psychology exam 4, CHAPTER 4
Genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; seg- ments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.
Primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.
Sexual orientation
the direction of one's sexual attraction
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
Menarche
the landmark is the first menstrual period usually within a year of age 12 1 ⁄2 Early menarche is more likely following stresses related to father absence, sexual abuse, insecure attachments, or a history of a mother's smoking during pregnancy
Testosterones influence
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional tes- tosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait varia- tions, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
sperm arch
First ejaculation Men report mostly positive emotional reactions to spermarche
Evolutionary psychologists instead focus mostly on what makes us so much alike as humans. They use Charles Darwin's principle of natural selection—
"arguably the most momentous idea ever to occur to a human mind," said Richard Dawkins (2007)—to understand the roots of behavior and mental processes. The idea, simplified, is this: • Organisms' varied offspring compete for survival. • Certain biological and behavioral variations increase organisms' reproductive and survival chances in their particular environment. • Offspring that survive are more likely to pass their genes to ensuing generations. • Thus, over time, population characteristics may change.
and differences
"males are more likely than females to initiate sexual activity." This is the largest sexuality difference between males and females, but there are others.
EX
-Preschoolers who disdain a certain food often will eat that food if put at a table with a group of children who like it. -Children who hear English spoken with one accent at home and another in the neighborhood and at school will invariably adopt the accent of their peers, not their parents. -Accents (and slang) reflect culture, "and children get their culture from their peers," as Judith Rich Harris (2007), has noted. -Put two teens together and their brains become hypersensitive to reward. This increased activation helps explain why teens take more driving risks when with friends than they do when alone -Teens who start smoking typically have friends who model smoking, suggest its pleasures, and offer cigarettes -Part of this peer similarity may result from a selection effect, as kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests. Those who smoke (or don't) may select as friends those who also smoke (or don't).
Difference between individualism and collectivism
1.Being more self - contained, individualists move in and out of social groups more easily. They feel relatively free to switch places of worship, switch jobs, or even leave their extended families and migrate to a new place. Marriage is often for as long as they both shall love. 2.return, collectivists have deeper, more stable attachments to their groups— their family, clan, or company. Elders receive great respect. In some collectivist cul- tures, disrespecting family elders violates the law.Collectivists are like athletes who take more pleasure in their team's victory than in their own performance. They find satisfaction in advancing their groups' interests, even at the expense of personal needs. Preserving group spirit and avoiding social embarrassment are important goals. Collectivists therefore avoid direct confrontation, blunt honesty, and uncomfortable topics. They value humility, not self-importance
REMEMBER EX: Males wont ask for directions if lost while females will, Why?
2006). As adults, men enjoy doing activities side by side, and they tend to use con- versation to communicate solutions. When asked a dif- ficult question—"Do you have any idea why the sky is blue?—men are more likely than women to hazard answers than to admit they don't know, a phenomenon researchers have called the male answer syndrome
Male
And what traits do straight men find desirable? Some, such as a woman's smooth skin and youthful shape, cross place and time, and they convey health and fertility (Buss, 1994). Mating with such women might give a man a better chance of sending his genes into the future. And sure enough, men feel most attracted to women whose waists (thanks to their genes or their surgeons) are roughly a third narrower than their hips—a sign of future fertility (Perilloux et al., 2010). Even blind men show this preference for women with a low waist-to-hip ratio (Karremans et al., 2010). Men are most attracted to women whose ages in the ancestral past (when ovula- tion began later than today) would be associated with peak fertility
Extra:
As environments become more similar, heredity becomes the primary source of dif- ferences. If all schools were of uniform quality, all families equally loving, and all neigh- borhoods equally healthy, then heritability would increase (because differences due to environment would decrease). But consider the other extreme: If all people had similar heredities but were raised in drastically different environments (some in barrels, some in luxury homes), heritability would be much lower. If genetic influences help explain variations in traits among indi- viduals in a group, can the same be said of trait differences between groups? Not necessarily. As we have seen, height is 90 percent heri- table, yet nutrition (an environmental factor) rather than genetic influ- ences explains why, as a group, today's adults are taller than those of a century ago. More available food has caused Americans to grow to greater heights
Survive and reproduce
As success-enhancing genes continued to be selected, behavioral tendencies and thinking and learning capacities emerged that prepared our Stone Age ancestors to survive, reproduce, and send their genes into the future, and into you.
Peer influence on behavior
At all ages, but especially during childhood and adolescence, we seek to fit in with our groups
Male more likely to have sexual desire/casual sex with different people
Both male and female are sexually motivated but on average, who thinks more about sex? Masturbates more often? Initiates more sex? Views more pornography? The answers worldwide: men, men, men, and men
EXTRA INFO? pg 158
Cultural values that vary across time and place. Should children be inde- pendent or obedient? If you live in a Westernized culture, you likely prefer independence. "You are responsible for yourself," Western fam- ilies and schools tell their children. "Follow your conscience. Be true to yourself. Discover your gifts. Think through your personal needs." A half - century ago and more, Western cultural values placed greater priority on obedience, respect, and sensitivity to others (Alwin, 1990; Remley, 1988). "Be true to your traditions," parents then taught their children. "Be loyal to your heritage and country. Show respect toward your parents and other superiors." Cultures can change.
CONT:
During early childhood—while excess connections are still on call— youngsters can most easily master such skills as the grammar and accent of another language. Lacking any exposure to language before adolescence, a person will never master any language. Likewise, lacking visual experience during the early years, a per- son whose vision is later restored by cataract removal will never achieve normal percep- tions (Gregory, 1978; Wiesel, 1982). Without that early visual stimulation, the brain cells normally assigned to vision will die or be diverted to other uses. The maturing brain's rule: Use it or lose it.
Heredity traits influenced by social environment
EX:Heredity shapes other primates' personalities, too. Macaque monkeys raised by foster mothers exhibited social behaviors that resemble their biological, rather than foster, mothers (Maestripieri, 2003). Add in the similarity of identical twins, whether they grow up together or apart, and the effect of a shared raising environment seems shockingly modest.
Cont
Early in life, we form schemas, or concepts that help us make sense of our world. Our gender schemas organized our experiences of male-female characteristics and helped us think about our gender identity, about who we are (Bem, 1987, 1993; Martin et al., 2002). Our parents help to transmit their culture's views on gender. In one analysis of 43 studies, parents with traditional gender schemas were more likely to have gender-typed children who shared their culture's expectations about how males and females should act
Female play in smaller groups
Females tend to be more interdependent. In childhood, girls usually play in small groups, often with one friend. They compete less and imitate social relationships more . Teen girls spend more time with friends and less time alone . In late adolescence, they spend more time on social-networking Internet sites . As adults, women take more pleasure in talking face to face, and they tend to use conversation more to explore relationships. women are more likely to turn to others for sup- port. They are said to tend and befriend
Similarities Male and Female
Having faced many similar challenges throughout history, males and females have adapted in similar ways: We eat the same foods, avoid the same predators, and perceive, learn, and remember similarly. It is only in those domains where we have faced differ- ing adaptive challenges—most obviously in behaviors related to reproduction—that we differ, say evolutionary psychologists.
How do we get identical twins?
Identical (monozygotic) twins develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two. Thus they are genetically identical—nature's own human clones. number of copies of those genes. That variation helps explain why one twin may have a greater risk for certain illnesses and disorders, including schizophrenia (Maiti et al., 2011). Most identical twins share a placenta during prenatal development, but one of every three sets has separate placentas. One twin's placenta may provide slightly better nourishment, which may contribute to identical twin differences
Fertilization process of twins
Identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg (same gender) fraternal twins from two (allowing them to be Male or Female)
Evocative interactions
Identical twins not only share the same genetic predispositions, they also seek and create similar experiences that express their shared genes (Kandler et al., 2012). Evoca- tive interactions may help explain why identical twins raised in different families recall their parents' warmth as remarkably similar—almost as similar as if they had been raised by the same parents.Fraternal twins have more differing recollections of their early family life—even if raised in the same family!
*Heterosexual men often misperceive a woman's friendliness as a sexual come-on
In one speed-dating study, men believed their dating partners expressed more sexual interest than the partners reported actually express- ing (Perilloux et al., 2012). This sexual overperception bias is strongest among men who require little emotional closeness before intercourse
extra
In various countries, girls are developing breasts earlier (sometimes before age 10) and reaching puberty earlier than in the past. Sus- pected triggers include increased body fat, diets filled with hormone-mimicking chemicals, and possibly greater stress due to family disruption
Male are directive and Female are democratic
Men and women also lead differently. Men tend to be more directive, telling people what they want and how to achieve it. Women tend to be more democratic, more welcom- ing of others' input in decision making Woman tend to be more supportive men tend to act as powerful peo- ple often do: talking assertively, interrupting, initiating touches, and staring. And they smile and apologize less
Correlation between evolutionary psychologist and charles darwin
Look down. Charles darwin natural selection. thats the correlation.
Male play in larger groups
Males tend to be independent. Even as children, males typically form large play groups. Boys' games brim with activity and competition, with little intimate discussion.men value freedom and self-reliance, which may help explain why men of all ages, worldwide, are less religious and pray less
Leadership styles
Men also take the lead in hunting, fighting, warring, and supporting war
Males are more physically aggressive than Female
Men generally admit to more aggression. They also commit more extreme physical violence.In romantic relationships between men and women, minor acts of physical aggression, such as slaps, are roughly equal—but extremely violent acts are mostly committed by men.
Contribution adoptive parents make in the situation
Moreover, in adoptive homes, child neglect and abuse and even parental divorce are rare. (Adoptive parents are carefully screened; natural parents are not.) So it is not sur- prising that studies have shown that, despite a somewhat greater risk of psychological disorder, most adopted children thrive, especially when adopted as infants
Social roles vary according to culture
Nomadic societies of food - gathering people have had little division of labor by sex. Boys and girls receive much the same upbringing. In agricultural societies, where women work in the nearby fields and men roam while herding livestock, cultures have shaped children to assume more distinct gender roles
Asexual
Not sexually attracted to no one.
Easy baby characteristics
Others are easy—cheerful and relaxed, feeding and sleeping on predictable schedules. Still others tend to be slow to warm up, resisting or withdrawing from new people and situations
experience influence development
Our genes dictate our overall brain architecture, but experience fills in the details. Developing neural connections prepare our brain for thought, language, and other later experiences."Handled" infants of both species develop faster neurologically and gain weight more rapidly. Preemies who have had skin-to-skin contact with their mothers sleep better, experience less stress, and show better cognitive development 10 years later
Gender identity
Our sense of being male or female or a combindation of the two
Woman
Perhaps women learn social scripts—their culture's guide to how people should act in certain situations. By watching and imitating others in their culture, they may learn that sexual encounters with strangers are dangerous, and that men who ask for casual sex will not offer women much sexual pleasure (Conley, 2011). This alternative explanation of the study's effects proposes that women react to sexual encounters in ways that their modern culture teaches them.
More gender typing
Some organize themselves into "boy worlds" and "girl worlds," each guided by rules. Others seem to prefer androgyny: A blend of male and female roles feels right to them. Androgyny has benefits. Androgynous people are more adaptable. They show greater flexibility in behavior and career choices
EXTRA:
Temperament differences typically persist. Consider: The most emotionally reactive newborns tended also to be the most reactive 9-month-olds (Wilson & Matheny, 1986; Worobey & Blajda, 1989). Exceptionally shy 6-month-olds often were still shy as 13-year-olds; over 4 in 10 chil- dren rated as consistently shy developed anxiety problems in adolescence (Prior et al., 2000). The most emotionally intense preschoolers tended to be relatively intense young adults (Larsen & Diener, 1987). In one study of more than 900 New Zealanders, emotionally reactive and impulsive 3-year - olds developed into somewhat more impulsive, aggressive, and conflict - prone 21-year - olds (Caspi, 2000). Identical twins, more than fraternal twins, often have similar temperaments (Fraley & Tancredy, 2012; Kandler et al., 2013). The genetic effect appears in physiological differences. Anxious, inhibited infants have high and variable heart rates and a reactive nervous system. When facing new or strange situations, they become more physiologically aroused
Disorders between Male and Female
The average woman enters puberty about a year earlier than the average man, and her life span is 5 years longer. She expresses emotions more freely, can detect fainter odors, and receives offers of help more often. She also has twice the risk of developing depression and anxiety and 10 times the risk of developing an eating disor- der. Yet the average man is 4 times more likely to die by suicide or to develop an alcohol use disorder. His "more likely" list includes autism spectrum disorder, color - blindness, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). And as an adult, he is more at risk for antisocial personality disorder. Male or female, each has its own share of risks.
*social script culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
The evo- lutionary explanation of sexuality predicts that women will be choosier than men in selecting their sexual partners and will be less willing to hop in bed with a complete stranger. In fact, not a single woman—but 70 percent of men—agreed to question 3.
Prenatal Environment
The formative nurture that conspires with nature begins at conception, with the prenatal environment in the womb, where embryos receive differing nutrition and varying levels of exposure to toxic agents. Nurture then continues outside the womb, where our early experiences foster brain development.
The life code
The nucleus of every human cell contains chromosomes, each of which is made up of two strands of DNA connected in a double helix. Genes are DNA segments that, when expressed (turned on) direct the development of pro- teins that influence a person's individual development.
Ex:
This power to select a child's neighborhood and schools gives parents an ability to influence the culture that shapes the child's peer group. And because neighborhood influences matter, parents may want to become involved in intervention programs that aim at a whole school or neighborhood. If the vapors of a toxic climate are seeping into a child's life, that climate—not just the child—needs reforming. Even so, peers are but one medium of cultural influence.
Separated twins
What was extraordinary about Jim Lewis, however, was that at that same moment (we are not making this up) there existed another man—also named Jim—for whom all these things (right down to the dog's name) were also true. 1 Springer—just happened, 38 years earlier, to have been his fetal partner. Thirty - seven days after their birth, these genetically identical twins were separated, adopted by blue- collar families, and raised with no contact or knowledge of each other's whereabouts until the day Jim Lewis received a call from his genetic clone (who, having been told he had a twin, set out to find him).
Male communicate to find solutions
When interacting, men have been more likely to offer opinions
Chromosomes male and famale
Whether male or female, each of us receives 23 chromosomes from our mother and 23 from our father. Of those 46 chromosomes, 45 are unisex. Our similar biology helped our evolutionary ancestors face similar adaptive challenges.
Y chromosome
Y chromosome the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
EXTRA ON NORMS
Yet each cultural group also evolves its own norms—rules for accepted and expected behavior. The British have a norm for orderly waiting in line. Many South Asians use only the right hand's fingers for eating. Sometimes social expectations seem oppressive: "Why should it matter how I dress?" Yet, norms grease the social machinery and free us from self‐preoccupation. When cultures collide, their differing norms often befuddle. Should we greet people by shaking hands, bowing, or kissing each cheek? Knowing what sorts of gestures and compliments are culturally appropriate, we can relax and enjoy one another without fear of embarrassment or insult. When we don't understand what's expected or accepted, we may experience cul- ture shock. People from Mediterranean cultures have perceived northern Europeans as efficient but cold and preoccupied with punctuality
chromosome we have 46, is composed of?
a coiled chain of the molecule DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
If you are an individualist
a great deal of your identity would remain intact. You would have an independent sense of "me," and an awareness of your unique personal convictions and values. Individualists give higher priority to personal goals. They define their identity mostly in terms of personal traits. They strive for personal control and individual achievement. Individualism is valued in most areas of North America, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. The United States is mostly an individualist culture.
Mutation
a random error in gene repli- cation that leads to a change.
Gender Role
a set of expected behav- iors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females the social expectations that guide our behavior as men or as women. Gender roles shift over time. A century ago, North American women could not vote in national elections, serve in the military, or divorce a husband without cause. And if a woman worked for pay outside the home, she would more likely have been a midwife or a seamstress, rather than a surgeon or a fashion designer. Gender roles can change dramatically in a thin slice of history.
Transgenders
an umbrella term describ- ing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.Transgender people may be sexually attracted to people of the oppo- site birth sex (heterosexual), the same birth sex (homosexual), both sexes (bisexual), or to no one at all (asexual).
Cultural norms
an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior. we differ in our language, our monetary systems, our sports, even which side of the road we drive on. But beneath these differences is our great similar- ity—our capacity for culture. Culture works. It transmits the customs and beliefs that enable us to communicate, to exchange money for things, to play, to eat, and to drive with agreed - upon rules and without crashing into one another.
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. relational aggression- an act of ag- gression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing.
Social learning theory
assumes that we acquire our gender identity in childhood, by observing and imitating others' gender-linked behaviors and by being rewarded or punished for acting in certain ways.the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
Identical twins(monozygotic twins)
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
Fraternal twins
develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordi- nary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.
Difficult baby characteristics
difficult—irritable, intense, fidgety, and unpredictable.
From their first weeks of life, some infants are noticeably ?
difficult—irritable, intense, fidgety, and unpredictable. Others are easy—cheerful and relaxed, feeding and sleeping on predictable schedules. Still others tend to be slow to warm up, resisting or withdrawing from new people and situations
What is meant by environment in nature/Nuture?
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins develop
from two separate fertilized eggs. As womb- mates, they share a prenatal environment, but they are genetically no more similar than ordinary brothers and sisters.Shared genes can translate into shared experiences. A person whose identical twin has autism spectrum disorder, for example, has about a 3 in 4 risk of being similarly diagnosed. If the affected twin is fraternal, the co-twin has about a 1 in 3 risk (Ron- ald & Hoekstra, 2011). To study the effects of genes and environments, hundreds of researchers have studied some 800,000 identical and fraternal twin pairs
Female
future, a woman must—at a minimum —conceive and protect a fetus growing inside her body for up to nine months. And unlike men, women are limited in how many children they can have between puberty and menopause. No surprise then, that heterosexual women prefer partners who will offer their joint offspring support and protection. They prefer stick- around dads over likely cads. Heterosexual women are attracted to tall men with slim waists and broad shoulders—all signs of reproductive success they prefer men who appear mature, dominant, bold, and affluent
Environments trigger?
gene activity. And our genetically influenced traits evoke significant responses in others.
individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attri- butes rather than group identifications.
Collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.
Most adoptive children take on personality of biological parents but not all
hundreds of adoptive families is that people who grow up together, whether biologically related or not, do not much resemble one another in personality.In per- sonality traits such as extraversion and agreeableness, people who have been adopted are more similar to their biological parents than to their caregiving adoptive parents. Seven in eight adopted children have reported feeling strongly attached to one or both adoptive parents. As children of self - giving parents, they have grown up to be more self - giving and altruistic than average.Many scored higher than their biological parents on intelligence tests, and most grew into happier and more stable adults.
Gender
in psychology, the socially in- fluenced characteristics by which people define men and women.Our gender is the product of the interplay among our biological dispositions, our developmental experiences, and our current situations
culture
is the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Secondary Sex characteristics
non- reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
*Temperament
personality—temperament (emotional reactiv- ity and excitability) is quickly apparent, and it is genetically influenced
Role
role a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
Female are likely to site affection as their
sexual experience
Genes?
small segments of the giant DNA molecules, form the words of those chapters (FIGURE 4.1). All told, you have 20,000 to 25,000 genes, which are either active (expressed) or inactive. Environmental events "turn on" genes, rather like hot water enabling a tea bag to express its flavor. When turned on, genes provide the code for creating protein molecules, our body's building blocks.
Attractiveness/Attributes characteristics Male and Female what is it?
straight men find desirable woman's smooth skin and youthful shape, cross place and time, and they convey health and fertility. -Heterosexual women are attracted to tall men with slim waists and broad shoulders—all signs of reproductive success they prefer men who appear mature, dominant, bold, and affluent
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
molecular behavior genetics
the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.
Evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular struc- ture and function of genes.
Pruning (neurons)
this pruning process results in a massive loss of unemployed connections Nature and nurture interact to sculpt our synapses. Brain maturation provides us with an abundance of neural connections. Experiences trigger sights and smells, touches and tugs, and activate and strengthen connections. Unused neural pathways weaken. Like forest pathways, popular tracks are broadened and less-traveled ones gradually disappear.
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
Research with twin adoptions
twin and adoption studies tell us that heredity influences body weight, but there is no single "obesity gene." More likely, some genes influence how quickly the stomach tells the brain, "I'm full." Others might dictate how much fuel the muscles need, how many calo- ries are burned off by fidgeting, and how efficiently the body converts extra calories into fat
Gender typing
typing—taking on the traditional male or female role—varies from child to child the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
cont.
we are the product of a cascade of interactions between our genetic predispositions and our surrounding environments. Our genes affect how people react to and influence us. Forget nature versus nurture; think nature via nurture.
If you are a collectivist
you might experience a greater loss of identity. Cut off from family, groups, and loyal friends, you would lose the connections that have defined who you are. Group identifications provide a sense of belonging, a set of values, and an assurance of security in collectivist cultures.
