNDIKE- behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and vice versa
Stage 1 (1-17 mins) -Theta waves (light sleep) -Breathing becomes more regular -Heart rate slows -Blood pressure decreases -Could be readily awakened -Hypnic jerks Stage 2 (10-25 mins) -"sleep spindles" (oscillation of brain waves = burst of activity = drifting in and out of consciousness) -Progressively more relaxed -Less responsive to environment Stage 3 and 4 (30 mins) -"slow wave sleep" -Delta waves -Deep sleep -Hard to awaken Stage 5 (REM sleep) -REM = rapid eye movement (brain waves resemble walking patterns) -High frequency beta waves -Vivid dreaming -Extreme relaxation
The Five Sleep Stages
Physiological psychology
The field of psych studying how the body affects behavior- genetics, nervous system & endocrine system.
Structuralism
The first school of thought in psychology, concerned with introspection and analysis.
How does the depth to which we encode information (i.e. structural vs. phonemic vs. semantic encoding) affect durability of memory?
The more shallow the processing, the less durable the memory is. -Structural: visual, least durable -Phonemic: sound, better durability -Semantic: meaning / understanding** best durability
How might you suggest that "encoding specificity principle" is related to "reinstating the context?"
The more specific a retrieval cue, the more likely it is that you will recall the memory -- why if you "reinstate the context", chances are that there will be a retrieval cue which is able to retrieve the memory you need.
restorative theory
The other major theory of why organisms sleep. sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body. During sleep, chemicals that were used up during the days activities are replenished cellular damage is repaired. According to the repair and restoration theory of sleep, sleeping is essential for revitalizing and restoring the physiological processes that keep the body and mind healthy and properly functioning. This theory suggests that NREM sleep is important for restoring physiological functions, while REM sleep is essential in restoring mental functions. Support for this theory is provided by research that shows periods of REM sleep increase following periods of sleep deprivation and strenuous physical activity. During sleep, the body also increases its rate of cell division and protein synthesis, further suggesting that repair and restoration occurs during sleeping periods.
Describe the gross anatomy and cellular structure of the pancreas.
The pancreas situated between he duodenum of the small intestine and the spleen and directly posterior to the stomach. It performs both exocrine and endocrine activities; thus, it is considered a heterocrine, or mixed, gland. The pancreas is mostly composed of groups of cells called pancreatic acini. Acinar cels are involved in exocrine activities and produce an alkaline pancreatic secretion (juice) that is secreted through pancreatic ducts into the small intestine. The pancreatic juice aids digestion.
Mid Brain (Limbic System)
The part of the brain that has to do with things such as flight and fight
Extinction
The reduction of a learned response. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior.
Partial reinforcement
The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions but not others
Explain the action of glucagon in raising blood glucose concentration.
The release of glucagon from alpha cells results in an increase in glucose, glycerol, and fatty acids in the blood; it has no effect on structural and functional protein components of the body.
Describe the action of insulin in lowering blood glucose concentration.
The release of insulin into the blood from beta cells results in a decrease in all nutrients in the blood (including glucose) and an increase in the storage of these molecules within body tissues.
Negative punishment
The removal of something pleasing.
What is psychology?
The scientific study of human behavior and mental processes.
Consciousness
The state or condition of being conscious. A sense of one's personal or collective identity, including the attitudes, beliefs, and sensitivities held by or considered characteristic of an individual or group.
Physiology
The study of body function
Anatomy
The study of body structure
Positive psychology
The study of human strengths, virtues, and effective functioning such as love, happiness, creativity, well-being, self-confidence, and achievement.
Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus
Describe the thyroid gland location and anatomy.
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland anterior to the trachea and inferior to the larynx.
Discuss how thyroid hormones are produced, stored, and secreted.
The thyroid gland is composed of spherical thyroid follicles. The wall of each folic is formed by cuboidal epithelial cells, called follicular cells, which surround a central lumen. That lumen houses a viscous, protein-rich fluid termed colloid. Iodine is attached to tyrosine amino acids of thyroglobulin within the colloid of thyroid follicles. Then pre-T3 and pre-T4 structures are formed. Thryoglobulin with pre-T3 and pre-T4 is lated transported into the follicular cels. Within lysosomes of follicular cells, thyroid hormone (T3, T4) is cleaved from thyroglobulin and released into the blood by endocytosis.
Describe the two primary factors that affect the concentration level of a circulating hormone.
The two primary factors that influence hormone concentration are hormone synthesis by endocrine glands and hormone elimination by the liver, kidneys, and target cells.
Repression
The unconscious process by which (threatening) memories, thoughts, or impulses are held out of awareness.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is caused by the independent variable
Dreams As Wish of Fulfillment (Freud): -Manifest content (consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level) -Latent content (hidden or disguised meaning of the event in the plot) Problem-Solving View (Cartwright): -Creative problem-solving because dreams are not restrained by logic or realism Activation-Synthesis Model (Hobson and McCarley): -Dreams are simply the by-product of bursts of activity emanating from sub-cortical areas of the brain (mean nothing) -Random neural firing (memory activation, perceptual experience) occurs during sleep states; dreams are merely your brain's attempt at creating a story to explain the random firing
Theories of Dreaming
What have researchers discovered about hypnosis? Myths about hypnosis?
Theories: role playing, altered state of consciousness (Hilgard's disassociative theory = splitting of consciousness, ex: highway hypnosis) Features: anesthesia, sensory distortions/hallucinations, disinhibition, posthypnotic suggestions & amnesia Myths: it's voluntary & not everyone can be hypnotized (you can't be hypnotized against your will); it does not have a good track record for effectiveness as a TX for obesity, smoking, etc.
Common Cold Treatment involves
There is no cure for a cold. Treatment involves rest and medications to relieve symptoms.
cilia
They are nerve cells covered with tiny hairs. These cells receive stimuli from gases in the air. Then the impulses are carried by the olfactory nerve to the brain, where they are translated into smell.
What does it mean to "summate" EPSPs & IPSPs and what happens when neurons do this?
They can add up to create a full action potential and the sending of the signals
Three semicircular canals are also part of the inner ear
They contain fluid and delicate, hair-like cells that bend when the liquid moves with head and body movements. These impulses are sent to the cerebellum to help maintain balance.
What is the purpose of the wax secreted by glands in the auditory canal?
To protect the ear
What is the main function of glial cells?
To support neurons so they can transmit information around the nervous system
gradual decrease in responsiveness
Tolerance
What is the relationship between tolerance and withdrawal?
Tolerance = take more of a drug in order to achieve the original level of drug effect; occurs because: body developments compensatory mechanisms to counteract/compensate for the drug's effects. Withdrawal = suddenly stops taking the drug or significantly decreases the amount one usually takes; results in opposite effects of the drug.
Mental Maps or Expectancy
Tolman's notion of subjects making decisions by matching expectations with information from new situations.
Circadian Rhythms
a biological rhythm with a period of about 24 hours -24 hour cycle -In most societies, external time cues exist, and people's bodies become synchronized to them, following a strict 24 hour cycle -these rhythms are remarkably similar from one person to the next -body temperature and some hormone levels follow a cycle that is very close to 24 hours -you don't need sunlight- you have your own 24 hour system -circadian rhythms are not perfectly regular and can be affected by illness, stress, fatigue, excitement, exercise, drugs, mealtimes, and ordinary daily experiences -circadian rhythms differ greatly from individual to individual because of genetic differences- ex: some people are early birds, bouncing out of bed at the crack of dawn, whereas other are night owls who do their best work late at night and can't be pried out of bed until noon Examples: -Temperature -Sleep -Alertness
Unconditional Positive Regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed to be conducive to developing self-awareness and self-acceptance.
agonist
a chemical that mimics the action of a nuerotransmitter
antagonist
a chemical that opposes the the action of a neurotransmitter
cornea
a clear, circular part at the front of the sclera that allows light rays to enter.
lens
a clear, circular structure located behind the pupil. It refracts, or bends, the light rays so they focus on the retina.
aqueous humor
a clear, watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea and the iris.
Cochlea
a coiled bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
Artificial Intelligence "AI"
a computer based model of intellectual processes. Implicit assumption is that psychology can be reduced to mathematic equations/algorithms. Is currently limited, but constantly evolving.
Nearsightedness
a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus right in front of the retina.
Tolerance
a condition of cellular adaptation to a pharmacologically active substance so that increasingly larger doses are required to produce the same physiologic or psychologic effect obtained earlier with smaller doses. Also called metabolic tolerance . See also tachyphylaxis.
narcotics (opiates)
a depressant, drugs deprived from opium that are capable of relieving pain, highly addictive, withdrawal symptoms are bad; exp: heroin, morphine
alcohol
a depressant, slows down sympathetic nervous system, disrupts memory processing, reduces self-awareness
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve and rough electrodes threaded into the cochlea
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
sleep apnea
a disorder in which breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing the person to choke or gasp
cochlea
a fluid filled coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing
shaping
a form of operant conditioning in which a desired response is taught by reinforcement of successive responses that more closely resemble the target response
extinction
a general term for the reduction and elimination of a behavior (In classical conditioning- extinction occurs when repeated presentation of the CS alone leads to a reduction in the strength of the CR) (in operant conditioning- extinction occurs when a behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer)
synapse
a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another - where neurons meet
What is the relationship between tolerance and withdrawal?
A person experiences tolerance because the body is adapting. It prefers to be at a homeostatic state so when a drug changes things, e.g. increase CNS arousal, eventually—over repeated exposure, the body will develop mechanisms which will compensate/counter-act the drugs' effects as an attempt to bring the body back to homeostasis. It is these compensatory processes which are causing the tolerance. Withdrawal effects are essentially the compensatory mechanisms mentioned above. If you suddenly didn't drink (or significantly decreased the amount you drink), then your body's compensatory mechanisms would be evident. That is, you would see evidence that your body has increased its level of arousal (since you no longer have enough alcohol to balance this increased level of arousal)—this is why, for example, you may see someone being jittery when withdrawing from alcohol. This is also the reason that it makes sense that withdrawal effects are usually effects which are opposite to that of the drug's.
Psychologist
A person highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology.
synaptic cleft
a microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron
natural selection
a natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment
Counseling psychologist
A psychologist who specializes in the treatment of milder emotional and behavioral disturbances.
Clinical psychologist
A psychologist who specializes in the treatment of psychological and behavioral disturbances or who does research on such disturbances.
What makes a quasi-experiment a "non-experiment?"
A quasi-experimental design is an empirical study, almost like an experimental design but without random assignment. Quasi-experimental designs typically allow the researcher to control the assignment to the treatment condition but using some criterion other than random assignment (e.g., an eligibility cutoff mark).
Conditioned reinforcer
A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued. Also known as a secondary reinforcer
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior due to experience
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.
Variable ratio (VR) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors
Fixed interval (FI) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a specified interval will be reinforced
Variable interval (VI) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a varying period of time is reinforced
Gestalt psychology
A school of psychology emphasizing the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts.
Hypothesis
A scientific explanation for a set of observations that can be tested in ways that support or reject it.
Theory
A set of assumptions used to explain phenomena for scientific study - A reason for why something happens without actually understanding how it happens
Classical Conditioning
A simple form of associative learning that enables organisms to anticipate events which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by another stimulus by being paired repeatedly with another stimulus. The ways we learn to associate events with other events; learn what is linked to what
Habituation
A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease
Representative Sample
A statistical population that accurately reflects the members of the entire population, should be an unbiased indication of what the population is like.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
What is the difference between an experiment and a research study which is NOT an experiment?
A study is collecting and gathering data that is already there and an experiment is when a scientific experiment is actually practiced
Hypothesis
A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
Stimulus generalization
A term that refers to showing a conditioned response to a stimulus that differs from, but is similar to, the conditioned stimulus. In other words, the conditioned response is transferred to a new stimulus when this phenomenon occurs.
humanism
A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth
What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?
A theory is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain the observations, while a hypothesis is a tentative statement.
contingency management therapy
A therapeutic approach used in the treatment of drug addiction that works to reduce the use of drugs through a highly structured reinforcement and punishment program
Third Variable
A type of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others.
Systematic desensitization
A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear
Types of Research
Abnormal/Clinical, Cognitive, Developmental, Personality, Physiological/Behavior/Experimental, Social and Quantitative
continued drug use despite negative consequences
Abuse
Manifest content
According to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, the manifest content of a dream includes the actual images, thoughts and content contained within the dream. The manifest content is the elements of the dream that we remember upon awakening.
Glia Cells
Acts as the glue - Oligonderocytes & Schwann Cells, Astrocytes, Microglia and Radial Glia
Classical Conditioning and Addiction
Addiction treatment centres focus on management of craving. Craving is triggered by cues, both external (people, places, things) and internal (emotions, thoughts, physical sensations).
What: a variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol How: ethanol enhances GABA (calming) activity and releases dopamine and serotonin Downside: -impairments in mental/motor functioning -diminished memory -mood swings -liver disease -suppresses REM sleep (not rested) Withdrawal: headaches, vomiting, poor sleep, mood swings, can be life threatening
Alcohol
What Happens to Your Body When You Get Alcohol Poisoning
Alcohol depresses nerves that control involuntary actions such as breathing and the gag reflex (which prevents choking). A fatal dose of alcohol will eventually stop these functions. You should also know that a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) can continue to rise even while he or she is passed out.
Which drug is the most dangerous to withdraw from after heavy usage?
Alcohol, can be fatal
What is the most physically harmful drug?
Alcohol: damages liver and brain, etc.
Opiates
All drugs in the opiate class act on opiate receptors in the brain. They mediate relief from pain and produce feelings of euphoria. Opiates, which are referred to as narcotics by scientists and medical practitioners, are highly addictive and can either be natural, semisynthetic, or synthetic. Natural opiates such as opium are derived from the opium poppy. The active ingredients of opium are morphine and codeine. The most common semisynthetic opiate is heroin, which is five to ten times more potent than morphine. Examples of synthetic opiates include methadone and the prescription pain medication Demerol. Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Po-Re/Psychoactive-Drugs.html#ixzz3NzeTqgFI
What are the differences between an action potential vs. EPSPs/IPSPs?
All or none law, epsps reach the threshold
Research Step 4
Analyze data; Draw conclusions
Problems with Behaviourism
Animals kept behaving in ways that could not be explained, behaviour easily learned by some was impossible for others, and there were limits to what could be taught.
Stimulus
Any physical energy sensed by an organism.
Psychodynamic theory
Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces. (Freud)
Variable
Anything that can change
Thorndike's Law of Exercise
Association strength depends on repetition of pairing.
As Lamar was walking out the door of his apartment, he quickly ran through a mental list of all the things he was supposed to take with him. He went through the complete list of items four or five times, just to make sure he hadn't forgotten anything. Based on Baddeley's model of working memory, Lamar was utilizing A. the visuospatial sketchpad to arrange all the information he needed. B. the phonological loop to temporarily hold his list of essential items. C. the central executive system to juggle all the information he needed to consider. D. his prospective memory to remember the actions he still needed to perform.
B
David asked his moms Carol and Sheri to get him apples at the grocery store. As not to forget to get apples for their son David, Carol focused her attention on how apples are her favorite fruit, while Sheri imagined a bag of big red apples in the shopping cart. Carol was using ___ and Sheri ___. A. elaboration; semantic encoding B. elaboration; visual imagery C. phonemic encoding; structural encoding D. phonemic encoding; visual imagery
B
If you were starving and started to see the people around you as food (that is, you literally saw someone's head as a leg of lamb, e.g.), this would support the idea that visual information is processed _______. A. opponent-processes. B. top-down processing. C. figure-ground processing. D. bottom-up processing.
B
Imani has been taking sleeping pills to try and get more quality sleep. However, around the 3rd day, she noticed that she was still not feeling refreshed after sleep. Which of the following is true? A. Imani needs to take a higher dosage of the sleeping medication. B. Imani should slowly wean herself off the sleep medication because sleeping medication decreases time spent in REM and slow-wave sleep, and thus, leads to increased fatigue. C. Imani should seek sleep treatment as it is clear that Imani has severe insomnia. D. Imani needs to take her sleeping medication with some alcohol, despite that mixing the two greatly increases her chances of dying.
B
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally evokes an unlearned response is the... A. conditioned stimulus B. unconditioned stimulus C. unconditioned reinforcer D. conditioned reinforcer
B
In explaining color vision, contemporary researchers claim that at the level of the cones, color vision occurs via a(n) ____ process, but in the thalamus and visual cortex, the process is a(n) ____ one. A. opponent-process; trichromatic B. trichromatic; opponent-process C. trichromatic; additive D. opponent; subtractive
B
In order to weaken or eliminate a conditioned response, you would present... A. the UCS before the CS several times B. the CS alone several times C. the UCS alone several times D. extra pairings of the CS and UCS
B
Isabella is an active sleep-walker. When is she likely to sleep-walk? A. During REM sleep. B. During the first three hours of sleep when slow-wave sleep is predominant. C. During Stages 1 &2 of sleep. D. none of the listed answers
B
James and Christopher are planning their destination honeymoon. When crossing time zones, which direction of traveling gives people the worst jet lag (i.e., the kind which is most difficult to adjust to)? A. traveling from east to west B. traveling from west to east C. traveling from north to south D. traveling from south to north
B
The phenomenon of spontaneous recovery suggests that... A. classical conditioning can only be used to condition biologically meaningful responses B. even if a person is able to extinguish a conditioned response, there is an excellent chance that it will reappear later C. once a conditioned response has been extinguished, a person will also stop responding to other stimuli that are similar D. when a conditioned response is extinguished, higher-order respones replace the original response
B
The physical stimuli for the sense of taste A. are chemical substances that are insoluble in water. B. are chemical substances that are soluble in water. C. are the vibrations of molecules. D. are tactile stimulation.
B
The profound anterograde amnesia that H.M. experienced after undergoing surgery to control his epilepsy suggests that A. the prefrontal lobes are the storage area for most long-term memories. B. the hippocampal complex plays a key role in the consolidation of longterm memories. C. the cortex houses exact recording of past experiences and events. D. long-term memories are processed and stored in the cerebellum.
B
When information in long-term memory (LTM) is organized according to a clustering principle, it means that A. items that occurred close together in time are grouped together in LTM. B. related items tend to be remembered in groups or categories. C. words that look alike are grouped together in LTM. D. people create a network of nodes in LTM, with links to related concepts.
B
When we sleep late into the day and wake up much later than is usual (e.g., 2 PM), which of the following is true? A. We feel very alert because we are waking up during a time when Beta waves are predominant. B. We feel sluggish and "out of sync" because our sleep rhythm is out of synchrony with other circadian rhythms. C. We feel very alert because we have allowed our body to sleep as much as it needed. D. We feel sluggish and "out of sync" because we are waking up during a time when Delta waves are predominant.
B
Which of the following is true of meditation? A. Research has shown that meditation is a waste of time. B. Research has shown that meditation is correlated with having lower stress hormones. C. Research has shown that meditation is associated with increased Beta waves. D. both "research has shown that meditation is correlated with having lower stress hormones" and "research has shown that meditation is associated with increased Beta waves
B
Which of the following statements concerning schemas is NOT correct? A. Schemas sometimes cause individuals to remember information inaccurately. B. Schemas always result in increasing the accuracy of individual's memory. C. People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas. D. Schemas sometimes make individuals more likely to remember unusual evens.
B
How did psychology emerge as a field of knowledge?
Began as part of philosophy. Wilhelm Wundt set up the first separate laboratory in 1879.
What is classified as binge drinking?
Binge drinking is defined as having more than 5 drinks (men) or 4 drinks (women) over a two hour period. This is usually enough to raise BAC to 0.08 g/dL. Approximately 90% of the alcohol consumed by individuals under age 21 is in the form of binge drinking. Students who live in fraternity and sorority houses, males, and Caucasians are more likely to binge drink.
Research suggests that compared with super-tasters, non-tasters tend to have A. a stronger sense of smell. B. a stronger sense of sight. C. fewer taste buds. D. too many taste buds to count.
C
Sofía's wife cannot sleep through the night. She claims that her wife seems to stop breathing in her sleep and then suddenly jerks awake, gasping for breath. This not only disturbs Sofía's sleep, it also awakens her. It is likely that Sofía's wife A. has narcolepsy. B. is experiencing night terrors. C. has sleep apnea. D. has developed pseudoinsomnia
C
The difference between punishment and negative reinforcement is that... A. punishment strengthens undesirable behaviors, and negative reinforcement weakens undesirable behaviors B. punishment weakens undesirable behaviors, while negative reinforcement weakens desirable behaviors C. punishment weakens behavior, while negative reinforcement strengthens behavior D. there is no difference between punishment and negative reinforcement in their effects on behavior
C
Which level of processing should result in the longest lasting memory codes? A. structural encoding B. mnemonic encoding C. semantic encoding D. phonemic encoding
C
Which of the following is NOT an aspect of vision associated with cones? A. high visual acuity B. daytime vision C. peripheral vision D. color vision
C
Yoram witnessed an automobile accident and heard one of the bystanders casually mention that the driver was probably intoxicated. Even though the driver had not been drinking and never crossed the center line, when Yoram is interviewed by police a week later, he said that the car had been "weaving all over the road." The reason Yoram's memory was faulty was due to... A. reconstruction effect. B. amnesia. C. source-monitoring error. D. serial position effect.
C
Yoram witnessed an automobile accident and heard one of the bystanders casually mention that the driver was probably intoxicated. Even though the driver had not been drinking and never crossed the center line, when Yoram is interviewed by police a week later, he said that the car had been "weaving all over the road." Yoram's faulty recall illustrates A. proactive interference. B. implicit memory readjustment. C. the misinformation effect. D. mood-dependent memory.
C
Jet lag effects
Changes in blood pressure and heart rate, lethargy, fatigue, insomnia, headache, indigestion, drowsiness, disorientation, mood swings, irritability, poor decision making, prolonged reaction time, decreased concentration, alertness, dynamic strength, short term memory
Operant conditioning involves
Changing voluntary behaviors. A behavior response is followed by either reinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement following a behavior will cause the behavior to increase, but if the behavior is followed by punishment the behavior will decrease.
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that cross the synaptic gap from the pre-synaptic neuron and attach to the receptors sites on the post-synaptic neuron.
Neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Reticular Formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
All-or-none Response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
Adrenal Glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress
gestalt
a perceptual whole; derived from German word meaning "form" or "whole"
acquisition
Classical - initial stage - one links neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus so that neutral stimulus starts triggering conditioned response Operant - strengthening of a reinforced response
discrimination
Classical - learned ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response
Classical - learned response to previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus
Classical - originally irrelevant stimulus - that now triggers conditioned response, due to association
unconditioned stimulus
Classical - stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers response
unconditioned response
Classical - unlearned - naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus Salivation with food in mouth
What are the differences & similarities between classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning?
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): CS (tone) + US (food) = UR (drool) until CS = CS (still drool, but without food) Operant Conditioning (Skinner): behavior is followed by some sort of consequence; reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior Observational Learning: vicariously learning by watching someone else doing operant / classical conditioning
Identify the major similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning
Classical and operant conditioning are similar in being forms of associate learning. Bother also involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. And bother are influences-and sometimes constrained- by cognitive processes and biological predispositions. These two forms of learning differ in an important way. In classical conditioning, an organism associates different stimuli that it does not control and responds automatically. In operant conditioning, an organism associates its own behaviors with their consequences.
Hypnosis
a procedure in which a practitioner suggests changes in the sensation, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behavior of the subject -have to be suggestible -won't be forced against their will -won't increase accuracy -won't be able to do something you normally can't do
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (a.k.a. second-order conditioning)
schedules of reinforcement
a program that determines when a response will be followed by a reinforcer; influences how a response is learned and maintained
top-down processing
a progression from the whole to the elements
Dependence
a psychologic craving for, habituation to, abuse of, or physiologic reliance on a chemical substance. See also drug abuse, drug addiction.
Define classical conditioning and behaviorism, and describe the basic components of classical conditiong
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. In classical condition, a UR is an event that occurs naturally, in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically triggers the unlearned response. A CS in classical conditioning is an originally neutral stimulus that, through learning, comes to be associated with some unlearned response. A CR is the learned response to the originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov
Classical conditioning researcher UR/US/CR/CS tone/dog/saliva/food
Describe some used of classical conditioning to improve human health and well-being
Classical conditioning techniques are used in treatment programs for those recovering from alcohol and other drug abuse and to condition more appropriate responses in therapy for emotional disorders. The body's immune system also appears to respond to classical conditioning
What type of learning is "taste aversion"? How does it differ from the typical type of this learning?
Classical conditioning: neutral stimulus/CS (food) has been paired with an US (sickness), which causes an UR (nausea) which makes you feel nauseous in the future when you see it (CR); different because it only requires one trial while classical conditioning usually requires multiple
What association is being made in classical conditioning vs. operant conditioning?
Classical: a neutral stimulus / unconditioned stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., food) Operant: behavior and consequence
temporal lobe
a region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language
biological rythms
a regular fluctuation in a biological system -a biological clock in our brain governs the waxing and waning of hormone levels, urine volume, blood pressure, and even responsiveness of brain cells to stimulation -these rhythms are endogenous
What evidence do we have that there are biological limitations and / or predispositions to learning?
Classical: conditioned taste aversion - makes you feel ill after only one bad experience, extended delay between CS & US, evolutionary adaptation Operant: instinctive drift - learn things against biological instincts (ex: raccoons would pick up 1 coin, but after the researchers tried to train raccoons for 2 coins they just instinctually rubbed them together as they would with food)
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior or the potential to make a response that occurs as a result of experience.
Negative (-) Reinforcement
a removal of a negative condition (losing weight by dieting is a negative reinforcement)
limited hold for VI or FI schedules
a restriction on how long reinforcer is available
Positive (+) Reinforcement
a reward
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the color portions of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
CT "Computed Tomography"
Computed tomography (CT) scanning builds up a picture of the brain based on the differential absorption of X-rays. Images made using x-rays depend on the absorption of the beam by the tissue it passes through. Bone and hard tissue absorb x-rays well, air and water absorb very little and soft tissue is somewhere in between. Thus, CT scans reveal the gross features of the brain but do not resolve its structure well.
The cells that sense color and are mainly used for vision in bright light are _______.
Cones
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder in which a sleeping person repeatedly stops breathing until blood oxygen is so low it awakens the person just long enough to draw a breath
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder involving sudden and unpredictable day time attacks of sleeping or actual sleep
reinforcement
a stimulus or an events that follow a response and increases the frequency
fMRI
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
transcranial magnetic stimulation
a technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness, depends on frequency
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
What are "schedules of reinforcement" and how do they influence behavior?
Continuous reinforcement: reinforcement after every single target behavior Intermittent reinforcement: -Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement given based on a fixed number of responses (e.g., every third responses); lower resistance to extinction (factory work) -Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement given based on an average number of responses (e.g., reinforcement is given, on average every 4 responses); higher resistance to extinction (slot machines) -Fixed-interval schedule: reinforcement given based on the first response given after a fixed amount of time has passed (e.g., reinforcement is given if a rat pulls a lever after 4 seconds have passed); lower resistance to extinction -Variable-interval schedule: reinforcement given based on the first response given after an average amount of time has passed (e.g., reinforcement is given if a rat pulls a level, on average, after 3 seconds have passed); higher resistance to extinction
According to Bandura, which factor is involved with observational learning? A. the amount of attention you paid to the model's behavior originally B. your expectation of being reinforced for the response C. the degree to which you can remember the model's behavior D. all of the listed answers
D
Ana is 55 years old. When she was 7 years old, she saw her grandfather fall down the stairs after he had a stroke. At the time, she visited him in the hospital every day for the 6 months it took him to recover. Today, Ana has no memory of her grandfather, his stroke, or her visits to him in the hospital. According to Freud, Ana may be A. showing signs of proactive interference. B. experiencing retrograde amnesia. C. suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome. D. using repression to push the memories out of her conscious awareness.
D
Animal studies show that manipulations that suppress neurogenesis lead to A. enhanced learning on many types of tasks. B. organic anterograde amnesia. C. nonorganic retrograde amnesia. D. memory impairments on many types of learning tasks.
D
Food generally tastes bland when you have a severe head cold because... A. your cold will cause the sweet receptors in your mouth to become inactivated. B. your high temperature will cause your brain to block signals from the taste buds in the mouth. C. because your naturally produced antibodies interfere with chemical molecules stimulated by your taste buds. D. flavor is influenced by smell as well as taste, and with a reduced sense of smell your sense of flavor will be diminished.
D
Given the same overall frequency of reinforcement on a fixed and a variable schedule of reinforcement, you should predict that the variable reinforcement schedule will tend to produce A. more breaks in responding and lower resistance to extinction. B. steadier response rates but lower resistance to extinction. C. more breaks in responding but greater resistance to extinction. D. steadier response rates and greater resistance to extinction.
D
In dim light, the pupil of the eye is... A. dilated, producing a sharper image. B. constricted, producing a sharper image. C. constricted, producing an image that is not as sharp. D. dilated, producing an image that is not as sharp.
D
Juwan was describing the inside of his doctor's office to one of his friends. In his description, he mentioned that there were two diplomas on the wall, even though this doctor does not have any diplomas displayed. Juwan's error in recall illustrates A. the role of semantic networks in long-term memory. B. the need for conceptual hierarchies in long-term memory. C. the need for a good executive control system in short-term memory. D. the role of schemas in long-term memory.
D
Our past experiences and current expectations often influence the way we perceive sensory information because they create A. bottom-up processing. B. a phi phenomenon. C. feature detectors. D. a perceptual set.
D
Rafram is deprived of REM sleep. What is most likely to happen to Rafram? A. His attention will be impaired. B. His daytime energy levels will increase. C. His decision-making will be impaired. D. He will enter REM more and more frequently.
D
The structure that controls the size of the pupil is the A. lens. B. cornea. C. retina. D. iris.
D
What do we know about circadian rhythms? A. They are controlled by several biological clocks. B. The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a biological clock. C. Acetylcholine can reset the biological clock. D. both "they are controlled by several biological clocks" and "the suprachiasmatic nucleus is a biological clock"
D
Which drug are you most likely to build up tolerance quickly to and become physically dependent on? A. narcotics B. hallucinogens C. sedatives D. both "narcotics" and "sedatives"
D
Which drug, overall, has the most negative effects on physical health? A. marijuana B. sedatives C. narcotics D. alcohol
D
Which neurotransmitter seems to be involved with drug addiction? A. serotonin B. acetylcholine C. norepinephrine D. dopamine
D
Which of the following has been suggested (by a researcher) as a possible function of dreams? A. they serve to gratify wishes B. it is a by-product of subcortical brain activity C. they allow us to engage in creative ways to solve problems D. all of the listed answers
D
Which of the following is a myth of hypnosis? A. It's mostly compliance. B. Hypnotized people do not remember what happened during the session. C. It's a matter of willful faking. D. All of the listed answers.
D
Which of the following is a symptom of insomnia? A. difficulty falling asleep B. difficulty remaining asleep C. persistent early-morning awakenings D. all of the listed answers
D
Which of the following is true of hypnosis? A. Hypnosis can enable people to "relive" the past. B. When people are hypnotized, their EEGs resemble the state of sleep. C. Hypnotized people do not remember what happened during the session. D. People vary in how hypnotizable they are
D
Which sensory system is the only one which does not involve the thalamus before projecting to the primary cortex? A. visual system B. auditory system C. gustatory system D. olfactory system
D
Which theory suggests that memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes? A. encoding-storage theory B. information-processing theory C. enhanced imagery theory D. dual-coding theory
D
Which two types of memories are both considered to be divisions of declarative memory? A. prospective and episodic B. prospective and procedural C. semantic and procedural D. semantic and episodic
D
Stage 4
Delta waves have now largely taken over, and you are in deep sleep. It will probably take vigorous shaking or a loud noise to awaken you. Oddly, though, if you talk or walk in your sleep, this is when you are likely to do so. The causes of sleepwalking, which occurs more often in children than adults, are still unknown, but they may involve unusual patterns of delta wave activity
continued use maintained by the avoidance of withdrawal symptoms; usually accompanied by increases in negative physical, psychological, occupational, and interpersonal consequences -physical (biological adaptation of body cells and processes due to excessive drug use. Discontinued use followed by physiological withdrawal) -psychological (psychological adaptation to continued drug use that renders user vulnerable to continued use to avoid negative mental/emotional consequences
Dependence
What: -slow activity in the CNS -sedatives (tranquilize/calm), hypnotics (sleep, ambien), benzodiazepines/barbtuates (combo of the two, valium/atvian), inhalants, GHB (used recreationally) How: increases the production and reuptake of GABA (calming) Downside: effects are very similar to those of alcohol Withdrawal: similar to alcohol and can be life threatening
Depressants
What is the difference between descriptive vs. inferential statistics?
Descriptive statistics uses the data to provide descriptions of the population, either through numerical calculations or graphs or tables. Inferential statistics makes inferences and predictions about a population based on a sample of data taken from the population in question.
Research Step 2
Design the experiment
intrinsic motivation
Desire to perform behavior for its own sake - no reward
extrinsic motivation
Desire to perform behavior to receive reward or avoid punishment
extinction
Diminishing of a conditioned response Occurs in: Classical - when an unconditioned stimulus doesn't follow a conditioned stimulus Operant - response no longer gets reinforced
What does the dual-coding theory (Paivio) suggest about enriching encoding?
Dual-coding theory: Holds that memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall; by using two or more coding methods, you are more likely to remember something than if you used only one coding method.
Spontaneous recovery
During extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest
-anesthesia -sensory distortions -disinhibition -posthypnotic suggestions and amnesia (hypnotic influences that continue to work after hypnotic state has been lifted)
Effects produced through hypnosis
What is the EEG and how is it used to differentiate between different stages of sleep?
Electroencephalogram = device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp -- different stages of sleep have different electrical activity
monitors electrical activity of the brain over time; basically a physiological index of consciousness
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
EEG "ElectroEncephaloGraphy"
Electroencephalography (EEG) measurement of the electrical activity of the brain by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp. The resulting traces are known as an electroencephalogram (EEG) and represent an electrical signal from a large number of neurons. EEGs are frequently used in experimentation because the process is non-invasive to the research subject. The EEG is capable of detecting changes in electrical activity in the brain on a millisecond-level. It is one of the few techniques available that has such high temporal resolution.
EMG
Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic procedure to assess the health of muscles and the nerve cells that control them (motor neurons).
positive emotion (PP)
about past, present, & future pleasure hedonic *pleasant life
Manifest Content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
Latent Content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
Depolarization
action potential (ions leave and repolarize at -50 milivolts *** Inside of cell is more negatively charged***
thalamus
all sensory information (except for smell) goes through
population
all the cases in a group being studied
Functional MRI
allows for study of the brain in action, assessing
What have researchers discovered about meditation?
alpha and theta waves become more prominent in EEG recordings; subjects' heart rate, skin conductance, respiration rate, oxygen consumption, and CO2 elimination decline - these changes together suggest that meditation leads to a potentially beneficial physiological state characterized by suppression of bodily arousal Research has shown that meditation is correlated with having lower stress hormones.
John Watson
an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism; conducted an experiment with a little boy named Little Albert which dealt with classical conditioning
Broca's Area
an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech; controls language expression
Robert Rescorla
an early behaviorist that believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanics
gestalt
an organized whole. gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes
nightmares
anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening from REM sleep, caused by stress; more common in children, counseling only for children
learning
any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience
Variable
anything that can be measured or observed and is subject to change
stage 3/stage 4 sleep
appearance of large, slow delta waves
stage 2 sleep
appearance of spindle-shaped waves called sleep spindles
Sociobiology / Evolutionary Psychology
applies evolutionary theories to social behaviour, assumes at least some is genetically tied and led to evolutionary adaptiveness.
General Senses
are involved in feeling touch, temperature, pressure, and pain. General sense receptors are located throughout the body in the skin and connective tissue. Each receptor perceives only one type of feeling.
Sensory Cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Motor Cortex
area at the rear of the frontal lobe; controls voluntary movements
Thalamus
area at the top of the brainstem, directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
basilar membrane
area within the cochlea where hair cells are located
Association Areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are primarily involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Area of Psychology- clinical
assessment, education, intelligence testing, treatment, active listening, what ifs
cerebrum
associated with movement and sensory input.
Olfactory receptors
at the top of the nasal cavity make the sense of smell possible.
Sigmund Freud
austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis
demyelination: multiple sclerosis
autoimune disease in which body destroys its own myelin -messages moving along the nerve are transmitted more slowly or not at all symptoms -blindness -paralysis -numbness -vertigo -memory loss
behavioral
behaviorists = make it science shape who you are based on rewards/punishment
ethnocentrism
belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group
Descriptive Stats
central tendency (mean, median, mode), dispersion of scores (standard deviation), correlation
Differential Response Rate
con of survey *****
Central Nervous System Injuries
concussions and spinal cord injuries
Split Brain
condition in which the brain's two hemispheres are isolated by cutting the fibers connecting them
Confounding Variable
confuses the results because there is more than one thing that might have affected the outcome - inconclusive study
Interneurons
connects Afferent / Efferent, allows for complex tasks (learning)
eustachian tube
connects the middle ear to the pharynx, or throat. This tube allows air to enter the middle ear and helps equalize pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
corpus callosum
connects the two hemispheres
Sleep apnea
consists of loud snoring and stopped breathing
brain stem
consists of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. serves as a pathway between the spinal cord and brain; regulates respiration, blood pressure, and heart rate.
slow-wave sleep (SWS)
consists of stages 3 & 4; delta waves appear
preconscious
contains information that can be retrieved; right below the surface
choroid coat
contains many blood vessels that nourish the eyes. The ciliary muscles in this layer help to focus the eyes.
retina
contains many layers of nerve cells that transmit the impulses from the light rays to the optic nerve. Two special cells in this layer are cones and rods.
The holistic approach of Gestalt
contrasted sharply to associationist approach of behaviourism and Wundt's structuralism. Rejects perception based solely on sensory stimulation, that the mind creates gestalts to recognize things across different environments.
hypothalamus
controls many involuntary body functions such as; water balance and body temperature. controls emotional responses as well as motivation for eating, drinking and sexual desires
medulla oblongata
controls many vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.
nature-nurture issue
controvery over relative contributions that genes and experience make to development of psychological traits, behaviors
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.
transduction
conversion of one form of energy to another. in vision, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
cerebral cortex
convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and liner perspective, available to either eye alone
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
Descriptive Statistics
describe characteristics of a sample most common: central tendency mean, median, mode, standard deviation find meaningful patterns & summaries in large amounts of data
Subliminal Sensation
detection of stimuli below absolute threshold
When does myelination begin?
during fetal development
Divided Conscious Theory (Altered State of Consciousness)
during hypnosis our consciousness splits so that one aspect of consciousness isn't aware of the role the other parts are playing; Ernest Hilgard
Activation Synthesis Theory
during the night our brainstem releases random neural activity, dreams are a way to make sense of the activity; Hobson & McCarley
Ernst Weber
early psychologist who established that the proportion of difference (rather than absolute difference) between two stimuli that is required for distinguishing between them is constant for particular types of sensation (e.g. weight, brightness, etc).
fun theory
easiest way to change behavior is to make it fun (goal) ex: urinals
Hobbes
english materialistic thinkers; wrote Leviathan; "law of nature"
Quasi-experiments
experimental situations where experimenter does not directly manipulate variables. Some or all the variables selected or not under direct control. Particpants not randomly assigned to conditions
correlation
extent to which two factors vary together and how well one predicts the other
Stage 3
extremely slow brain waves called delta waves are interspersed with smaller, faster waves. I
midbrain
eye movement and auditory reflexes.
Types of Brain Imaging Techniques
fMRI, CT, PET, EEG, MEG, NIRS
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Inattentional blindness
failure to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as hearing something in the absence of an external auditory stimulus
ordinary wakefulness
fast, low-amplitude beta waves
scientific / emperical
finds answers to human behavior. not a theory, because it's proven from observation. If knowledge is empirical, it's based on observation rather than theory. To do an empirical study of donut shops, you'll need to visit every one you can find.
Cerebellum
fine motor control, coordination, balance, etc. Ie: when you drink too much alcohol you aren't able to walk properly because the cerebellum isn't able to function properly. Cerebellar Hypoplasia: this is a condition where the cerebellum isn't fully developed at birth, and this results in difficulty moving, and potentially less-developed motor and verbal skills
G. Stanley Hall
first american to work for Wundt; • Founded the American Psychological Association (now largest organization of psychologists in the USA) and became first president. and created first lab in USA
Mary Whiton Calkins
first female president of APA
fixed interval characteristics
fixed interval scallop on cumulative record; organism waits to respond until the end of fixed interval; postreinforcement pauses
semicircular canals
fluid filled tubes in inner ear that provide information about movement of the head
Behaviourism "learning theory"
focus on processes underlying behavioural change (esp. Classical (or Associative/Pavlovian) Conditioning and Operant Conditioning)
structuralism
focused on the structure or basic elements of the mind
John B. Watson
founded behaviorism. Studied nature vs. nurture and said environment determines your behavior
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
Attachment Theory
from attachment, the biological drive of children to form enduring relationships with their caregivers, usually the mother. First empirical evidence of psychoanalytic theory, specifically the impact of childhood conflicts on adulthood.
What is jet lag?
getting out of sync with your circadian rhythms when you fly across several timezones and your body keeps time as usual even though official clock time changes, you then go to sleep at the "wrong" time.
Hearing loss or deafness
has two classifications, conductive or sensory: Conductive hearing loss- occurs when sound waves are not carried to the inner ear. It is caused by a ruptured tympanic membrane or blockage in the ear, such as from wax, a foreign body, or an infection. Treatment involves removing the cause. Sensory hearing loss- occurs when the inner ear or auditory nerve is damaged. Usually this type of hearing loss cannot be corrected.
Sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptors cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.
Conduction Hearing Loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
Area of Psychology- social
helping behavior, compliance, stereotypes, attraction, schemas, aggression
cannabis
hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, & THC are derived
ratio run or run rate
high and steady rate or responding to complete ratio requirement
opponent process theory
holds that color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs of colors
correlational research
how 2 variables relate to one another pros -allows assessment of relationship b/t 2+ variables -may be 1st step in devising more controlled exp cons -correlation does not equal causation -third variables look at data longitudinally
Area of Psychology- developmental
how people grow, change over lifespan
funtionalism
how the mind allows people to adapt live , work and play
Abraham Maslow
humanistic psychologist who developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth. Needs are multi-dimensional and not subject to one motivating force. Heirarchy of Needs, Self-Actualization, B-/D-Love, Transcendence.
Hypnosis
hypnosis: a procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behavior of the subject -the hypnotized person tries to alter his or her cognitive processes in accordance with the hypnotist's suggestions -hypnotic suggestions typically involve performance of an action, an inability to perform an act, or a distortion of normal perception or memory -to induce hypnosis, the hypnotist typically suggests that the person being hypnotized feels relaxed, is getting sleepy, and feels the eyelids getting heavier and heavier -the hypnotized person almost always remains fully aware of what is going on and remembers the experience later unless explicitly instructed to forget it- memory can be restored by a prearranged signal -hypnosis has been used for everything from parlor tricks and stage shows to medical and psychological treatments -hypnotic responsiveness demands more on the efforts and qualities of the person being hypnotized than the skill of the hypnotist-some people are more responsive to hypnosis than others -Hypnotized people cannot be forced to do things against their will-hypnotized individuals may even comply with a suggestion to do something that seems embarrassing or dangerous- the individual is choosing to turn responsibility over to the hypnotist and to cooperate with the hypnotist's suggestions-there is no evidence that hypnotized people will do anything that actually goes against their morals or that constitutes a real threat to themselves or others -feats performed under hypnosis can be performed by motivated people without hypnosis-hypnosis does not actually enable people to do things that would otherwise be impossible-with proper motivation, support, and encouragement, the same people could do the same things even without being hypnotized -hypnosis does not increase the accuracy of memory-many people assume that hypnosis can enhance the recall of forgotten experiences but this is not true -hypnosis does not produce a literal re-experiencing of long-ago events-when people are regressed to an earlier age, their mental and moral performance remains adult-like-their brain-wave patterns and reflexes do not become childish-the reason is not that they are actually reliving the experience of being 4; they are just willing to play the role -hypnotic suggestions have been used effectively for many medical and psychological purposes-useful in the treatment of psychological and mental problems-its greatest success is in pain management-people experience dramatic relief of pain resulting form conditions as diverse as burns, cancers, and childbirth -hynotic suggestions have also been used in the treatment of stress, anxiety, obesity, asthma, irritable bowel syndrom, chemotherapy-induced nausea, and even skin disorders
posthypnotic suggestions
hypnotic suggestion that the subject will carry out after the hypnosis session has ended; exp: lose weight, stop smoking
introspection
ignore what is & describe experience (structuralism)
illusory contours
imagined "boundaries" between one object and other; often created by the perception of "lines" that divide areas of color or texture
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that the neutral stimulus (NS) begins triggering the conditioned response (CR)
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
Place Theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone thus enabling us to sense it's pitch
Frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.
Freud's Unconscious
individual is unaware, the land of forbidden and dangerous things as well as forgotten nothings.
top-down processing
info processing guided by our higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Insecurely Attached
insecure about mother's emotional availability or responsiveness. Child modifies behaviour to adapt to mothers'. Three categories: Avoidant, Resistant, and Disorganized.
biopsychosocial approach
integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, social-cultural levels of analysis
Securely Attached "B-Babies"
interested in toys when mom present distress when separated, when reunited sought contact. Contact was soothing to distress. *reliable and responsive parenting*
Punishment
introduction of a negative consequence to a behaviour with the hopes of diminishing it. (grounding kids) Can be effective, but if used too often can lead to fear, anger, resentment and an oppositional mindset. Short term effects, does not teach alternative behaviour.
Hypothalamus
involved in stress response, appetitive behaviors such as hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, etc. "Pleasure Center of the Brain" If you put electrodes in a rat's brain that stimulate the hypothalamus when they do something, they would do the behavior over and over again to help stimulate the brain. Prader-Willi Syndrome- this is where someone's hypothalamus is not working properly, and they never feel full. This disorder can affect multiple things such as intelligence, height, weight, etc.
Reticular Activating System
involved with the overall level of brain activity in a person Ie: having a role in underlying different levels of consciousness- being highly alert vs. being in a comatose state.
Sleep apnea:
involves frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep
phobia
irrational fear of an activity, object, or situation that is out of proportion to the actual danger posed
phobias
irrational fears of specific objects or situations
Common Cold
is a respiratory infection. It may be caused by 1 of more than 200 viruses that are highly contagious.
Hypnosis
is a state of consciousness in which a person is specifically susceptible to suggestion.
EEG (electroencephlograph)
is an instrument that records electrical activity in the brain
control group
is not exposed to experimental
Insomnia
is the inability to get sleep, stay asleep, or get good quality sleep.
pupil
is the opening in the center of the iris.
EEG
is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within the neurons of the brain
pinna, or auricle
is the visible part of the outer ear.
Consciousness
is your awareness of everything that is going on around you and inside your own head at any given moment, which you use to organize your behavior including your thoughts, sensations, and feelings.
autonomic nervous system
made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles and glands
somatic nervous system
made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
Independent Variable
manipulated variable
relative clarity
monocular cue for depth perception; objects that seem "fuzzier" or less clear are perceived to be farther away.
linear perspective
monocular cue for depth perception; parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more they converge, the greater the perceived distance
relative height
monocular cue for depth perception; we perceive objects higher in our visual field to be farther away. Explanation for why the "bottom" of a figure-ground illusion usually is interpreted as the "figure"
moon illusion
moon on the horizon looks huge, but straight above, it looks small. this is because on the horizon, the moon has distance cues like a house or tree that fool us
Humanistic Theory
more humanity, less mechanical. Emphasized free will, freedom of choice, value of subjective experience and quality of lived experience.
retina
neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images and sends visual information to the brain
What is Spacial Neglect?
neurological disorder whereby an individual is unable to notice anything on their left or right side. Common in stroke victims
Axon
neuron extensions that pass messages to other neurons or cells
Sensory Neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system
Motor Neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
neurons that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
"lock and key"
neurotransmitter fits into receptor like a key in a lock
conditioned stimulus (CS)
neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
random assignment
not self selected works better w large numbers
case study
observation technique in which one person is studied in depth
moderators
occur before treatment describes when a treatment works (changes direction of treatment effects) ie gender
Generalization
occurrence of responses to stimuli that are similar to CS
presbycusis
occurs because of changes in the inner ear, very common that happens gradually in older age
reactivity
occurs in natural observation studies; when a subject changes their behavior because they are aware of being observed
punishment
occurs when event following response weakens tendency to make response
continuous reinforcement
occurs when every instance of designated response is reinforced
resistance to extinction
occurs when organism continues to make response after delivery of reinforcer for it has been terminated
stimulus discrimination
occurs when organism that has learned response to specific stimulus does not respond in same way to new stimuli that are similar to original stimulus
stimulus generalization
occurs when organism that has learned response to specific stimulus responds in same way to new stimuli that are similar to original stimulus
positive reinforcement
occurs when response is strengthened because it is followed by presentation of rewarding stimulus
negative reinforcement
occurs when response is strengthened because it is followed by removal of aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
Gustav Fechner
often credited with founding "psychophysics" as a subfield of psychology
Schwann Cells (PNS)
one cell creates only one segment of myelin sheath for only one axon
Sleep (the gentle tyrant)
one of the human body;s biological rhythms, natural cycles of activity that the body goes through.
In research methods you need to know..
operational definition experimental research - if someone is valid in research, it has to be reliable, however you can have a reliable measure that isnt valid
Parietal Lobe
owards the top of the head- involves mainly the integration and making sense of sensory and motor information. Ie: if you're thinking about tying your shoes, the parietal lobe is able to connect the intention of tying your shoes to actually tying your shoes. Apraxia: If a person has damage to the parietal lobe, they will have difficulty making intentional movements, ie: typing, or writing. (a mind-body disconnection) can be associated with very specific things, such as getting dressed.
Identify the two hormones released from the posterior pituitary and describe how the hypothalamus controls their release.
oxytocin (OT), and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) both hormones are synthesized in the hypothalamus: The paraventricular nucleus primarily produces oxytocin, and the supraoptic nucleus primarily forms ADH upon stimulation, the nerve endings located in the posterior pituitary release ADH and OT; the posterior pituitary does not produce hormones but only stores and releases them
Color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects.
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change
clairvoyance
perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire
illusory correlation
perception of a relationship where none exists
Biological rhymes
periodic biological fluctuation in an organism that corresponds to, and is in response to, periodic environmental change. Examples of such change include cyclical variations in the relative position of the Earth to the Sun and to the Moon and in the immediate effects of such variations, e.g., day alternating with night, high tide alternating with low tide.
biological rhythms
periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning; periods: annual cycle, 28 day, 24 hour, & 90 minutes
Sleep
periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Cerebral Cortex: Psychological Changes
persistent apathy, lack of emotional response, bouts of euphoria
psychological dependence
person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental & emotional craving for the drug
REM
person who moves very little in their sleep
NREM
persons body is free to move around (includes kicking someone in their sleep)
Carl Rogers
pioneering in session empirical study, developed person-centered psychotherapy (client-centered, "rogerian therapy") Therapists role to encourage self growth through empathetic listening and Unconditional Positive Regard, made Therapeutic Empathy a keystone to therapy.
place theory
pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions or places along the basilar membrane
What are the five major endocrine organs (glands)?
pituitary gland pineal gland thyroid gland parathyroid glands adrenal glands
subject expectations
placebo
dopamine
pleasurable emotions dec = Parkinsons inc = schizophrenia
optic chiasm
point near the base of the brain where some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross to the other side of the brain
Occipital Lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Parietal Lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body positions
double-blind procedure
procedure in which both participants and staff are ignorant about whether participants receive treatment or placebo
hypnotic introduction
process by which a hypnotist creates a state of hypnosis in a subject; voicing sense of suggestions
Define: Parkinsons Disease
progressive neurological disorder which is characteristic of both motor (movement) and non-motor symptoms
Thorndike
proposed the law of effect; used puzzle boxes to study problem solving in cats
case study
pros -detailed info/depth -feasibility -useful during early stages of RS cons -generalization -control -expensive
Sodium-potassium pump
pumps sodium ions out and potassium ions in Polarization - resting potential (stable at -70 milivolts)
basic research
pure science that aims to increase scientific knowledge base
Correlation is represented by
r
Spinoza
radical Pantheistic view (every is God), rationalist
sampling bias
random selection
Stage 5: REM Sleep
rapid eye movement occurs, 20-25% of a normal night's sleep, breathing & heart rate quicken, vivid dreaming
spontaneous recovery
reapperarance of extinguished response after period of nonexposure to conditioned stimulus
Dendrites
receives information(large amount of surface area)
electromyograph (EMG)
records muscular activity & tension
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
insomnia
recurring problems with falling asleep (not being able to fall asleep or stay asleep or always waking up early); caused by stress & anxiety
REM sleep
recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed, but other body systems are active
Conjunctivitis Symptoms include
reddening of the eyelids and sclera. In addition, pus may form and lead to the closing of the eye.
flooding
reduction technique that involves exposing the individual to harmless stimulus fear responses
amplitude
refers to intensity of the wave
Ascending reticular activating formation
refers to the pathways that transmit nervous impulses from the reticular formation of the midbrain in an ascending manner through the thalamus, and then to all parts of the cerebral cortex. Psychology Dictionary: What is ASCENDING RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (ARAS)? definition of ASCENDING RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (ARAS) (Psychology Dictionary)
Sensory System
refers to the special senses associated with vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It consists of receptors in specialized cells and organs. The sensory system receives stimuli and sends the impulses to the brain to be interpreted. It performs the function of recognizing changes in the internal and external environment to allow the body to react.
shaping
reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of desired response
interval schedule
reinforcement schedule based on the passage of time and in which a single response at the end of the designated interval is reinforced; intervals may be set (FI schedule) or may vary from one reinforcement to the next (VI schedule)
ratio schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is based on the number of responses; the number may be set (FR schedule) of may vary from one reinforcement to the next (VR schedule)
intermittent (or partial) reinforcement
reinforcement that does not follow every response
continuous reinforcement
reinforcement that follows every target response
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcer is given after fixed number of responses
variable-interval schedule
reinforcer is given for first response after variable time interval has elapsed, interval length varies around predetermined average
fixed-interval schedule
reinforcer is given for first response that occurs after fixed time interval has elapsed
Axon terminal
release neurotransmitters of the presynaptic cell
Hormonal stimulation
release of a hormone in response to another hormone
Humoral stimulation
release of a hormone in response to changes in level of nutrient or ion in the blood
Nervous stimulation
release of a horse in response to stimulation by the nervous system
manifest content
remembered storyline of a dream
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants, to see whether basic finding extends
Neutral operants
responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
cerebellum
responsible for muscle coordination; balance, posture, and muscle tone. Body coordination and learning to perform timed motor responses; alcohol interferes with its functions
cumulative record
results of a series of operant conditioning trails, shown as a rate of responding
In which part of the eye are cones and rods located?
retina
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well lit conditions. detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, which, and grey; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
Areas of Psychology-Cognitive
role of info processing on behavior & experience
midbrain
segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain - sensory processes
Cones
sense color and are mainly used for vision in bright light.
olfaction
sense of smell
Afferent neuron
sensory neurons, towards the brain (periphery > central)
where does transduction occur for touch
sensory receptors located all over the body just below the skin's surface
dream
sequence of images, emotions, & thoughts that pass through a sleeping person's mind
What evidence do we have that sleep is important for organisms?
sleep restriction appears to: -trigger hormonal changes that increase hunger -link between short sleep duration & increased obesity -leads to impaired immune system functioning and increased inflammatory responses -leads to increased risk for diabetes, hypertension, and coronary disease BL: lack of sleep impairs attention, motor coordination, decision making and memory, and increases the likelihood of many kinds of accidents. moreover, it's associated with increased vulnerability to a variety of serious diseases and elevated mortality
Common Cold Symptoms may include
sneezing, runny nose, sore throat, congestion, and cough. The symptoms typically last for one to two weeks.
Cerebral Cortex: Social Changes
socially inappropriate behaviour, difficult with friends and family, can affect relationships
cones
specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision
rods
specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision
schedule of reinforcement
specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time
Myelin sheath
speeds up transport of information, insulates
dissociation
splitting off of mental process into separate but simultaneous streams of awareness
Non-REM (NREM) Sleep
stages 1-4, absence of rapid eye movement, little dreaming, varied EEG activity
operational definition
statement of procedures used to define research variables
neutral stimulus (NS)
stimulus that, before conditioning, does not elicit a particular response
Maslow's B- and D-Love
stressed importance of rising above selfish desires in order to embrace people for their own sake as a means to a goal. Maslow extended this theory to B- and D- Values.
Wilhelm Wundt
structuralism; in 1879 founded first psychology laboratory in world at University of Leipzig; introspection, basic units of experience. Founder of psychology
organ of corti
structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptor cells for hearing
cognitive neuroscience
study of the brain activity linked with cognition
Attachment Fixation
styles are conservative (resistant to change) however if environment/parenting style changes drastically attachment style can too.
Narcolepsy
sudden and unpredictable daytime attacks of sleepiness or actual sleep
insight learning
sudden grasp of a concept or the solution to a problem that results from perceptual restructuring; typically characterized by an immediate change in behavior
Edward O. Wilson
suggested evolutionary explanation of animal behaviour could be extended to humans, behaviour is shaped by natural selection. Criticized for neglecting importance of environment and assuming social inequalities were a product of nature.
Monkey studies involved...
surgically destroyed areas of somatosensory cortex of monkey
Social Darwinism
survival of the fittest to justify social inequality. (ie. Dalton's eugenics)
LSD or Lysergic acid diethylamide
synthesized from a grain fungus called ergot
olfactory system
system for smell
hypnosis
systematic procedure that produces a heightened state of suggestibility, may lead to passive relaxation, narrowed attention, enhanced fantasy; effects include anesthesia, sensory distortion, hallucinations, amnesia
Circadian rhymes
t's a twenty-four hour cycle that occurs in many animals, the most notable of a part of the cycle is the need for sleep which occurs in all animals. It can be considered a biological clock. The pineal gland secretes melatonin which effects the circadian rhythm.
negative skew
tail left
postive skew
tail right
size constancy
tendency to expect things to retain their size
generalization
tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that have a similar characteristics
Mentalization
the ability to represent one's own and other's emotional/mental experiences, to understand and grasp the nature of emotional experience.
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by amplitude
Endocrine System
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Nervous System
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
phantom limb sensation
the brain can produce pain in limbs that aren't even there
Stage 4
the brain produces delta waves almost exclusively. Stages 3 and 4 are referred to as deep sleep or delta sleep, and it is very difficult to wake someone from them. In deep sleep, there is no eye movement or muscle activity. This is when some children experience bedwetting, sleepwalking or night terrors.
Plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
stroboscopic movement
the brain's perception of continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images; this is how we perceive motion in film and animation
clinical psychology
the branch of psychology concerned with the treatment of abnormal mentation and behavior
auditory nerve
the bundle of neurons that carries signals from each ear to the brain
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
fovea
the central focus point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
Middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.
middle ear
the chamber between the middle ear and cochlea containing the three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
Psychosexual Stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
iris
the colored portion of the eye, located behind the cornea on the front of the choroid coat.
Control Group
the comparison group, placebo
Farsightedness
the condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly that near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina.
introspection
the contemplation of your own thoughts and desires and conduct
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input, includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
Hue
the dimension of color that is determine by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
Autonomic Nervous System
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. sympathetic division arouses; parasympathetic division calms
Pituitary Gland
the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Gestalt Theory and Optical Illusions
the fact that we can see something that is not really there shoes that our perceptions are more than an exact copy of reality.
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
Define: Synaptogenesis
the formation of new synapse between brain neurons
procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things
Satiation/Deprivation "hunger"
the individual's "appetite" for that source of stimulation. the effectiveness of a consequence will increase as the individual becomes deprived of that stimulus. If someone is not hungry, food will not be an effective reinforcer for behavior. Satiation is generally only a potential problem with primary reinforcers, those that do not need to be learned such as food and water.
Inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
Synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
retina
the light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual info
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
How much alcohol can the liver metabolize?
the liver can metabolize about 1 drink per hour. Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) increases when the body absorbs alcohol faster than it can eliminate it (>1 drink per hour).
decibel
the magnitude of a wave; in sound the primary determinant of loudness
Soft science vs. hard science
the measuring tools are very sophisticated
Gestalt Psychology "holistic"
the mind actively organizes information into a coherent whole, or a gestalt. "the whole is greater than the sum of it's parts"
Symmetry
the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. [ ]{ }[ ]
Difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (also called just noticeable difference or JND.)
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd)
Absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time.
Brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; this is responsible for automatic survival functions
The ear is divided into three main sections:
the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear.
Hippocampus
the part of the brain involved in creating new memories.
Freud's Conscious
the part of the mind in our awareness.
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
visual capture
the phenomenon that occurs when vision overtakes some other, conflicting sensory input
optic chiasm
the point at which the axons from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
Blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptors cells are located there. Creates a gap in our vision that is "filled" by the brain.
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste
Sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences the taste.
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
punishment
the process of using a punisher to decrease the response rate
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of info processing for many functions, including vision. contrasts with the step by step (serial) processing of most computers and conscious problem solving
structuralism
the school of psychology, founded by Wilhelm Wundt, that maintains that conscious experience breaks down into objective sensations and subjective feelings
Vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance; enabled by feedback from semicircular canals in inner ear
audition
the sense or act of hearing
Peripheral Nervous System
the sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass to the brain. the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by info coming from the brain
Gate-Control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is open by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming form the brain.
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
Cerebral Cortex
thin layer of interconnected neurons covering the cerebral hemisphere; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
proximity
things close to one another are grouped together
Amygdala
this is the part of the brain that is associated with threat detection Trying to decide if there are harmful things in one's environment. It's also involved in emotional expression/experience. Kluver-Bucy syndrome is a syndrome where the amygdala is damaged, which results in docility and passivity in a person, as well as hyper-orality (putting a lot of things in their mouth), as well as hyper-sexuality. Stimulating the Amygdala can cause aggressiveness and potential paranoia.
Sexual Selection
traits or behaviours that increase access to mates are therefore adaptive. (ie. Size and strength in males)
Acetylcholine
transmitter between your motor neurons and also attention, arousal, and memory (Alzheimer's)
lens
transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
cornea
transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye
Ponzo illusion
two equal sized lines appear different lengths if placed between two converging lines. the one in the back looks longer because the monocular cue of "linear perspective" fools us
Amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
Amygdala
two lima-beam-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
classical conditioning
type of learning in which a stimulus acquires capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus (Pavlov conditioning)
measures of central tendency
used to summarize the data and give one score that seems typical of your sample
basilar membrane
vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense receptors for sound
closure
we like to complete things that are incomplete- we'll finish a circle only 90% complete
Closure
we tend to fill in, or close, the gaps in our perception to create gestalts even from incomplete information
Define: Synaptic pruning
weak or unused neural connections are 'pruned', therefore the brain fine tunes its neural connections
research methods
what a researcher wants to find out, specifically regarding variables
change blindness
when paying attention to a specific aspect of a visual scene, we may fail to notice other fairly obvious changes or presentations of stimuli; demonstrated by the door study and the gorilla illusion
How does language develop? Know the concepts involved, e.g. overregularizations, overextensions, underextensions, telegraphic speech, ETC.
• 1- 5 mos.: reflexive communication; cooing • 6-18 mos.: babbling • 10-13 mos. first words • 12 - 18 mos.: one word sentences o receptive vs. productive vocabulary o overextension: one word for many things o underextension: only 1 doll is "doll" • 18-24 mos.: vocabulary spurt • towards end of 2 yrs: telegraphic speech (short, to the point) & fast mapping (might remember after only hearing it once) • towards end of 3 yrs.: overregularizations (odd, grammatical errors - i.e. adding "ed" to every word pertaining to the past) • 5 yrs.+: well-developed and complex grammar
autonomic nervous system
-controls involuntary actions
Brain
-controls most systems in the body -directs a response after receiving an impulse -sends it back through the spinal cord and out to the peripheral nervous system
Left half of cerebrum
-controls the right side of the body -associated with mathematical skills and logical skills
Somatic nervous system
-controls voluntary actions
Theory 5
-dreams reflect our waking concerns -dreams tend to reflect peoples emotional concerns and things that preoccupy them in their social lives
Dreams as Thinking
- the cognitive approach to dreaming emphasizes current concerns, but it makes no claims about problem solving during sleep -dreaming is simply a modification of the cognitive activity that goes on when we are awake -we construct reasonable simulations of the real world, drawing on the same kinds of memories, knowledge, metaphors, and assumptions about the world that we do when are are not sleeping -content of our dreams may include thoughts, concepts, and scenarios that may or may not be related to our daily problems -we are most likely to dream about families, friends, studies, jobs, or recreational interests- topics also occupy our waking thoughts -brain is doing the same kind of work during dreams as it does when we are awake -this view predicts that if a person could be totally cut off from all external stimulation while awake, mental activity would be much like that during dreaming -cognitive approach also predicts that as cognitive abilities and brain connections mature during childhood, dreams should change and mature, and they do -young children may experience visual images during sleep, their cognitive limitations keep them from creating true narratives -their dreams are infrequent and tend to be bland, static, and about everyday things -but, as they grow up, their dreams gradually become more and more intricate, dynamic, and story like -the cognitive approach emphasizes current concerns, but makes no claims about problem-solving during sleep
What is the "cephalocaudal" vs. "proximodistal" principle and what do they have to do with prenatal development?
-Cephalocaudal: development moves from head to toes -Proximodistal: core things develop first (i.e. heart, etc.)
Circadian Rhythms in Humans
-Deepest sleep: 2:00 AM -Lowest Body Temperature: 4:30 AM -Sharpest Blood Pressure Rise: 6:45 AM -Melatonin Secretion Stops: 7:30 AM -Highest Alertness: 10:00 AM -Best Coordination: 2:30 PM -Fastest Reaction Time: 3:30 PM -Greatest Cardiovascular Efficiency and Muscular Strength: 5:00 PM -Highest Blood Pressure: 6:30 PM -Highest Body Temperature: 7:00 PM -Melatonin Secretion Starts: 9:00 PM
How do earlier vs. later behaviorists differ on their opinion of the role of cognition in learning?
-Earlier: internal processes don't contribute at all to behavior -Later: internal processes and behavior are related but it doesn't really need to be studied -Now: internal processes and cognition relate to learning and behavior
Why do we study Biological Rhythms?
-Effectiveness of medicines when taken at different times of the day -Look at alertness and performance on the job-when they should have breaks -Designing of our days to take better advantage of our bodies natural tempos
The Mental Benefits of Sleep
-Sleep contributes to memory consolidation, a process by which the synaptic changes associated with recently stored memories become durable and stable, causing memory to become more reliable -Improvements in memory have been associated most closely with REM sleep and slow-wave sleep, and with memory for specific motor and perceptual skills -When people or animals learn a perceptual task and are allowed to get normal REM sleep, their memory for the task is better the next day, even when they are awakened during non-REM periods -But when they are deprived of REM sleep, their memories are impaired -If sleep enhances memory, perhaps it also enhances problem solving, which relies on information stored in memory -German researchers gave volunteers a math test requiring them to generate one string of numbers from another and to deduce the final digit in the new sequence as quickly as possible -The volunteers were not told about a hidden shortcut that would enable them to calculate the final digit almost immediately -One group was trained in the evening and then got to snooze for eight hours before returning to the problem -Another group also got trained in the evening but then stayed awake for eight hours before coming back to the problem -A third group was trained in the morning and stayed awake all day, as they normally would, before taking the test -Those people who got the nighttime sleep were nearly three times likelier to discover the hidden shortcut as those in the other two groups
The Mental Consequences of Sleeplessness
-Sleep is also necessary for normal mental functioning -Chronic sleep deprivation increases levels of the stress hormone cortisol, which may damage or impair brain cells that are necessary for learning and memory -New brain cells may either fail to develop or mature abnormally -After a loss of even a single night's sleep, mental flexibility, attention, and creativity all suffer -Several days of staying awake, people may begin to have hallucinations and delusions -Sleep deprivation rarely reaches that point, but people frequently suffer from milder sleep problems -10% of adults are plagued by chronic insomnia- difficulty in falling or staying asleep -Insomnia can result from worry and anxiety, psychological problems, physical problems such as arthritis, and irregular or overly demanding work and study schedules. The result can be grogginess the next day -Another cause of daytime sleepiness is sleep apnea, a disorder in which breathing periodically stops for a few moments , causing the person to choke and gasp -Sleep apnea has several causes, from blockage of air passages to failure of the brain to control respiration correctly, and overtime it can cause high blood pressure and irregular heartbeat -In narcolepsy, another serious disorder, an individual is subject to irresistible and unpredictable daytime attacks of sleepiness or actual sleep, lasting from 5 to 30 minutes -A quarter of a million people in the US suffer from this condition, many without knowing it -Narcolepsy seems to be caused by the degeneration f certain neurons in the hypothalamus, possibly due to an autoimmune malfunction or genetic abnormalities -The most common cause of sleepiness is staying up late and, not allowing yourself to get enough sleep at night -2/3 of all Americans get fewer than the recommended seven or eight hours of sleep and American students get only about six hours a night on average -Most need more than six hours for optimal performance and many adolescents need ten -When people don't get enough sleep, they are more likely to get into traffic and work accidents
The Stages
-This sequence of stages takes about 30 to 45 minutes. Then you move back up the ladder from Stage 4 to 3 to 2 to 1. At that point, about 70 to 90 minutes after the onset of sleep, something peculiar happens. Stage 1 does not turn into drowsy wakefulness, as one might expect. Instead, your brain begins to emit long bursts of very rapid, somewhat irregular waves. Your heart rate increases, your blood pressure rises, and your breathing gets faster and more irregular. Small twitches in your face may occur. You have entered the realm of REM. -brain is extremely active while the body in entirely inactive -it is during these periods that vivid dreams are likely to occur. People report dreams when they are awakened from non-REM sleep too -REM and non-REM sleep continue to alternate throughout the night, with stages 3 and 4 tending to become shorter or even disappear and REM periods tending to get longer and closer together as the hours pass -this pattern may explain why you are likely to be dreaming when the alarm goes off in the morning -But these cycles are far from regular- the time between REM and non-REM is highly variable, differing from person to person and also within any given individual
Experiment 5: Statistics
-collected REM and non-REM dreams breaking each one down into its basic elements and turning each element into a number -coded the entire dream series in terms of various elements -who are the characters, emotions, the settings, and then they enter these numbers into a spreadsheet -can tell us how often we dream about sex and whether this involves our partner or a celebrity and how often we have bad dreams -telling us about the dreams of an individual-see dream series and find patterns and get a better idea of the person's dream life-comparing a person's dream elements with the norm -man's dreams showed unhappiness-80% of his dreams include unhappy events-the average occurrence of misfortune is 33% -almost all of the dream characters are women -interactions between these women were negative -concerns about relationship issues and overwhelmed by negative factors-feels like he has no control over it -5 years later- the man divorced
Does the Menstrual Cycle Affect Moods?
-What does the evidence actually show? -Many women do have physical signs associated with menstruation, including cramps, breast tenderness, and water retention, although women vary tremendously in this regard. And of course, these physical symptoms can make some women feel grumpy or unhappy, just as pain can make men feel grumpy and unhappy -emotional symptoms specifically associated with menstruation-notably, irritability, and depression- are pretty rare, which is why we put "PMS" in quotation marks -more people claim to have symptoms than actually do -in reality fewer than 5% of all women have such symptoms predictably over their cycles -if true PMS is relatively uncommon , then why do so many women think they have it? -Possibilities: -they tend to notice feelings of depression or irritability when these moods happen to occur premenstrually but overlook times when such moods are absent premenstrually -they may label symptoms that occur before a period as "PMS" (I am irritable and cranky; I must be getting my period) -a women's perceptions of her own emotional ups and downs can also be influenced by cultural attitudes and myths about menstruation -some studies have encouraged biases in the reporting of premenstrual and menstrual symptoms by using questionnaires with gloomy and negative titles -they do not include that PMS is nonexistent. They do not deny that some women in some months, have unpleasant moods before or during their periods. However, the accumulated research shows clearly that more women think they have PMS symptoms than they actually do and that fewer women need to be treated for it than commonly assumed -the really important question is whether PMS affects women's ability to work -empirical research has failed to establish an connection between phase of menstrual cycle and real-world behavior in the vast majority of women. There is no relationship between phase of the menstrual cycle and work efficiency, problem solving, college exam scores, creativity, or any other behavior that matters in real life -in the workplace, men and women report similar levels of stress, well-being, and ability to do the work required of them- and it doesn't matter whether the women are premenstrual, menstrual, post-menstrual, or non-menstrual
Testings and Findings
-When participants in these studies have been allowed to sleep, eat, and work whenever they wished, free from tyranny of timepiece, a few have lived a day that is much shorter or longer than 24 hours. If allowed to take daytime naps, however, most people soon settle into a day that averages about 24.3 hours -Stefania Follini spent 4 months in a New Mexico cave, 30 feet underground, as a part of an Italian study on biological rhythms. Her only companions were a computer and two friendly mice. In the absence of clocks, natural light, or changes temperature, she tended to stay awake 20 to 25 hours and then sleep for 10. Because her days were longer than usual, when she emerged, she thought she had been in the cave for only 2 months
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
-a controversial disorder in which a person experienced depression during the winter and an improvement of mood in the spring -some people become depressed during particular seasons, typically winter, when periods of daylight are short -during the winter months, SAD patients report feelings of sadness and drowsiness -when people get the winter blues, the reason could also be that they hate cold weather, are physically inactive, do not get outside much, or feel lonely during the winter holidays
melatonin
-a hormone secreted by the pineal gland; it is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythm -melatonin levels secreted help control sleep
internal desynchronization
-a state in which biological rhythms are not in phase (synchronized) with one another -under normal conditions, the rhythms governed by the SCN are synchronized -but when your normal routine changes, your circadian rhythms may be thrown out of phase with one another -internal desynchronization occurs when people take airplane flights across several time zones. -sleep and wake patterns usually adjust quickly, but temperature and hormone cycles can take several days to return to normal -the resulting jet lag affects energy level, mental skills, and motor coordination -internal desynchronization also occurs when workers must adjust to a new shift- efficiency drops, the person feels tired and irritable, accidents become more likely, and sleep disturbances and digestive disorders may occur
Dreams as Interpreted Brain Activity
-activation-synthesis theory: the theory that dreaming results from the cortical synthesis and interpretation of neural signals triggered by activity in the lower part of the brain-draws heavily on physiological research -they are the result of neurons firing spontaneously in the lower part of the brain, in the pons, during REM sleep -these neurons control eye movement, gaze, balance, and posture, and they send messages to sensory and motor areas of the cortex responsible during wakefulness for visual processing and voluntary action -signals originating in the pons have no psychological meaning in themselves -the cortex tries to make sense of them by synthesizing, or integrating, them with existing knowledge and memories to produce some sort of coherent interpretation -this is just what the cortex does when signals come from sense organs during wakefulness -one part of the brain interprets what has gone on in another -when neurons fire in the part of the brain that handles balance, for instance, the cortex may generate a dream about falling -when signals occur that would ordinarily produce running, the cortex may manufacture a dream about being chased -because the signals from the pons occur randomly, the cortex's interpretation-the dream- is likely to be incoherent or confusing -because the cortical neurons that control the initial storage of new memories are turned off during sleep, we typically forget out dreams upon waking unless we write them down or immediately recount them to someone else -the brain stem, sets off responses in emotional and visual parts of the brain -at the same time, brain regions that handle logical thought and sensations from external world shut down. -dreams tend to be emotionally charged, hallucinatory, and illogical -the activation-synthesis theory holds that dreams occur when the cortex tries to make sense of spontaneous neural firing initiated in the pons during REM sleep
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
-an area of the brain containing a biological clock that governs circadian rhythms -area of the hypothalamus that controls your bodies internal clock -circadian rhythms are controlled by a biological clock -neural pathways from special receptors in the back of the eye transmit information to the SCN and allow it to respond to changes in light and dark -the SCN then send out messages that cause the brain and the body to adapt to these changes -the SCN regulates the fluctuating levels of hormones and neurotransmitters, and they in turn provide feedback that affects the SCN's functioning -for example: during the dark hours, one hormone regulated the the SCN, melatonin, is secreted by the pineal gland, deep within the brain. The pineal gland responds to light and dark via complex connections that originate in the back of the eye. When you go to sleep in a darkened room, your melatonin level rises; when you wake up in the morning to a lightened room, it falls. Melatonin in turn, appears to help keep the biological clock in phase with the light-dark cycle
Reflex
-an automatic response that occurs very rapidly without conscious control -help protect the body
Studying Brains Across Species
-animals used in neuropsych research (ethics? illuminates workings of brain, similarities and differences across species) -When brains are compared, we can hypothesize about how our brains evolved over time.
Psychological dependence
Psychological Dependence is an emotional need for a drug or substance that has no underlying physical need. For example, people who stop smoking recover physically in a short time. The emotional need for nicotine, however, is much more difficult to overcome. They continually think they need the nicotine to stay calm even though there is no physical need. The drug for the addict is similar to what a security blanket would be for a child (or some adults). Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological%20Dependence#ixzz3NzgAK3qD
Condition Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits the response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which associations are formed between behaviors and their outcomes
Stimuli
An environmental condition that elicits a response; something that makes an organism respond
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning
Explain how biological predispositions place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning
Biological constraints predispose organism to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Training that attempts to override these tendencies will probably not endure because the animals will revert to their biologically predisposed patterns.
Describe the timing requirements for the initial learning of a stimulus-response
Classical conditioning occurs most readily when a CS is presented just before a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive.
Explain why correlations cannot prove that watching violent TV causes violent behavior, and cite some experimental evidence that helps demonstrate a cause-effect link
Correlations show relationships, but not the direction of influence. Correlational studies show that violence viewing and violent behavior are linked, but they do not prove that watching violent TV causes children to become violent. Children who behave violently may enjoy watching violence on TV, or some third factor may cause children both to behave violently and to prefer watching violent programs. To prove cause and effect, researchers have designed experiments in which participants view violence and other do not. Later, given an opportunity to express violence, the people who viewed violence tend to be more aggressive and less sympathetic. Two factors-imitation and desensitization-seem to contribute to the violence effect
Learning (Cognitive Perspective)
Define learning as a mental change that may or may not be associated with changes in behavior. Permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience.
Describe some of the ways that biological predispositions can affect learning by classical conditioning
Early behaviorists believed that any natural response could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus in any living organism. Learning theorists have abandoned this belief. Each species is biologically prepared to learn associations-such as humans' fear of spiders and snakes, or rats' aversion to tastes associated with nausea-that enhance its survival. Outside the laboratory, a CS tends to have a natural association with the US it predicts
Taste Adversion
Example of Classical Conditioning, are adaptive by motivating organisms to avoid harmful foods. Only one association may be required, the unconditioned stimulus can occur hours after the conditioned stimulus
Identify the two major characteristics that distinguish classical conditioning from operant condition
In classical condition, the organism forms associations between behaviors it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior. In operant conditioning, the organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior
Summarize the processes of extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination
In classical conditioning, extinction is diminished responding when the CS is no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a read period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of continuous and partial reinforcement schedules, and identify four schedules of partial reinforcement
In continuous reinforcement, learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. Continuous reinforcement is preferable until a behavior is learned. In partial reinforcement, initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses. Fixed-ratio schedules offer rewards after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules. after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules offer rewards after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.
Describe the process of observational learning, and explain the importance of the discovery of mirror neurons
In observational learning, we observe and imitate others. Mirror neurons, located in the brain's frontal lobes, demonstrate a neural basis for observational learning. They fire when we perform certain actions, or when we observe someone else performing those actions
Describe some ways to apply operant conditioning principles at school, in sports, at work, and at home
In school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors. Interactive software and Web sites can provide immediate feedback to students. In sports, coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, we can control our energy usage by comparing recent consumption with past consumption. Parents can reward behaviors they consider desirable, but not those that are undesirable. Individually, we can reinforce our own desired behaviors and extinguish undesirable ones by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, and cutting back on incentives as behaviors become habitual
Describe the shaping procedure, and explain how it can increase our understanding of what animals and babies can discriminate
In shaping, we use reinforcers to guide a person's or an animal's behavior toward a desired goal. Building on existing behaviors, we reward successive approximations to some desired behavior. Because nonverbal animals and babies can respond only to what they perceive, their reactions demonstrate which events they can discriminate.
Reflex
Inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli
Define learning, and identify two forms of learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. In associated learning, we learn to associate two stimuli or a response and its consequences. In observational learning, we learn by watching others' experiences and examples
Nonassociative learning
Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a stimulus
Observational learning
Learning that occurs when an organism watches the actions of another
Summarize Pavlov's contribution to our understanding of learning.
Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that conditioning principles have important applications, such as by suggesting how some fears are learned and can be treated. He also demonstrated that principles of learning apply across species, although later research modified this finding somewhat by showing that in many species cognition and biological predispositions place some limits on associative learning
Compare positive and negative reinforcement, and give one example each of a primary reinforcer, a conditioned reinforcer, an immediate reinforcer, and a delayed reinforcer
Positive reinforcement adds something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes something undesirable to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers are innately satisfying-no learning is required. Conditioned reinforcers are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards. Immediate reinforcers offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers require the ability to delay gratification.
"Little Albert"
The "Little Albert" experiment was a famous psychology experiment conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Raynor. They classically conditioned Little Albert to fear white rats. This study showed that emotional behaviors can be conditioned
Discuss the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
The early behaviorists' optimism that learning principles would generalize from from one response to another and from one species to another has given way to the understanding that conditioning principles are influenced by our thoughts, perceptions, and expectations. In classical conditioning, humans and other animals learn when to "expect" a US, and their awareness of the link between stimuli and responses can weaken associations
Associative learning
The formation of associations or connections among stimuli and behavior
State Thorndike's law of effect, and explain its connection to Skinner's research on operant conditioning
Thorndike's law of effect asserts that rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this as his starting point, Skinner devoted his life to exploring the principles and conditions learning through operant conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
a Russian psychologist that developed classical conditioning theory of learning; conducted famous salivating dogs experiment to research classical conditioning
second-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (a.k.a. higher-order conditioning)
John Garcia
an American psychologist mainly known for his research in taste aversion learning
fixed duration
behavior has to be performed continuously for duration of time for reinforcer to occur
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
predictability
consistent repetition of a state, course of action, behavior, or the like, making it possible to know in advance what to expect
variable ratio (VR)
different number or responses required for reinforcement, numerical value indicates average number of responses; more steady pattern of responding, less likely to have predictable pauses
differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)
encourages responding at lower rates; behavior is reinforced only if certain amount of time has passed since the last performance of the behavior; interval starts over when behavior occurs
continuous reinforcement (CRF)
every occurrence of instrumental response is followed by reinforcer delivery; FR1
ratio strain
if ratio is stretched too far or too quickly, the behavior will break down
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned reponse (CR)
stimulus generalization
in classical conditioning, occurs when an organism displays a conditioned response (CR) to a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus (CS)
reconditioning
in classical conditioning, refers to the repairing of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) after extinction has taken place. During reconditioning, an organism learns more quickly than it did the first time that the conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
unconditioned response (US)
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
Capaldi's sequential hypothesis
on CR, all lever presses reinforced, reinforcement is cue to keep responding; in extinction, no reinforcement, so quit responding; on PR the sequence includes nonreinforced responses followed by reinforced response; the sequence (or memory of non reward) becomes cue for continued responding
partial reinforcement effect (PRE)
organism is more resistant to extinction following PR schedule than following CR schedule; paradoxical b/c or Law of Effect: unreinforced Bx should be weakened
cooperative schedules
reinforcement depends on Bx of 2 or more individuals; reinforcement dependent, in part, on Bx of other
fixed time
reinforcer given after certain amout of time, regardless of behavior; don't have to respond to get reinforced
variable time
reinforcer given after variable interval or time, regardless of behavior
interval schedules
response is reinforced for the first time it occurs after a time interval has passed
fixed interval (FI)
response is reinforced if it occurs a set amount of time after last reinforcement; does not guarantee that the organism will be reinforced at fixed intervals of time
variable interval (VI)
responses are reinforced if they occur after a variable interval of time since delivery of previous reinforcer; varies around some average; produces steady rates of responding without predictable pauses
expectancy
results that occur when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to participants the kind of behavior he or she expects to find, thereby creating that expected reaction.
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
stimulus discrimination
the leaned ability to distinguish between a conditioned (CS) stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Amsel's frustration hypothesis
the nonreinforcement of previously reinforced Bx is frustrating (aversive); in CR, no frustration, in extinction, frustration so quit responding; on PR at some point organism is frustrated, responds anyway and is rewarded; learn to respond when frustrated, frustration is cue to respond
stretching the ratio
thinning the schedule or gradually shaping the organism to work longer or harder for less reinforcement
biological predispositions
when a subject (human, animal, plant) possesses some internal quality that gives them an increased likelihood of having a condition
