PSYCHOLOGY- gender

Discuss prevalence of GID in entire population?

0.005% male to female transsexuals 0.002% female to male transsexuals

Years of Margaret meads life?

1901-1978

What are the evaluations of meads study ?

2 years a long time (valid, reliable)- long enough to understand culture well Natural sweating so high in ecological validity Investigator bias- preconceived notions, ethnocentric believing it was due to culture, disregarded info that made her simple, classifications untenable She lived in us navy chief pharmacist house instead of open sided somoan house. Therefore she lived in western style house. Young visitors stopped by to socialise at all hours- dancing and singing and providing her with research (show- not representative or reliable because shrieking a side of culture that didn't really represent all of culture- participant bias) Observation (subjective)

When does gender schema start to develop ?

2-3yrs

When does gender constancy develop in gender schema theory?

5-6yrs (children understand what people like me do)

What are the evaluations of conditioning as an explanation of GID?

70% GIB boys had no biological cause but all experienced a common lack of stereotypical male role models Bennet points out that while SLT explains cross gender behaviours. It cannot explain strength of beliefs individuals process concerning being working sex

Hermaphrodite?

A person with both male and female sex organs

What are the symptoms of GID for children ?

A strong preference for games toys activities stereotypical of the other gender A strong preference for cross dressing in make believe or fantasy Clinical significant distress or impairment in major areas of functioning such as social relationships, school and home life Incongruence between child's experience/expressed gender and gender they were assigned at birth - present for at least 6 months

Explain genetics and hormones as explanation of GID?

Abnormal hormone or genetic patterns so over exposure or under exposure to androgens or androgen insensitive syndrome (can't process it) abusing masculinisation or feminisation

How does the media represent women and men differently?

Actors have speaking roles- females didn't and were more sexualised in films Women more emphasised for appearance, clothes (whole body) so difference in standards whilst men wore more appropriate clothing In Disney- women as cleaners, in abusive relationships but now in films more independent and heroic Advertising- girls playing with tills (emphasising we should have minor jobs), cooking games Boys was loud music, outside, construction

When does gender role behaviour become apparent?

After understanding emerges that gender is fixed and constant

What's atypical gender development ?

An abnormal condition where a person feels a mismatch between their biological sex (external sex characteristics ) and gender identity (psychological experience of oneself as female or male) DISCOMFORT

What are atypical chromosome patterns brought about by?

Any combination of chromosomes that are not XX or XY.

Explain anatomy and physiology brain sex as explanation of GID?

Are of hypothalamus (stria terminalis nucleus ) bigger in men than women Controls sex and gender behaviour

What does identification require?

Attachment to a specific same sex role model that possesses characteristics that an individual would like for themselves. By identifying with the same sex model, the person is adding characteristics to themselves

Why is condry and condry study good as evidence for SLT?

Because many other studies have been done (live, adults asked to interact with baby) smith and Lloyd - snow suits (sometimes name in line with gender) Boys- vigorous explore Girls- gentle, depend on teacher Stern and karraker- child even more influenced by name

Explain the social learning theory development of gender?

Beliefs that gender diffrrrnces are learned by observation, imitation, modelling, the behaviour of the same sex models. Based on operant conditioning, as children are seen to be positively reinforced for behaving in gender appropriate ways and punished for behaving in gender inappropriate ways So girls and boys learn dissimilar gender roles because they're treated differently by their parents

Name and describe a study of gender influence from the media on women and men . . ..

Benbow and Stanley (1980) Aim- investigate impact of media coverage on parents opinions of their own children's maths abilities Method- parent of adolescents were targeted as the population most likely to be influenced by the research findings. Media reports coming support the idea that males are better than females at maths Results- response to surveys prior to media were recontacted and reassessed Conclusion: research reported in the media can have an effect in the beliefs of people who are exposed to it

Define sex?

Biological term which refers to biological differences between males and females including anatomy, physiology, hormones, brain chemsitry

What's androgyny ?

Both male and female characteristics in personality and or behaviour which is beneficial as you can act masculine in some situations (workplace) and feminine in others (nurturing home) Andro-male Gyn- female

Explain gender identity stage?

Child can label own sex correctly and apply labels to others

What's the assumption of gender schema theory?

Children actively seek out information from their group and look to environment to develop schemas

Explain Martin and halversons, gender schema theory?

Children learn a set of rules about what it means to be male or female from the cultures they live in. They therefore learn from people they see and organise their cognitive structures around the information they take in. Children adjust their behaviour to fit in with gender norms and expectations of their culture.

Explain gender schema theory?

Children learn a set of rules about what it means to be males and females from the culture which they live in. They therefore learn from people they see and organise their cognitive structures around the information they have taken in. Children adjust their behaviour to fit in with gender norms and expectations of their culture. Like STL see children learn appropriate patterns of behaviour by observations

Describe 3 stages of gender schema development ?

Children learn what things are associated with each sex and categorise toys and activities accordingly. Gender scripts develop- sequences of events what go with each gender (reinforcements involved) Children now able to make links between different schemas allowing them to predict other things. Only make links with own sex (4-6) Children can link to both sexes now (8-10)

Define culture?

Collective knowledge, experiences, belief, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion and notions of normality that are shared by a group of people e.g. America- guns/ Britain-beatles

Name two types of evidence for SLT?

Condry and condry Fagot and leinbach

What are the evaluations of SLT ?

Condry and condry Fagot and leinbach Cognitive explanations Biological explains- hormones and chromosomes Research concentrated too heavily on children's learning of gender not necessarily provide evidence for how people confine to develop their roles roles throughout life Much of research lacks ecological validity Supportive research comes from observational research (prone to observer bias) Theory fails to account for individual differences in gender identities gained by two brothers brought up in the same household Doesn't show how children's preparedness to imitate a gender role behaviour depends more on whether the behaviour is seen as gender appropriate than the sexual of the model demonstrating it. These findings suggest that cog processes play a greater role in the leanrning in gender Some aspects of gender role behaviour your appear to be universal to all cultures (men more aggressive, regardless of culture) so some aspects of gender role are a result of innate? Genetic influences that STL doesn't take into account

Explain conditioning theory as explanation of GID?

Cross gender behaviours tolerated or even encouraged

Explain female identification and internalisation of Electra complex?

Daughter believes herself to be in competition for possession of her father, a feeling she represses for fear of losing the love of her mother. She incorporates personality permitting her to internalise the female gender. Now has a sense of female Identity. Because a girl think she's already been castrated Freud saw girls as being less fearful than boys. Also believed female identification was as strong as male identification If she doesn't resolve the complex she will be confused about her sexual identity

Whats modelling?

Demonstrating the behaviour of a dame sex model that a relationship is formed with e.g. Mother or father

What are the assumption of gender from biologically approach?

Differences in males and female are due to differences in chromosome and hormones which causes brain differences. Gender is not jthrej but is determined by DNA, chromosomes and hormones. The 23rd chromosome determined biological sex. While genetics produce physical sex of baby, it is how their biology interacts with the hormones which impacts in gender. If an embryo is male the testes produce testosterone which in puberty causes facial hair to grow, voice to break etc. These characteristics are masculine and promote a masculine gender identity l. Oestrogen in women causes onset of menstruation and growth of breast in preparing for motherhood. It also has behavioural effects such as premenstraul tension

What's the conclusion?

Each culture represented a different type within her theory

Define culture bias?

Ethnocentrism- strong human tendency to use our own cultural groups norms and values to define what's normal and correct in other cultures

Explain klinefelters syndrome?

Extra X so small testes that produce insufficient amount of testosterone after birth and during puberty. Male sex characteristics do not develop fully. They have poor language skills and a passive temperament This occurs due to error in cell division

What's the psychodynamic explanation of gender?

First 2 stages (anal and oral)- bisexual, no gender, identity, no differences visibly in behaviour. When child enters phallic stage (3-5yrs) its libido life force is seen as increasingly forced upon its genitals and its in this stage that a child's gender identity develops through resolution of either Oedipus complex or Electra complex

Explain psychodynamic explanation of GID? (Stages)

First 2 stages oral and anal they are bisexual no gender identity no difference visibly in behaviour. When child enters phallic stage 3-5yrs its libido is increasingly forced upon its genitals and its in this stage that the child develop gender indenture for resolution of both complexes

What are the evaluation of anatomy and physiology as explanation of GID?

Garcia- role of interstitial nucleus of anterior hypothalamus. Post mortem brains. INAH similar in trans-females and females. Therefore must cause an early change in sexual differentiation of brain that's related to gender identity Zhou- differ fe in those with GID, similar to gender they identify with Wallien Inconsistencies

What did mead study?

Gender differences between beauteous tribes in Papua New Guinea (closer to natural evolutionary beings which is quite patronising as she said they have not evolved and developed-inferior)

List the three stages children develop an understanding of gender from cognitive perspective . .

Gender identity Gender stability Gender constancy

Explain gender constancy stage?

Gender of self and others remains the same overtime and in situations e.g. A man in a dress is just a man in a dress Thinking and understanding as the basis behind gender identity and gender role behaviour Develop gender concepts to suit their own gender

Explain gender stability stage?

Gender remains same overtime as they understand that they were annoy are a boy and will continue to be a boy. They rely heavily on external appearances.

What are the evaluations of androgyny as a whole?

Good test retest reliability- performed on different occasions and same results Peters and Cantrell used BSRI to find that androgynous females had best quality relationships, supporting ideas that it's a positive condition and is associated with higher interpersonal functioning than individuals who are predominantly masculine and feminine Rose and mantemayor 25-30% were androgynous in high school with more girls having it. Supports idea that sex roles are less rigid in older children Flaherty and dusek higher self esteem, emotional wellbeing and adaptable behaviour

What are the evaluations of hormones and genetics as an explanation of GID?

Hare- association between transsexualism and AR gene, they had longer AR gene than non transsexual men. Gender identity is said to be affected by androgen receptor as it would fail to masculinise brain during foetal development as long version results in weaker testosterone signals (cause transsexual- females) Wallien 5-12yr Then at 16-25yrs 27% still GID but 43% were not. Most children do not retain gender dysphoria after puberty Some studies have sown no biological evidence so inconsistencies Gladue found very few hormonal differences between GID men , homosexuals and heterosexuals (biological determinism)

What are bems beliefs about androgyny ?

Have different cognitive style and adopt behaviours

What are olds beliefs about androgyny?

High development stage only reached by some. Become androgynous when they perceive world without gender

Briefly describe main idea behind cognitive theory of gender development ?

How child think about gender develop as thinking occurs in qualitatively different stages. Gender identity result from children actively structuring their experiences from interacting with world rather than being passive as seen in SLT

What are general evaluations of the media as a cause of gender identity?

If media influences have a negative influence, equally they should be able to create and promote positive non-gender role stereotypes (Johnston and ettema) Gender development is largely though to occur at age 4. Media influences are not thought to be strong in this age group and so their impact is concluded to be low Biological evaluation- believe in nature not nurture so what about hormones and chromosomes Behaviourist evaluation- media not as much direct reinforcemen (not mediating processes such as attention, retention, reproduction, motivation)- TV normally background noise don't pay attention (cause) Teleological argument Simplistic to see children as passive recipients of media messages as they activity select events to respond to (cog)

What was Bems sex role inventory?

In 1970s masculinity and femininity were argued to be independent dimensions rather than opposite ends of same continuum/range 60 items rated on seven point scale (20 male, 20 female, 20 neutral) Individuals score separately on feminist and masculinity

Name and describe a study of gender influence from the media on girls and boys . . ..

Johnson and ettema To investigate if presenting girls in the gender role and stereotype as a boy (mechanic) Significant reduction in stereotyping after watching programme

What are the two syndromes called of atypical chromosome patterns ?

Klinefelters (biologically male) Turners (biologically female)

Explain two circumstances which show gender inequality?

LEDCS due to lack of education, economy and capitalist views (religion) Women are paid averagely less than men because of maternity leave

What are the evaluations of ettema and johnsons study?

Lack temporal validity( nature of to had changed- we can watch a box set all in one go) Demand characteristics Subjective Mundane realism (ecologically valid)

Explanation of androgyny from cognitive aspect?

Learned from culture and experience, gender schemas theory, thought processes Schema develops through childhood and adolescence. Develop in social and family setting that is rewarding for this mix of female and male characteristics Some believe that androgyny developed when schema move beyond stereotypes and becomes a lifestyle choice (perhaps because young children's ideas are rigid about sex roles and there is little androgyny among children before 9, but when 11, signs of androgyny appear with children showing variation in what they believe masculinity and feminiyy are

Describe fagot and leinbachs study ?

Longitudinal- focus on families (found parables directly teach gendered behaviour to children) Gender appropriate encouraged. Tendency strong amongst parents who held strongly gendered stereotyped attitudes (5yrs

Evaluations of psychodynamic explanation for GID?

Lothstein suggested that female to male transsexuals had not got female gender identity as their mother provided incoherent role modelling Nuture Friedman found when a story started with child doing something with opposite sex parent and then same sex parent joined it was sadder Historical importance and stimulated research Unfalsifiable as cannot be tested (can't measure libido) Ignores social learning Androcentric Ignores nature/biological approach Malinowski island boys showed hostility but towards maternal uncle may be due to discipline rather than jealousy

What are the evaluations of separation theory as explanation of GID?

Lowry and zucker found that 60% GID boys had high level of separation anxiety Cole found no higher % of separation GID people than normal 435 sample Teleological argument

What are the evaluations of the gender schema theory ?

Martin 4/5yrs old children shown a range of toys. Before they played with the toys they were told wheeler they were boy or girl toys. Children then asked f they would like to play with toys. The label given to toy affected the preference the child gave it. Supports gender schema as they have organised and categorised objects and match to gender behaviour Campbell- 3 groups of Babies 3,9,18 months used a visual preference technique (3 months- slight preferences to watching same sex babies) (9 months- males prefer to look at boys toys) (18months- both preferred watching activities that matched their gender) babies develop gender schemas before they can even talk Elements of both nature and nuture - innate ability to learn about gender/ cultural sky determined by what we do learn Gender schema theory explains why children are more likely to model gender appropriate behaviour rather than imitating same sex Explains whys children's attitudes and behaviours are rigid/lasting Masters 4/5yrs children selected toys by gender label rather then which gender was playing with toy When children perform activities not normally stereotypical of their gender, the adjust their thinking so activity become acceptable. This implies thinking if affected by behaviour Too deterministic (doesn't allow for individual differences) Intangle so unfalsifiable Ignores biological approach Reductionist- all gender oriented behaviour created through cog means Theory predict that gender schema develop causing children to display behaviour with consistent gender perception. Campbell contradicts 3yr boys and girls who have high levels of gender knowledge did not display preferences to play with specific toys

List the number of sources reinforcement and punishment comes from . .

Model From within guilt Third party Vicarious reinforcement

Two negative evaluations of gender stereotyping ?

Negative sex role stereotyping such as females being inferior due to lack of strength are overemphasised as typical behaviour and such differences are then perceived as natural differences, thus reinforcing the stereotype, making it harder to break down Categorising behaviours occupation qualities as either masculine or feminine may place a restrictive barriers on positive roles that both males and females could play in society like males are nursery teacher (only 3%)

Explain turners syndrome ?

Occurs at conception - incomplete X chromosome and have XO. Poor spatial and mathematical skills

What's kohlbergs theory of gender constancy influenced by?

Piagets cognitive development theory (stages of understanding as their biological maturity allowed

Define gender?

Refers to social and cultural aspects associated with males and females including personality traits, attitudes, behaviour. Gender can change over time and between and within cultures (way you act and identify yourself) E.g. Thailand has three genders- masculine, feminine, lady boys Culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males based on meaning or belief

What are the evaluations of kohlbergs gender cognitive theory?

Research suggest that gender identify/stability/constancy occurs in That order in many cultures (biological mechanism) Holistic not reductionist as it combines SL and biological Mcconaghy 3.5-4yrs used hairlengtj and clothes to decide sex and if a doll was dressed in transparent clothing they would decide its gender on clothes rather than genitals support gender stability stage Ruble studied gender constancy and adverts on tv. Children sensitive to message that certain toys are right/wrong for boys and girls. Their behaviours towards a toy was influenced by how gender suitable it was. They stick to gender roles their cognition supports Can't predict why children show gender specific behaviour before gender constancy (even in infancy, boys and girls show preferences for stereotypical male and female toys) Underestimated age that gender occurs (berns says 2yrs) Overlooks cultural and social factors like parents and friends Lacks depth in explanation (outline but doesn't expanding how developments occur)

What occurs in early adolescence in gender schema theory?

Rules are just seen as social conventions and gender role schemas become more flexible. Teenagers abandon autonomic assumption of what gender roles are preferable ( minority are androgynous)

Explanation of androgyny from social aspect?

SLT, role models, identification, reinforcement but ignores biological and didn't explain why some people identify with androgyny and not normal gender identity

Explain attachment theory explanation of GID?

Separation turns into depression over a long period of time PDD occurs Try to reestablish link by acting like them

What were meads results?

She found a different pattern of male and female behaviour in each of cultures studied, all different from gender role expectations in United States. Arapesh- both gentle, responsive, cooperative, caring, feminine Mundugmor- both males and females are masculine, aggressive, violent, seeking power Tchambuli- there are distinct temperaments between males and females (women dominant, impersonal, seeking power whilst men are emotionally dependent, less responsible)

What are the evaluations of benbow and Stanley ?

Shows it developed in adult High ecologically validity Repeated measures- no ID Supports SLT High in mundane Realism Bias because they're own children Repeated measures- guess aim demand characteristics Lacks population validity Lack temporal validity

What two psychological explanations are there for androgyny ?

Social and cognitive

What are the two types of explanation for GID?

Social explanation and biological explanation

What is the problem with having two types of gender?

Some People don't identify as one gender

Gender role?

Stereotypical activities of males and females within their society

Symptoms of adults with GID?

Strong desire for primary and secondary sex characterises of other gender and so get rid of their own Strong conviction that one has typical feeling and reactions of other sex Strong desire to be treated as the other sex

Evaluations of bem androgyny test?

Subjective- interpret words differently Subjective Experimenter bias- pick questions and bem was feminist (characteristics chosen to portray each gender based on bems own ideas and culture) not all cultures would agree leadership to be male Socially desirable answers Self report- people not best judges of own characteristics and score does not reflect everyone's self concept Ignores physical appearance No temporal validity

Sexuality?

The direction of sexual feelings a person has

Why is gender such a sensitive issue?

There's been gender equality

Explain condry and condry study as evidence supporting SLT?

They wanted to find out the direction of influence between children's sex and they way they're typically treated by their parents and other adults. 200 adults women and men- videotape of a 9 month old baby introduced to some as a boy (David) or as a girl (Dana). In appearance and dress, the baby was neither masculine or feminine. The baby was shown responding to various toys and being scared by a jack in the box and a loud buzzer. The adults were asked to describe the emotion the baby portrayed. The baby was judged differently depending on gender label Differences between male and female infants appeared to be in the eye of the beholder

How has gender developed?

Through evolution, culturally evolved too

Explain male identification and internalisation of Oedipus complex . . .

To resolve conflict it identifies with father (identification with aggressor) incorporate his fathers personality, boys begin to have a sense of male identity if he overcomes Oedipus complex If he doesn't he would be confused about his sexual identity and could be homosexual

Define sex role stereotypes ?

Types of qualities and characteristics seem as appropriate for each sex

What are the evaluations of the biological explanation of gender identity ?

Young-mice Money and ehrhardt- sample of girls whose mums were on testosterone drugs David reimer Batista family- had 8 week experience at 13 Deady- women's attitudes of having children Scientific testability Evolutionary approach agrees- gender has roots in biology, gender behaviour encoded into genes Gerianne Alexander and melissa Hines- monkeys Difficult to research role of horned in sex and gender on humans in a non-invasive way Animal experimentation- hard to generalise and different biological anatomy, cognitive process, physiology functioning brain Simplistic to perceive single hormones as having exclusive effects upon sex and gender. Often part of biological mechanism that exert complex actions Hines- congenital adrenal hyperplasia Goldwyn- Blackwell Ignores nurture/SLT Deterministic- genes only predispose us to ended behavioursA they do not indicate how we choose to behave Ignore cognitive explanation Research methods (social desirability, correlations, generalisability) Socially sensitive

Define androgynous ?

combination of masculine and feminine characteristics (said by society at least) in their personality and appearance