Psychology midterm 2 umn

Method of Loci

relies on the imagery of places- think of a path which you remember vividly and imagine yourself going through it in order to locate the things in your memory along a certain checkpoint.

Which of the following statements about intelligence and the brain is true?

((((((d. Human brain size correlates between 0.3 and 0.4 with intelligence.))))))))

Pure nature and nurture accounts

- this nurture theory says that children learn to imitate language, but this does not tell the whole story because language is generative. This means that language is not just a set of predefined sentences and structures that we can pull out and use in appropriate contexts. The complete nature theory or nativist account says that children are born with an innate idea of how language is formed, but they precise rules they must follow occur during nurture. One psychologist proposed that there is a specific area in the brain that houses linguistic information- he called this the language aquisition device. this nurture theory says that children learn to imitate language, but this does not tell the whole story because language is generative. This means that language is not just a set of predefined sentences and structures that we can pull out and use in appropriate contexts. The complete nature theory or nativist account says that children are born with an innate idea of how language is formed, but they precise rules they must follow occur during nurture. One psychologist proposed that there is a specific area in the brain that houses linguistic information- he called this the language aquisition device.

Who was Ebbinghaus, and what was his forgetting curve?

-A German researcher who tested his own recollection across differing time intervals. He found out that most of our forgetting occurs almost immediately after learning new material, with less and less forgetting after that. -Shows how much faster information he relearned the second time following various delays

What is the misinformation effect? Who is Elizabeth Loftus? What kinds of things increase the likelihood of false memories?

-Creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place. -Psychologist who studied false memories. She found that procedures that strongly encourage people to recall memories often create recollections that were never present to begin with. -It's easier to implant memory of a plausible event or a fictitious memory of an event from the distant path for which we have hazy or no recall than of an event form the recent past we are likely to remember.

What is Sensory memory? What is its capacity, duration and function? How did the Sperling study measure the duration and capacity of sensory memory?

-Info from the external environment. Tied closely to the perceptions of the world. -It holds these perceptions for just a few seconds or less before passing some of them to short-term memory. Very large, scenic capacity. Its function is to briefly sustain sensations long enough for identification. Once info gets in, it only sticks around from ½ to 3 seconds.

A couple has adopted three children from Korea and reared them in a loving home--two of the children are MZ twins and the third is unrelated to the first two. As adults, researchers find that a correlation of .6 on various personality characteristics between the MZ twins. Which of the following correlations would the researchers expect to find between the MZ twins and their adopted sister? Select one: a. .6 b. -.3 c. .3 d. .0

0

Four schedules of reinforcement

1. Fixed ratio- we provide reinforcement after a regular number of responses. 2. Variable ratio- we provide reinforcement based on an average of given responses, but the exact number differs between trials. These usually result in the highest rate of respondents overall- this is how gambling works. 3. Fixed interval- provide reinforcement after a certain amount of time has passed- for example a worker gets paid every friday. These usually have a scalloped response pattern- the animal waits for a time after it receives reinforcement and then increases its rate of responding just before the interval is up. 4. Variable interval- provide reinforcement after an average time interval, but the exact time varies between trials.

Differences between CC and Operant Conditioning

1. In the CC the response is involuntarily pulled out of the organism and does not require training, but in OC the organism must complete a voluntary act/behavior or in other words the organisms response is emitted. 2. In operant conditioning the reward is dependent on the actions of the organism- but in classical conditioning the organism received the reward no matter what action it takes. 3. In CC the organisms learning depends highly on the autonomic nervous system- changes in heart rate, breathing, etc. But in OC the learning mainly has to do with the skeletal muscles or changes in voluntary motor behavior.

Four major theoretical accounts of how babies understand language:

1. Pure nature and nuture accounts 2. The social pragmatics account 3. The general cognitive processing account

Hurdles to problem solving:

1. Salience of surface similarities: 2. Mental sets 3. Functional Fixedness

According to skinner punishment has many disadvantages

1. The person that is learning how not to do one behavior should be taught how to do another (reinforcement) and cannot properly deal with their frustration without it. 2. Punishment can create anxiety and interfere with future learning 3. Punishment can encourage subversive behavior- sneakier in situations where they cannot display hidden behavior 4. Punishment could provide a model for children's aggressive behavior- most scientists agree that punishment is correlated with this effect- many families have a cycle of abuse where the abused person becomes violent themselves. But other things like aggression heritability could also be at fault here. It is also possible that low levels of punishment but not abuse are helpful in teaching children. This may also vary in different cultures- in cultures where abuse/punishment is stigmatized children are more likely to have issues than in those which it is not.

renewal effect

A related phenomenon called the renewal effect is when we extinguish a response from an animal other than in the environment from which the animal learned it, but when returned to the original setting the CR reappears. This explains why phobias return to people in the place they acquired them from. This effect is adaptive- it is a good idea for us to be on the lookout for certain things in the same environment like a deadly snake.

framing

Another factor that influences our decision making is framing which is how a question if formulated or suggested- this can lead people to make irrational decisions and can influence surveys and more.

predictive validity.

Another test of validity is its ability to predict future outcomes

Analyzing the Event in Operant Conditioning

ABC MODEL One way to think about the behavioral event is "ABC:" An initial Situation (the Antecedent) is followed by a voluntary Behavior; the behavior causes a Consequence that influences whether the behavior will be repeated or not Antecedent: This is the situation before the behavior occurs. Sometimes something in the environment signals the presence of reinforcement. In other words, if the organism behaves now, it will get a reward. We call this the Discriminative Stimulus. It occurs before the voluntary behavior and is part of the Antecedent or initial Situation. Behavior: In operant conditioning, behavior is emitted voluntarily and is under the control of the organism. Consequence: The consequences of a behavior has two parts. --First, the behavior may result in something added or removed from the environment. --Second, the consequence of the behavior may be satisfying or aversive. If the consequence of the behavior is satisfying, it is likely to be repeated. If the consequence of the behavior is dissatisfying, the behavior is less likely to be repeated.

What are the key concepts from Classical Conditioning (module)?

ACQUISITION. This refers to the process of learning that a neutral stimulus (soon to be the CS) signals the occurrence of the automatic (UCS -> UCR) event. We know that acquisition is occurring when the CS begins to produce the conditioned response (CR). For acquisition to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to be presented shortly before the (UCS -> UCR) event (1/2 second before the UCS is optimal). 2. EXTINCTION. This is the process of learning that the CS no longer signals the occurrence of the automatic (UCS -> UCR) event. Once the relationship between the CS and the (UCS -> UCR) event is broken, the CS becomes a neutral object again. It no longer produces the Conditioned Response. Extinction occurs when the CS is presented over and over without being followed by the automatic (UCS -> UCR) event. Eventually the organism will stop producing the CR in response to the CS. 3. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY Spontaneous recovery can appear after Extinction has broken the association between the CS and (UCR-->UCS) event. When this happens, the CR, the conditioned response, spontaneously re-emerges in response to the CS. A person doesn't "forget" a CR -> CS connection; he or she just learns to inhibit it. 4. HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING Once a previously neutral object has been conditioned to elicit a response, other stimuli can be conditioned to signal the original CS. This higher order CS also produces a CR, somewhat weaker, but still present. We are not going to do much with higher-order conditioning in Psy 1001, but just remember that the model is more complicated than the simple model we describe in Psy 1001 In Classical conditioning, the learning that occurs is passive

propranolol

Adrenaline and norepinephrine is released in the face of stress and stimulate protein receptors on nerve cells which solidify emotional memories. This drug may blunt the painful memories of traumatic incidents by blocking receptors. It is suggested that propranolol should be used along with psychotherapy to treat PTSD. But, this pill did not erase the entire impact of the traumatic events and there is a ethical debate about when and when it should not be used.

REM

After 15-20 minutes we return to stage two and then into high gear, high frequency, low amplitude waves resembling weakness. This is REM sleep. This stage has increased heart rate and blood pressure and lasts around 10-15 minutes before we go back to restart our sleep cycle. Many vivid dreams occur during this time (although not only during this time) and can be emotional, illogical, and have plot changes, and long. Non-rem dreams are short, repetitive, and usually about everyday topics. REM sleep is biologically essential- rats die without it after a few weeks- when humans are sleep deprived and then sleep we experience REM rebound which is when the amount and intensity of REM increases During REM the middle of our ears become active as though we are listening for our dreams. Individuals who are blind also engage in REM. During REM our bodies are relaxed and our brain's are alert- REM is called paradoxical sleep because it paralyzes our body- otherwise we would act out our dreams

The triarchic model says that there is three domains of intelligence:

Analytical smarts- is the ability to reason logically. This is how people do well on IQ tests and college entrance exams. Creativity- this is the ability to come up with novel and effective solutions to problems. Practical or street smarts - this is called tacit intelligence and is the ability to solve real world problems, especially those relating to other people. This may also be related to social intelligence. These are probably not independent of g and may even be the s categories of g that have been talked about. While overall it is clear we all possess different weaknesses and strengths it is not clear if they are independent of each other.

Animals most frequent communication and learning styles

Animals communicate similarly and differently than humans do, but most species have fixed ways of communicating a few messages but no way to express new ideas. The most common circumstances that animals communicate during are sex and violence. Attempts to teach animals human language have been very unsuccessful- vocal control has not been achieved in chimpanzees (although they can learn sign language- but this took a lot of repetition, they had a small vocabulary, and never mastered syntax ), but orangutans may be able to do this. Bonobos are closer genetically to humans and did the best when learning signs- they learned best through observation and learned best when they were young but never mastered syntax. African gray parrots are able to mimic human sounds but it may go beyond that- they can use it to convey their understanding of concepts and their learning processes are similar to humans and bonobos.

semantic memory

Occurs when we try to recall basic facts such as years, dates, candidates, etc and occurs in the left frontal cortex.

behavorial Pyschology

As the name suggests, behavioral psychology focuses on behavior. To be more precise, it focuses exclusively on observable behavior. An "observable behavior" is a movement or action of an individual or animal that can be observed and measured. In the 1970s, Behavioral psychology was largely replaced by Cognitive Psychology, the study of how humans think about, remember and represent our experiences. Many linguists and cognitive psychologists criticized behavioral psychologists for their failure to explain language acquisition. The critics claimed (correctly) that behavioral models could not explain how children learn to speak perfectly in less than three years. Behavioral Psychology, part of the experimental tradition in Psychology, was the dominant paradigm in Psychology during the 20th century, roughly between 1920 and 1980. Their underlying assumption was that all behavior can be explained by contingencies in the environment.

What are echoic and iconic memory? What is the duration of each of these?

Auditory sensory memory (5-10 seconds) -Visual sensory memory (.5 seconds)

comprehension precedes production

Babies learn words through one key principle called comprehension precedes production- kids can interpret and recognize words long before they can reproduce them because they cannot physically reproduce it. Children start to produce words around their first birthday and slowly their vocabulary booms. Kids make consistent mistakes with what words mean and how to use them-

Inductive reasoning

Begins with obersvations or questions

general intelligence or g

Binets and simon tests always had above a negative or 0 correlation- this means that if a person got one question right they were more likely to get another. Because of this phenomenon Spearman hypothesized that general intelligence or g existed and that it explained the overall intellectual differences between all people. G seemed to correspond with the strength of someone's mental engine- some people with more powerful brain's have more general intelligence. This implies that some people are just plain smarter than others-

What is blindsight? Which area of the brain seems to be able to operate without conscious awareness? What is the evidence for this claim?

Capacity of the unconscious brain- information one is unaware of processing Blindsight- ability of blind people with damage to their cortex to make correct guesses about the appearance of things around them. Vision seems to be able to operate without conscious awareness. Evidence is the Rhesus Monkey Helen and Blind man avoiding obstacles.

Classical conditioning (module)

Classical conditioning occurs when an organism learns the relationship between "events" in the environment. The researcher most associated with this form of learning is Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936), a Russian physiologist. Pavlov articulated the importance of Contiguity in learning; sometimes this principle is even called Pavlov's Law of Contiguity. He found that when a neutral stimulus reliably signals the occurrence of an event, the originally neutral stimulus will begin to elicit behavior similar to the event.

Creativity

Creativity has two parts: novel and useful. Creativity is measured using tests of divergent thinking which is the capacity to generate many solutions to a problem. To do this we must also be good at convergent thinking or being able to find the single best answer to a problem. Creativeness is not highly correlated with intelligence- they are often plagued by emotions, not agreeable, and take bold intellectual risks. Creativity and bipolar disorder may be linked- they have maniac periods where they productivity and can artistically create something. Creative people produce both quantity and quality of work.

Here are some following misconceptions about sign language

Deaf people can lip read so sign language is not necessary- in reality they can only understand about 35% of what is being said and rely on context for the rest ASL is word for word translation into english- this is not true and ASl has completely different syntax than english and is similar to french sign language. Learning how to sign slows down how fast children will learn to speak- but in reality the reverse is true.

Decision making

Decision making is the process of selecting among a set of alternatives. Each decision is an either/or choice, but many factors come into play for each decision. For most decisions we we weigh the considerations quickly and unconsciously (implicitly)- overall this is system one thinking- rapid and intuitive. When decisions are large they are usually carefully considered and under explicit thinking- this is system two thinking and is analytical and slow. Both systems of decision making can be better at different times- when making an emotional preference decision thinking can get us into a lot of trouble- we just need to go with our guts. This is because our minds can be overridden with too much complex information and become paralyzed by analysis. But, while evaluating scientific claims slow thinking is better- such as business planning, organizational tools, etc.

What are the two types of questions that the science of Consciousness needs to answer? How can these be studied?

First person data- subjective experience (hard) Third person data- behavioral and brain processes (easier)

deja vu

Deja vu is the experience of having something seem familiar even though it has not been.

Which neurotransmitter is associated with operant conditioning?

Dopamine

homesigns

During multiple studies they found that deaf people who had hearing parents and never learned sign language developed homesigns or they invented their own signs for things, but they never developed a full blown language. They also studied kids who received cochlear implants at various ages- children who were younger tended to have better language abilities.

Memory illusions

False but subjectively compelling memory

Psychedelics

Hallucinogens or psychedelics are those which alter mood, behavior, or personality. Marijuana is the most commonly used drug in america- its primary effects come from THC with a very short high. It usually increases hunger, good feelings and as the drug wears off causes sleepiness and introspection. In large doses it can disturb short term memory or affect emotions and occasionally psychotic episodes. THC moves through the bloodstream to the brain where it fills cannabinoid receptors which control pleasure, pain, memory, and body movements. This drug probably does not have any long term side effects besides increased risks for cancer and damage to cells, impair memory, or memory over time. Normal cognitive function is usually restored after a month of abstinence. Fake or synthetic marijuana is herbs sprayed with chemicals with marijuana like effects and can cause panic attacks, hallucinations, and vomiting. Marijuana is described as a gateway drug, and that is often true although we do not know why.

manifest content

He believed dreams had to be studied to understand them- they had manifest content which are the details of the dreams themselves

Descriptive approach

How we actually solve problems. Help study inductive reasoning ; how should they go about -Normative: what is the best way to do this; how should they go about this -Descriptive: assumption that people are rational and people will do wha;s in their best interest. Provides a baseline.

mental energy

IQ is correlated with academic success, but not very highly - this shows other factors are involved such as mental energy which is the ability to focus on difficult problems for long periods of time

serial curve position.

If we make a graph of the amount of average words people are remembering in a list we would see a lot at the beginning and at the end

Types of long term memory

Implicit (procedural and priming), explicit (episodic and semantic)

spontaneous recovery

In an action called spontaneous recovery if we randomly present the CS again than the CR will occur - the animal had not forgotten the learning but merely suppressed it.

test reliability

In childhood unless scores are extremely low they predict little about future IQ scores- this is because intelligence tests for children usually measure sensory abilities and that has a low association with intelligence. For infants measuring habituation can be an indicator of intelligence- quicker formation of habituation- this is probably because infants who are smarter take in novel stimuli and can quickly move onto new things . IQ tests for older children test their abstract reasoning which lies at the heart of intelligence.

Operant Conditioning

In contrast, instrumental or operant conditioning is active. It requires the organism to emit a voluntary behavior, and the consequence of this behavior determines whether or not the behavior is likely to occur again.

THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT

In other words, a behavior that results in consequences that satisfy the animal is likely to be strengthened. A behavior followed by a consequence that is NOT satisfying will be weakened.Instrumental conditioning began with research done by Edward Thorndike whose doctoral dissertation looked at animal intelligence. Working mostly with cats, he investigated animal learning. He wondered whether animals learned through flashes of insight or through imitation. He put cats in "puzzle boxes" and observed each cat's attempts to escape. Did cats suddenly figure out how to solve a problem (insight)? If instructed, would they learn to solve the problem? Did they learn by observing another cat solve the problem? After many observations, he concluded that cats learn by trial and error. If a behavior works, they are likely to do that behavior again. They do not exhibit "insight."

british associationists

In the 19th century the british associationists believed that we learn everything through conditioning which is forming associations between stimuli. When we do this we only need to experience one type of stimuli in order to recall the other part of the pair. These people believed that this type of learning provided the building blocks for all other types of complex learning.

emitted

In the CC the response is involuntarily pulled out of the organism and does not require training, but in OC the organism must complete a voluntary act/behavior or in other words the organisms response is emitted.

WHAT IS TWO PROCESS LEARNING

In two process learning, a motivating response is established with classical conditioning and then maintained with operant conditioning. Here's how it works: First, a motivating emotional response is conditioned with classical conditioning. To condition fear, for example, a neutral situation (CS) is paired with trauma (UCS -> UCR). This leads to Conditioned Fear (CR). Conditioned fear is an aversive state. Second, a voluntary behavior allows the animal to escape from the situation that is eliciting fear. This is operant conditioning; the consequence of the behavior removes the aversive conditioned fear.

high amplitude sucking procedure

It was found that unborn babies could hear language through a high amplitude sucking procedure which occurs when babies suck on their pacifers more when they hear their native language- they seem to prefer it.

DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS

Often something in the environment signals the presence of reinforcement. In other words, if the organism behaves now, it will get a reward. The Discriminative Stimulus occurs before the voluntary behavior. It is part of the Antecedent or initial Situation.

metalinguistic

Kids who are bilingual may display metalinguistic insight which is heightened awareness of how a language is structured and used, may prevent cognitive decline, and do better on language tests. Some initial delays with syntax development may occur in development although they fade away and are replaced with benefits. It is also proven that those who learn new language at young and old ages use different areas of the brain- suggesting that people group native and other languages into different areas in their minds.

sensitization

On the other hand some stimulus leads to sensitization which is the increased sensitivity to repeated stimulus- this occurs when the stimulus is irritating or dangerous.

semantic

Long term memory errors tend to be semantic, which is based on meaning

permastore

Long-term memory can permastore which occurs when we do not lose the memory or stop losing it at a certain point-

Raven's progressive matrices

Many IQ tests are criticized for their heavy reliance on language and contain many cultural components that may cause immigrants to score low. These lead to abstract reasoning tests being invented and are called culture fair.

near death experience

OBE's also sometimes occur in a near death experience (around 25% report having consciousness outside of their own bodies). Most reports of NDE's are of tunnels with lights, seeing all past memories, seeing dead loved ones, etc and then coming back to the body. This may be a cultural experience as many christians and buddhists report moving through a tunnel while many native peoples do not. There is no strong evidence to support this extraordinary claim- science says that it may be due to a rush of endorphins in the brain during death or because of chemistry of the brain after a cardiac arrest.

Repress and recover

Memory recovery therapists say that children repress memories of traumatic events and later they recover them- they also believe these are the root cause of many problems. But, there is surmounting evidence that people do not repress memories- they remember them all too well. Suggestive memory techniques could be used to make people spontaneously recall these events.

embodied

Newer models have embodied methods of thinking which reflect our physically interactive relationship with our surroundings. According to these models our knowledge is organized and accessed in a manner that enables us to simulate our actual experiences- sensory areas of the brain are stimulated when people think about actions, objects, or events.

What is the difference between expert and novices in problem solving?

Notice meaningful patterns and characteristics of information that are not seen by novices; Spend more time analyzing what is going on in a situation and less time deliberating about what action to take; Have better metacognitive skills which enable them to monitor their own performance; and Detect problems and spot atypicalities as a situation progresses.

latent learning

One scientists named Toleman thought that reinforcement was not the end all of learning- latent learning is learning that is not directly observable. There is simply put a difference between competence and performance. This tells us that reinforcement is not necessary for learning- rats when prompted with a treat will show us that they can complete the maze- but did not need the motivator in order to finish it.

distributed versus massed principle

One thing that was discovered was that the more we spread our learning out over a long period of time the better we memorize it-

Intellectual disability is defined as

Onset prior to adulthood IQ below 70 Issues with everyday functions such as getting dressed Mostly males have this diagnosis and there are four levels: mild, moderate, severe, and profound- people mostly are in the mild category and these are from a mixture of genetic and environmental influences- these kids can oftentimes be mainstreamed into regular classes. In fact the more severe a mental disability is the less likely it is to run in families and they are usually from genetic causes. One prominent mental disability is down syndrome and is usually mild to moderate. Public attitudes towards disabilities are disappearing and many protections are put into place for people who suffer from these.

shaping

Operant conditioning in inherent to animal training- they use training procedures called shaping which is when they reinforce behaviors that are not exactly the target behavior, but they are progressively closer. They then decrease the reinforcement for the not exact behaviors over time, but continue to reinforce correct behaviors. Animal trainers also do something called chaining which is when they link a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series.

The two process theory

Overall OC and CC are not completely different learning processes- they are associated with different regions in the brain OC is linked with dopamine and reward and CC is linked with amygdala in fear conditioning. The two process theory says that we need both CC and OC in order to explain the persistence of anxiety disorders. People first acquire this through CC- they then negatively reinforce this fear/behavior/response. This theory also says people need to confront their fears in order to not stay in the cycle of them

stroop color naming test.

People have to say what color words are printed in (the ink), but the words are a name of a color themselves- most people try to read the words not the colors which shows that reading is an automatic process- children do better at this because they do not read automatically yet.

Language is at four levels of analysis in order to communicate directly:

Phonemes is the sound of our language Morphemes is the smallest unit of our language Syntax is grammatical rules and how we organize words into meaningful strings Extralinguistic information is the nonverbal communication such as eye contact.

eidetic memories

Photographic memories and it is believed to be caused by longer than usual persistence of the visual image- although many people cannot recall the image without small errors.

operant

Psychologists call the behaviors produced by the animal in order to receive an award

schedule of reinforcement

Skinner found that animals behaviors depend on the schedule of reinforcement- or the pattern of delivering reinforcement.

radical behaviorism

Skinner was a proponent of radical behaviorism which said that all observable behavior such as , emotion, etc are governed by the same laws of learning. He believed that thinking was no different than any other behavior- in fact it was observable behavior in itself. Many scientists agree that thinking needs to be involved in learning for humans. This has caused a shift from S-R to S-O-R (stimulus- interpretations, response). The interpretation is what the stimulus means to the organism.

Salience of surface similarities

Salience is how attention grabbing something may be- we tend to focus our attention on how superficial the properties of a problem are- instead the underlying reasoning behind a problem is what is needed to be focused on.

What is involved in self-recognition? What is the mirror test?

Self-recognition: capacity to know where we are in space and being aware of who we are Mirror test: was to test in animals could recognize themselves in a mirror and great apes were able to

preparedness

Seligman said that we can explain the distribution of phobias in the population by means of preparedness which is that we are evolutionary prepared to have a fear of some kinds of stimuli more than others- this explains why we have current phobias to some things but not to things like household appliances. Preparedness may render us susceptible to things like illusory correlations between fear provoking stimuli and negative consequences- it is the non existence association between two variables.

law of contiguity

The principle that when two ideas or psychologically perceived events have once occurred in close association, they are likely to occur in close association again, the subsequent occurrence of one tending to elicit the other.

Chaining

Shaping describes the reinforcement of behaviors that are not exactly the target behavior, but close enough. Chaining, by contrast, is a technique for training a sequence of interrelated behavioral routines. Each behavior is a cue for the next in a chain of behavior. a technique for training a sequence of interrelated behavioral routines.

the interpretations of dreams

Sigmund freud wrote a book called the interpretations of dreams which was about how when awake the ego which acts as the mental censor, but when asleep this isn't as strong and can lead to our sexual and aggressive instincts to come out.

latent inhibition.

Some advertising agencies have found that they cannot reproduce classical conditioning effects- this is usually due to latent inhibition. This is when the CS is viewed/experienced alone so many times that it becomes difficult to classically condition it to another stimulus.

gingko

Some drugs try to tell us that they will increase memory- gingko is a drug that increases the acetylcholine in the brain and is from an ancient chinese plant. These pills are not proven to work at all- this has also been called into question drugs that supposedly make you more hyper like adderall- it is probably a placebo effect- see SAT students who took placebo pill outperformed

paradox of memory

Some memories stick forever, and others seemingly randomly disappear.

assortative mating

Some scores are extremely low or high and this is probably due to assortative mating which is where people with similar intellectual disabilities tend to mate together- causes many low IQ's

onamonapias

Some words do resemble their meanings

Terman Study

Study of gifted children- proved they were not sickly and was a longitudional design

superstitious behavior

Superstitions can also occur as a result of operant behavior- when pigeons were randomly given treats in a interval no matter what they did- some developed strange habits- this is called superstitious behavior and is when actions are linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence this can become positively reinforced over time. This is behavior is especially prevalent in sports- due to the highly chance nature of the games.

Transcience

The decreasing accessibility of memory over time

one word stages

The first major milestone in kids syntactic development is when children begin by speaking in one word stages where they use one word to convey an entire thought. They gradually combine around age two to two word phrases and this is when they start to use syntax rules. Kids also understand syntax rules before they are able to use them. Then when kids can start putting together 4-5 word sentences they also can start using morphological ideas- like adding ed or s.

Freud's theory about phobias

The founder of behaviorism- John B Watson and his lab assistant wanted to disprove Freud's theory about phobias which was that they come from conflicts buried in the subconscious. They took a small boy named Albert and they experimented on him- they would present him with a rat and an UCS which was the gong banging loudly and he began to cry- he eventually began to cry when he was presented with just the rat itself- and other things that are similar to it (stimulus Generalization). He also displayed stimulus discrimination- he was not afraid of hair or cotton balls. Stimulus generalization like that Albert received allows our learning to be flexible and is not always a good thing- we can develop fears of many stimuli. Classical conditioning can also be used to get rid of phobias- we can condition people to associate them with good things.

Sound symbolism

The idea that certain speech sounds seem to be associated with certain meanings and this shows maybe language is not arbitrary. One example is that english speakers taught the correct work in spanish for sweet are more likely to learn the information more easily than those taught the incorrect word- shows that maybe our sensory systems influenced how words were formed in the first place.

Learning styles

The idea that everyone has distinct learning styles is widespread. Learning styles are preferred means of acquiring information. Common learning styles include verbal learning, spatial learning, analytic learning, and holistic learning. But, these ideas do not hold up to research- for one thing its difficult to assess learning style reliability because different measures of this will yield different answers about how people will learn best. Moreover people are just not statistically likely to do better with material that they have learned in their prefered style.

dissociation therapy

The other theory of hypnosis is dissociation therapy (discovered by Hilgard) is when aspects of personality which are normally integrated are separated during a hypnosis experience- he founded this theory when he investigated the idea of hypnotic deafness- when he put his arm on the patient they could hear and when he took it away they could not.

alzheimer's

The other two leading causes is a accumulation of small strokes in the brain and deterioration of the frontal and temporal lobes. Alzheimer's effects are both memory and language related. The memory loss begins with recent events with distant memory being the last thing to go. They are also often disorientated and do not know their surroundings. When someone's brain is affected by this disease they may have plaque buildup and neurofibrillary tangles. These abnormalities cause the death of synapses and cells in the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex. Along with the loss of synapses comes the loss of acetylcholine neurons in the forebrain- most treatments for this disease try to increase the amount of this neurotransmitter in the brain. We have been studying ways to reduce the risk of alzheimer's- some things that are helpful include good diet, exercise, strong social network/social interaction. Many correlational studies have also found that people who are intelligent and highly educated have a decreased risk for this disease.

short term memory

The second line of memory is called short term memory which is characterized by the ability to hold on to sensory information- it is called working memory and occurs when we hold on to information and process, thinking actively about it, and interpreting it.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to return to innate behavior following repeated enforcement. This shows us that there is a biological limit on how we can train animals to act through reinforcement.

Ways of getting memory to long term storage

There are three main ways of getting memory to long term- encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Narcotics:

These types of drugs are derived from the opium poppy plant found in asia and morphine is the major ingredient. Opiates are often called narcotics because they induce sleep and reduce pain. Heroin is the most commonly abused one. The highs from heroin last for a very short amount of time but are very powerful- it also has intense withdrawal symptoms. Many people die from overdoses with this drug because it depresses the CNS- slows breathing, etc and is becoming more pure. The drug is most commonly inhaled and not injected- this is highly addictive and after the first few times can lead to addiction. Some people may become addicted to heroin after using medically prescribed opioids- oxycontin was used recreationally in the 90's and when taken with other drugs especially depressants they can be lethal.

Patterns of using amphetamines

They are often not used everyday by the user pattern number one is- just to combat occasional fatigue or to help them study. Pattern number two is being prescribed drugs by a doctor for euphoric effects and this can lead to dependency. Pattern number three is speed freaks who inject large doses in order to get a rush. People who take these may become hostile, paranoid, not able to sleep, and have a loss of appetite.

savings

They call this method of approach savings because we do not need as much time to learn this.

overextension

They think one word applies to more than that one thing

insight

This also found that the idea that cats have insight is wrong- insight is having an underlying idea of the problem at hand- this is because the cats never immediately knew how to escape the box- they could never understand completely how to escape.

scapegoat food

This is a huge issues for people with chemotherapy- they often associate any food eaten before the treatment as bad even though they know the food is not correlated with the food. This can be changed by having a scapegoat food which is a food they are not fond of that is eaten before treatment and that food is associated with the treatment instead.

retrieval

To remember something we need to take it out of our memory storage on a long term basis- this is called retrieval. Many types of forgetting are based on this- we have the information we just cannot access it

Longitudinal designs

Track individuals behaviors over time and has been suggested as a way to combat the correlation vs causation debate- it was found that more violent tv was correlated with higher levels of aggression

What are the three levels of processing and what kinds of tasks are associated with each? Which will produce the best recall?

Visual processing pays attention to how sentence looks. Phonological processing pays attention to how words in the sentence sound and semantic processing pays attention to the meaning of the sentence. Semantic processing tends to produce more enduring long-term memories.

Below are some of the most common modern IQ tests

Wechsler adult intelligence scale is based on more than just verbal abilities- instead they use verbal, reasoning, general knowledge, working memory, and processing speed.

Childhood intelligence tests

Wechsler intelligence tests for children Weschler's primary and preschool scale of intelligence

Normative approach

What we ought to do. Baseline compared to descriptive approach. Help study inductive reasoning ; how should they go about -Normative: what is the best way to do this; how should they go about this -Descriptive: assumption that people are rational and people will do wha;s in their best interest. Provides a baseline.

abstract thinking

Whatever the true definition of intelligence is, everyone agrees that is has something to do with abstract thinking or the capacity to understand hypothetical concepts rather than concepts in the here and now. It is also agreed that intelligence is the ability to adapt to a new environment, acquire knowledge, benefit from experience, and reason abstractly. Different cultures also think of intelligence differently- eastern countries think of intelligence as wisdom and judgement.

actively construct

When humans try to recall our memories we actively construct it using cues and information that we have. We do not usually vividly remember our memories, but rather have fuzzy sketches of them. One example of the fact that our memories are reconstructive is that we usually see ourselves walking from a distance- this shows that we are not reliving them but reconstructing them. Culture also impacts how we reconstruct memories- asians are more likely to look at themselves from a distance because they view things from other people's point of view.

primacy effect

When remembering things long-term such as in a list when we remember things early in a list. This is based on long term memory.

What is SYLLOGISM

Where a conclusion is drawn from 2 premises; each of the which shares a term with the conclusion -All dogs are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all dogs have four legs

sleep paralysis

a condition where you cannot move just after falling asleep or right after waking. This is caused by a disruption in the sleep cycle and is accompanied by menacing figures, anxiety, or night terrors. Many people who experienced this also consulted a therapist who used hypnosis to try and help them recall their hypnosis experiences- this can often lead to false memories or false exaggerations.

Kleine-Levin syndrome

a condition where you only want to sleep.

intelligence test

a diagnostic test to measure overall thinking ability.

Classical conditioning

a form of learning where animals begin to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that is associated with a stimulus that elicits a response. He did the following experiment to test these claims: 1. Started with a neutral stimulus 2. Paired neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus- a stimulus that elicits an automatic response. The unconditioned response was salivating in the case of the dogs- this is a part of their genes not their environment. 3. He then noticed the dogs responding to a neutral stimulus- this is called conditional response and is when a dog responds to a neutral stimulus in the way they would respond to a non neutral stimulus. The formerly neutral stimulus has become a conditional stimulus. The UCR and CR are usually similar, but not identical. The CR is developed from the environment and not genes. Classical conditioning can even take place in unconscious animals and people!

Intelligence quotient or IQ

a formula was created: divide mental age by chronological age and multiple the results by 100. Mental age is the age corresponding to the average person's performance on an IQ test. This formula correctly predicts IQ for children and adolescents, but not for people 16 and over. Our mental age levels off as our chronological age increases. This is why almost all IQ tests rely on deviation IQ when computing IQ for adults- using the standard deviation it expresses the norms of a person's IQ relative to a person's age group.

Source monitoring confusion

a lack of clarity about the origin of a memory. According to a source monitoring view of memory, we try to identify origins of our memory by seeking clues about how they were encoded- the source they are from. This method works well by helping us to understand our memories from our fantasies, but can explain why we think we have done things that others have done or we have not actually done.

mnemonic

a learning aid strategy that helps enhance recall- it encodes memories in a way that is easier to recall. These systems rely on internal memory devices or strategies that we use during encoding that help us later retrieve useful information. They depend on two things: they can be applied to anything and they most mnemonics depend on having the store of knowledge already.

Relearning

a measurement of how much more quickly we can relearn the information after studying it before.

Emotional conditioning (module)

a previously neutral object begins to elicit an emotional response after being paired with a unconditioned reflex event. Emotional conditioning is a very powerful application of the principles of classical conditioning. In 1920, most psychologists believed the Freudian claim that our personalities and life outcomes result from unconscious sexual conflicts that occur before we turn five years old. But Watson disagreed. As a Behavioral Psychologist, he believed that our outcomes in life were due entirely to our environments- this led to the baby albert experiment.

Hypnosis

a set of techniques which provides people suggestions for altering their perceptions, sensations, behaviors, and emotions. To increase suggestibility most people use induction method which typically includes suggestions for relaxation. When suggestions are self administered they are called self-hypnosis.

Poggendorf illusion

a square that people often view as being unequal black lines- while children view it as a whole- when hypnotised adults during age regression do not suddenly view this picture as whole- this could tell us something important.

Language

a system of communication that involves symbols, such as words, in a rule based way to create meaning. Language serves many function such as the transmission of information, but it also serves key emotional and social functions by allowing us to express our thoughts.

Sign language

a visual communication system that is used by those who are deaf. Sign language has its own complex syntax, phonemes, and extra linguistics and is completely its own language- it does not follow traditional rules of the english language- although sign language has many of the same components as a traditional language.

Racial differences

africans and hispanics are scoring lower than caucasians and asians are scoring highest. There are many problems with interpreting these results as racial superiority: These gaps have been narrowing over recent decades These claims lie outside the realms of science explanation- this is not true Variability within a race is greater than between races

Stage three and four

after 10-30 minutes in the cycle and this is when delta waves occur- this is what makes us have restful sleep. 3 has 20% of the time with delta waves and 4 has 50%.

Adoption studies IQ

allows us to seperate nature from nurture and study the effects of nature alone on outcomes, but a confound is the idea that children are placed in similar homes to their biological homes oftentimes- called selective placement. It was shown that kids in early life resemble the IQ of their adoptive parents and later on the exhibit the IQ of their biological parents- although kids who were adopted into nicer homes do have higher IQ's.

Cognitive economy

allows us to simplify what we attend to and keep the information we need for decision making to a manageable minimum. It's called fast and frugal thinking. In some studies this system one thinking has shown to be useful because people can often make snap behavioral judgements about a person that are usually correct.

tip of the tongue phenomenon

an easy phenomenon to generate and proves that while our minds stored the information we just couldn't retrieve it- often someone will be able to retrieve it after prompted with the first letter.

Chunking

another form of top down processing and is a memory aid that relies on organizing information into larger units.One common source of top down processing is a concept

Psychoactive drugs

any drugs that are similar to those that are in our brain's naturally and alter consciousness by changing the physical processes in neurons. Some drugs can be used to treat mental and physical illnesses but many are used recreationally. Many things affect how these drugs affect us (more than just their chemical properties) such as the setting we take them in, mental set (our beliefs and expectancies about the effects of the drug), cultural heritage, and genetic background.

Reinforcement

any outcome that strengthens the probability of a response (or a reward basically). Positive reinforcement is when we add a stimulus and negative reinforcement is when we take away a stimulus, but overall they both increase the likelihood of the behavior. Ex of negative- when a child stops whining we end the time out or when we give a kid candy for being good they keep being good (positive).

Discriminative stimulus

any stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement- one example is waving- when our friend waves we go over to her because she is signaling that she wants to talk, thereby reinforcing that we go over to talk to her.

Wisdom

application of intelligence towards a common good and is only moderately correlated with intelligence. People who are wise often balance 1. Their own needs. 2. Concern about others. 3. Concerns about society. Wise people appreciate other points of view and are aware of their cognitive biases.

multiple intelligences

are entirely different domains of skill. These people believe that g is wrong or at least incomplete- some people are very successful in some domains and not in others. Even spearman's creation of s is acknowledgement of different kind of intelligences, because it recognizes that people with the same levels of g can have different intellectual strengths and weaknesses. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has made a huge impact on education and his criteria for different kinds of intelligence relies on the ideas that they should be especially prominent in some people and isolated in studies of people with brain damage.

Critical periods

are narrow windows of time in development during which an organism must learn an ability if it is going to learn it at all. There are clear advantages to learning a second language earlier, but is there an advantage to early exposure in a first language?

Token economies

are often set up in hospitals for reinforcing appropriate behaviors

Concepts

are our knowledge and ideas about objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties

pegword method

based on rhyming- you can then also associate an image with each chunk of information that needs to be memorized.

acoustics

based on the sound of the information we have received.

convergent thinking

being able to find the single best answer to a problem.

divergent thinking

being able to find the single best answer to a problem. he capacity to generate many solutions to a problem

bilingual

being adept at speaking and understanding more than one language. The easiest way to learn a new language is to be exposed to it at a young age and living in a community where it is spoken regularly. In most bilingual people one language is dominant- but some people are raised with parents who speak more than one language.

Dr He is able to study consciousness by presenting different stimuli to the left and right eye. The images perceived by his participants flips between the two stimuli. This perceptual phenomena is known as

binocular rivalry

When studying Consciousness scientifically, Dr He spoke about the "hard" problem and the "easy" problem. According to him, first person subjective experience is

c. hard because we don't know how to approach this problem.

Hallucinations

can be anything from seeing a floating ghost to hearing voices in your head. They are realistic perceptual experiences in the absence of external stimuli and can occur in any sensory point. Not just people who are psychologically disturbed suffer from hallucinations- many people who are normal and not taking drugs have reported these. Some cultures such as in Africa consider hallucinations a gift from the gods.

Substance dependence

can have symptoms of withdrawal. Tolerance is a key component of substance use disorders which means that people have to keep using more of the drug in order to get intoxicated. When people stop using drugs after a long time they may experience withdrawal symptoms. People are physically dependent on a drug when they need it in order to not experience withdrawals.

Sleep apnea

caused by a blockage of an airway during sleep which causes snoring, gasping, or even breathing to stop. This can cause bad sleep cycles- even if the person may not be aware that they are awakening repeatedly.A lack of oxygen and a buildup of carbon dioxide led can lead to heart problems, fatigue, weight gain, and night sweats and also increases risks of death is some studies. Usually this is associated with overweight people, but can also be treated with a sleep machine.

Schemas

concepts that we stored in memory about how certain objects and actions relate to each other. These together help us mentally organize events that shore core features- such as going to a restaurant.

Our subjective experience of the world and ourselves is what psychologists refer to as

consciousness.

stanford-binet iq test

created at stanford for children originally, but was extended to adults. It consisted of tasks like the binet-simon test, and was able to establish a set of norms or baseline scores in the general population to which we can compare an individuals scores.

habituation

decrease in attention to familiar stimulus

Cognitive biases

default expectations that we use to interpret our experiences that operate in our everyday lives. Some of the following are examples of these: 1. Representative heuristics 2. Availability heuristics 3. Hindsight bias

Thinking

defined as any mental activity or processing of information. It includes communication, perceiving, and deciding. All of this is a part of cognition.

Intelligence

defined as whatever the intelligence test measures. Galton who is the famous cousin of darwin was interested in the adaptive advantages to high intellect. He proposed that intellect is the the by-product of sensory capacity- people with superior sensory organs would have higher intellect. They found that high perception was found to be correlated with intelligence.

Depressants:

depress the cns- Alcohol is a depressant and is the most common substance that is abused in america. Alcohol inhibits the brain and behavior portions of our brain's. Small amounts of alcohol promote relaxation, better mood, and more talking. In most states the BAC cutoff for driving and being drunk is 0.08. At around a 0.05 BAC the effects of the depressant become clear- impaired movement, slow thinking, and low concentration. The short term effects of alcohol are directly related to BAC- the rate of absorption into the bloodstream. The less food we eat the more quickly it is absorbed, women have more body fat which is not fat soluble and therefore have high BAC. The setting that drinking is done in will also affect how people respond and act with alcohol. Alcohol also provides a reason for socially unacceptable behavior and can override anxiety, sexually timidness, etc. Some people also have problems falling asleep and they may use depressants- too many of these can lead to a coma and even death. These types of drugs called hypnotics are classified into barbiturates benzodiazepines, and non barbiturates. Barbiturates produce alcohol like intoxication and are the most abused. Benzodiazepines like valium relieve anxiety.

hidden observer

describe the part of the mind that was unhypnotized or disassociated part of the mind that he could access on cue. This was tested more and it was found that pick up on the instructions that the instructor gave/that brought forth the hidden observer. Changing instructions led the subjects to experience more or less pain- therefore it seems no different than any other hypnotic response because its shaped by what we expect. He then revised his theory to say that hypnosis bypasses the normal sense of control we have over our behaviors- little or no sense effort or conscious control. This theory describes what people experience during hypnosis and fits with sociocognitive theories that emphasize the unconscious.

dream-work

disguises and contains these sexual and aggressive impulses by transforming them into symbols that represent wish-fulfillment or how we wish things could be.

models

eachers, parents, etc who are influential to us. This is regarded as latent learning because there is no reinforcement. This allows us to not have to learn everything firsthand, but can also increase bad habits. In an experiment in which children watched adult models hitting a doll, and then experienced frustration, they were more likely to hit the dolls than kids who saw nobody hitting the doll. This brought up the question if real-world violence affects aggression levels

whole word recognition

ead the vast majority of words- that is they memorize what it looks like

proactive interference

earlier learning interferes with new learning

mood dependent learning

easier for them to recall unpleasant memories because it's easier for them to recognize those emotions

Stereotype threats

efers to the fear that we may confirm a negative group stereotype- people become anxious about confirming a negative stereotype and therefore they accidently do it and this may correlate to how people score on IQ tests. Ex. Africans think they are supposed to do poorly on a test so they will. When people focus on themselves on individuals rather than as a part of a group they are likely to do better on tests.

Flashbulb memories

emotional memories that appear to be in very vivid detail, but even these memories can be changed.

Between group heritability

extent to which this trait between groups is heritable.

Phantom flashbulb memory

he idea that many of these flashbulb memories are false which tells us that they are just like any other type of memory.

Family studies, twin studies on IQ

found that IQ runs in families and often successful people are related to each other. Brothers and sisters have about the same IQ, but these studies did not distinguish between nurture and nature. Twin studies- this relies on the concept that if twins who are monozygotic have higher occurrences of a trait being similar than fraternal twins then that means the trait is linked to genetics. In most studies identical twins have closer IQ's than fraternal twins- this tells us that genetics plays a part in genetics. But, intelligence is correlated with a number of genes and we cannot pinpoint specific ones. But, heritability of IQ may be very low in children near the poverty line- the effects of the environment overcame the effects of the genes. The fact that twins do not have a correlation of 1 tells us that environment also influence our IQ.

s factor or specific abilities

g does not tell the entire story. He said that how we do on tests reflects not only our g, but also our skills in a specific domain (s). He said some people have deficiencies in some s ideas, but can still have high g's or vice versa.

Problem solving

generating a cognitive solution to accomplish a goal.

equipotentiality

hat all CS's can be equally conditioned to all UCS. The idea of equipotentiality is also contradicted by the research on phobias- people do not always have phobias of the same things- they are often not associated with things that we have had the most unpleasant experiences with- most phobias have to do with things like the dark or snakes.

Field studies

have also been conducted concerning media violence and laboratory studies. All four types of studies overall pointed to the fact that there is some relationship between violent media and aggression- but violent media cannot explain aggression alone there are other factors at play.

skinner box

he developed a skinner box or operant chamber which electronically records an animal's response and makes a graph- oftentimes they would give the animal food when they pressed a bar.

Substance abuse

he encompasses recurrent issues with drugs in the workplace, at home, or at school

Higher order conditioning

he process by which organisms develop classically conditioned responses to previously neutral stimulus that later become associated with the original CS. With this technique each level higher results in weakening conditioning- it is usually impossible to achieve beyond the fourth level of conditioning. Many addictions are shaped by higher level conditioning- the context or setting that people take drugs within serve as higher order CSs- people with drug addictions when moved to another country sometimes do not experience this.

Morphemes

he smallest unit of meaning in a language. They are made by stringing phonemes together- basically they are words.

hippocampus

helps form new memories- but we have found through fmri that it is not placed that information is stored permanently in the brain. Rather the prefrontal cortex seems to host a lot of our memories-

neurocognitive theory of dreams

hey argue that to only involve neurotransmitters or random neural impulses does not fully explain dreams. These people say that our life during which we are awake are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities which shape what we dream about. This is somewhat supported by the fact that children under 8 when awakened from REM do not recall dreaming as often as adults- they're dreams besides night terrors also seem to lack in movement and are less emotional and weird. Complex dreams are defined as cognitive achievements that parallel the gradual development of visual imagination.

latex content

hidden meanings

primary reinforcer

hings that naturally increase the target behavior- such as food)

retrieval clues

hints that make it easier

eugenics movement-

his is encouraging people with good genes to reproduce and people with bad genes to stop reproducing. Many people with low IQs were sterilized and people from countries with low IQs had quotas put on their countries for immigration numbers.

experimenter expectancy effect

his means that people who thought kids were intelligent would lead to the students performing better on IQ tests- this is true, but only worked when teachers had not interacted with their students for very long- it is hard to convince teachers that they are wrong about their students intelligence once they have made up their minds.

linguistic relativity

holds that the structure of a language affects its speakers' world view or cognition- unlike determinsim it says it only influences not determines

Speed reading

hotly debated issue- can it be taught how to read faster? Yes it can speed up reading but comprehension suffers a lot. But, speed reading is correlated with comprehension- probably because the same people tend to be faster at reading and at comprehension.

base rate information.

how common a characteristic is in general. When evaluating if a person belongs to a group we need to consider how similar the characteristics are of the person to others in the group and the base rate information.

Cognitive conditioning

how we interpret a situation affects conditioning and suggest that conditioning is more than just a simple mindless response. Slowly we transitioned from behaviorism to cognitivism.

The threshold effect

implies that above a certain level of IQ, intelligence is no longer predictive of accomplishment, but in reality IQ and achievement are correlated even at very high levels- the threshold effect is not shown to exist in this situation. IQ is also associated with high health, low crime, and health literacy which is the ability to understand health related information- which is related to low levels of illness. IQ is also associated with social class and that tells us poverty may explain some of these correlations.

Mirror neurons

in the prefrontal motor cortex of monkeys is activated when they watch another monkey perform an action. They are called this because they themselves would have been activated in the same manner if the monkey was doing the action itself. They only become active when they view another monkey engaging in an action and only occur for specific behaviors. These neurons may play a role in empathy- and that issues with them could lead to autism. It is also possible that autism causes a deficit in mirror neurons and not the other way around.

What were the findings of research on the question of whether labels help or hurt memory for pictures?

inconclusive: labels can distort simple images but can also help people remember more complex drawings

Crystallized intelligence

increases as we age and is correlated to a trait called openness- these people are creative, imaginative, and excited about exploring new things.

Cognitive misers

invest as little mental energy into a task unless it's necessary to do so. But, sometimes this leads us to oversimplify. Humans have developed mental heuristics which are general rules that keep us safe and increase thinking efficiency. These are most useful in everyday life but they can backfire.

Representative Heuristics

involves judging the probability of an event based on how prevalent it is in past experiences.

Sleepwalking

involves usually little activity and usually behave like normal people. This usually occurs during stages 3 or 4 of sleep and people usually do not remember it- it is safe to wake them up.

Stage one sleep

is 5-10 minutes and is when our brain powers down by 50%- our brain produces theta waves which are slower than when we are awake/relaxed. Sometimes we will perceive hypnagogic imagery or scrambled, weird images as we drift in and out of consciousness during this stage along with moving our limbs and feeling confused.

Fetishism

is an sexual attraction to non living things and may also arise from classical conditioning- it could be due to repeatedly pairing non living objects with sexual activity- this was done in a lab and may have low external validity- this effect is also much more prominent in males than in females maybe because men are more oriented towards visual stimuli than women.

Operant learning

is learning through the consequences of one's actions- the behavior is largely shaped by reward. This is also called instrumental conditioning because the organisms response serves as an instrumental function- the organism gets something out of the response.

Within group heritability

is the extent to which a trait like IQ is heritable with groups.

Conditioned taste aversion

is the idea that classical conditioning can lead us to avoid certain tastes of food. This is different than other kinds of classical conditioning because it: 1. Only needed to happen once 2. The delay between the UCS and CS can be up to 8 hours long 3. Conditioned taste aversions display little stimulus generalization and very specific.

Acquisition

is the learning phase when the behavior/response is acquired

extinction

is when the CR decreases in magnitude and eventually disappears when the CS is presented alone without the UCS- kind of like memory decay. Extinction is an active process (rather than passive)- in this case the new response is the absence of salivation inhibits the salivation or CR over time- new stimulus writes over the old stimulus.

continuous reinforcement

is when we reinforce a behavior every time it occurs

Bottom up processing

is when we use only raw stimuli to build up our perceptions.

Stimulants:

jumpstart the cns- These drugs increase heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure and activates the CNS. Tobacco is one example and works by affecting acetylcholine receptors which increase stimulation and stimulation. Nicotine has an adjustive value meaning it can enhance positive emotions and get rid of negative ones. Cocaine is another common stimulant- users report euphoria, stimulation, indifference to pain. Cocaine was once popular in medicinal use and even in drinks- even our current money has cocaine residue on them. Cocaine is also a reinforcer- it increases the neurotransmitter activities of dopamine and serotonin which contribute to its reinforcing effect, but it also affects emotion, self-awareness which fuel this addiction. Cocaine is injected into the veins or snorted and crack cocaine is mixed with a basic solution to be made into a white rock and then is smoked. Cocaine also has a sense of euphoria associated with it and is affordable- but its followed by unpleasant feelings which lead to more use. Cocaine use is correlated with gray matter in the brain- associated with aging- it could be causative or just correlated. Amphetamines are the most commonly used stimulant

metamemory

knowledge about their memory and its limits

Observational learning

learning by watching others

Sleep assisted learning

learning new material while asleep. Initial research was promising, but later on it was found that recordings of information that were played during patients sleeping time may have woken them up- there were no EEG's that showed if subjects were asleep and they were not monitored during any of the experiments with a positive correlation. Evidence was found that this does not work, but sleeping between study sessions can help the brain learn better!

Two types of rehersal

maintenance rehearsal elaborative rehersal

semantics

meaning derived from words and sentences. Some sounds are not words by themselves, but some sounds when added to a word modify the meanings of words that they are paired with.

Learning

means a change of action, behaviors, or emotions based off of an organism's experiences.

working memory

occurs when we hold on to information and process, thinking actively about it, and interpreting it.

episodic

occurs when we try to recall events in our lives and is in the right frontal cortex

Test bias

means that the test predicts results best in one group versus another. It has not been found that IQ tests are biased across races- they found correlations between IQs and success are the same across all races. Some races do better in school/success and this is probably due to bias in the society itself and not in tests.

interference

memories get in the way of each other. Memories are hard to detect if they are jumbled like signals and the signals are jammed.

passively reproduce

memory remembering is not like downloading something from the internet

sex differences

men are more variable in their IQ's than women- this means there are more men at both the high and low ends of the bell curve.Men and women have the same IQ or intellectual abilities, but have different specific mental abilities. Women tend to be better at recognizing emotions, verbal tasks, and arithmetic in childhood. Men are usually better at spatial tasks These differences may be biological because when given the same opportunities men are still better at this task. Men are also better at math than females- but there are also many at the low end of the bell curve as well. The reasons for these sex differences could be from the way females and males are raised with different expectations and female and males show no differences in these abilities when infants. Sexes excelling in different areas may also be due to how they prefer to solve problems- males use spatial and women use verbal- but when they are both forced to use spatial they can perform better on math tests. But, this may also be rooted in genes.

IQ equation

mental age ÷ Physical age × 100 = IQ.

availability heuristics

n our everyday lives which when we associate the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to our minds. For example, ask someone how many murders are in detroit every year and ask other people how many murders are in Michigan every year (the first answer will be higher). This paradox outcome is probably from the availability heuristic- we conjure up different images of these places in our heads- one leads us to picture more murders than the other.

Punishment

ny outcome that weakens the probability of a response. There is both positive punishment which is administering a stimulus (usually one the organism wants to avoid like a spanking) and negative punishment which is taking one away (usually something that the organism likes to enjoy)

retroactive interference

occurs when something new interferes with something that is old

Broca's area and Wernicke's area are located __________ of the brain which means that _________________________________.

on the left side...speech is localized on the left side of the brain.

brain's biological clock

or the hippocampus makes us feel drowsy during certain times of the day.When the biological clock is disrupted such as by jet-lag we are more likely to be injured and it disturbs sleep, affects obesity and heart disease.

schema

organized knowledge structure or mental model that we have stored in memory- this is like the process of going to a restaurant and eating food. These schemas help give us frames of reference for interpreting new situations, but they can create problems. Schemas oversimplify which creates memory illusions- they provide an explanation for the paradox of memory.

tension reduction hypothesis

people use substances to relieve anxiety, which leads them to keep using more and more drugs in order to keep themselves anxiety free. Alcohol affects dopamine centers which plays a role in reward. When people believe that alcohol is a stress reducer they are also more likely to have it work for them. Alcoholism also tends to run in families- which is confirmed by twin and family studies and shows many or one genetic factor may be in play.

REM behavior disorder

people who act out their dreams

engram

physical trace of memory

suggestive memory techniques

procedures that encourage people to recall events- some that never even happened to begin with

Extralinguistic information

provides non verbal cues and plays a huge role in how we interpret it. If this information is blocked like during a phone call this information can be misconstrued.

cognitive maps

rats had developed cognitive maps or spatial representations of the space of the maze. The concept of latent learning challenged behavioral models of learning because they suggested learning could occur without reinforcement. It also suggested that cognitive maps also played a role in learning.

Psychologists assess people's memory based on

recall, recognition, and relearning

Babbling

refers to any intentional vocalization that lacks meaning- babies often do this and are engaging in vocal exploration about how to make specific sounds. Babies also begin to learn what sounds are useful for their native language- they develop auditory skills- all babies start with the same phonemes but gradually develop to match their native language.

metacognition

refers to our knowledge of our own knowledge

Restriction of range

refers to the fact that correlation tends to go down when we limit the range of scores on one or both variables- for example in pickup basketball height helps predict success, but in professional basketball it does not.

Long term potentiation

refers to the strengthening of neuron connections over time by using repetitive stimulus. Many scientists believe that we must strengthen the connections among neurons (neurons that wire together fire together) in order to improve memory. LTP occurs at synapses where the sending neuron releases the neurotransmitter glutamate- LTP enhances the amount of this chemical which is associated with learning.

Fluid intelligence

relates to the way we solve new problems. Fluid abilities decrease as we age and is highly related to g

Habituation

s when we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli. This is the simplest earliest type of learning to emerge in humans- fetuses display this at 32 weeks. Over time stimuli that is small or can safely be ignored is responded to less strongly- but strong, dangerous stimulus is repeatedly responded to- this may stem from evolutionary standpoints of needing to not ignore dangerous stimulus.

The general cognitive processing account

says that children's ability to learn languages results from general skills that children apply across a variety of activities. Children's ability to perceive, learn, and identify patterns are all they need to learn a language- this theory suggests that there is not need for a language aquisition device. This has weaknesses because children are better are learning languages than adults but adults are generally better at learning. It is also implied that some distinct forms of cognitive processing occur when learning a language as opposed to other learning activities.

The law of effect

says that if in the presence of a stimulus a reward results afterwards then the bond between the stimulus and the response will be strengthened. Psychologists sometimes refer to behaviorism as S-R or stimulus and response. According to S-R theories our complex behaviors mostly reflect the progressive accumulation of associations between stimulus and responses. One experiment that was done was to place a cat in a box to escape - they eventually took less and less time when they were put into the same situation over and over because of OC

linguistic determination

says that language shapes our thought process. It is also called the sapir-whorf hypothesis. There is some language for this (people recall events better in certain languages during which they spoke them) and other evidence not for it (people group colors almost the same regardless of language. Rather, it is probably true that language shapes some thought processes but not all. Overall it is not possible to distinguish language effects from cultural effects which makes this hard to study- they are always confounded.

SocioCognitive theory

says that people's everyday beliefs, attitudes, views towards hypnosis, and their ability to respond to waking suggestions will affect someones response to hypnosis.

encoding specificity

says that the conditions under which the memory is presented originally is more likely to trigger us to remember the memory in the future when presented with the same conditions during the retrieval of the memory.

Levels of processing

says that the deeper we process information the more we remember it. The model identifies three levels of processing: visual, phonological (sound), and semantic (meaning related).

Dementia

severe memory loss

analogies

solving problems with similar structures.

echoic memory

sound memory

phonetic decomposition

sounding out the words by figuring out the connection between speech and print.

magic number

span of short term memory is plus or minus 2 from seven

Deductive reasoning

starts with a theory

higher mental processes

such as reasoning, judgement, and understanding-

Accelerated learning or SALLT

suggestive accelerated learning and teaching techniques) are supposed to help people learn new things faster than usual. These techniques rely on a few different things: classical music during learning, raising students expectations that they will learn faster, and getting students to visual information. But, almost all studies show that these methods of learning do not work- the few positive effects associated with it can be attributed to the placebo effect.

The social pragmatics account

suggests that specific aspects of the social environment structure language learning. In this model children use the context of the conversation to infers its topics from actions, expressions, gestures, etc. This has weaknesses because it assumes that children understand what other people are thinking.

computer analogy

t processes information, fills in gaps, and draws inferences. The brain's algorithms have pre programmed abilities to run the data through the brain and spit out an answer. But, this is not entirely correct- some tasks like speech recognition are very difficult for computers but easy for humans because we can draw subtle inferences. Computers cannot use top down processing like humans can and therefore cannot understand jumbled information. Computers also cannot interact with the world in the same way that humans can to get information.

As described during lecture, the "what" pathway in the brain goes to the:

temporal lobe- information about the identity of an object

existential intelligence

the ability to grasp deep philosophical concepts.

Emotional intelligence

the ability to understand the feelings of others and to apply this information to our everyday lives. Some people believe that EQ and IQ are just as important in today's world. People with low EQ's usually have problems with depression and psychopathic personalities. But, evidence suggests that this is basically personality traits.

Circadian rhythm

the changes that occur on a 24 hour biological basis such as hormones, drowsiness, etc. Melatonin is one important hormone that is active when it is dark outside that encourages us to sleep- manipulating these receptors could help us regulate our circadian rhythm.

age-regression

the idea that someone can go as far back farther than birth and retrieve memories- adults usually just act how they would expect children to act and they still exhibit adult brain waves. Some therapists also believe their patients problems come from a past life- past-life regression theory is when they try to figure out how someone's problems from a past life affect them now. People who exhibit this often just know a lot about history or are making inaccurate statements.

Infantile amnesia

the inability of adults to recall childhood memories before a certain age which is usually 3-5. Culture may shape these memories- people from asian cultures remember family/non-self oriented memories while americans remember self oriented memories. This phenomenon explains why hypnotic age regression is not real- many people like scientologists believe that these memories when young can contribute to psychological problems. We do not know why this phenomenon occurs but we do know that the hippocampus plays a term in long term memory and is only partially developed during infancy- we do not have the brain structure for this. Infants also cannot recognize themselves- without a sense of self infants may not be able to encode these memories in a meaningful way.

decay

the longer we wait, the less is left to recall

Participants read a case study of Betty K. Half of them read that she was now living in a heterosexual relationship, and half of them read that she was now living in a homosexual relationship. When later tested on the details of the case study, researchers found that participants made errors consistent with _________.

the mental models known as schemas.

amygdala

the part of the brain that houses emotional components of memory, especially fear. The amygdala and the hippocampus interact when memories are being stored- hippocampus is for recalling events and amygdala is for recalling emotions.

The flynn effect

the phenomenon that the average IQ has been rising steadily over time and is likely due to environmental effects such as: Increased test sophistication- people are becoming more adept at taking tests Increased complexity of the modern world and modern schooling teaching more abstract ideas Better nutrition Smaller family sizes, better family systems, and better schools

storage

the process of keeping information in a memory. Where we choose to store this information depends on our interpretation and expectations of the memory.

Memory

the retention of information over time

Syntax

the rules of how we construct sentences. Syntax includes word order, sentence structure, and morphological markers

Phonemes

the sounds made by the vocal system in the body. This is dependent on our biological parts such as mouth, lips, etc. Different language have different numbers of phonemes- there around a 100 total sounds, but some have as few as 50. This is a challenge to learning new languages- some sounds do not exist in some languages that do in others.

The Paradox of Expertise

the strengths of expertise can also be weaknesses. Although one would expect experts to be good forecasters, they are not particularly good at making predictions about the future. Since the 1930s, researchers have been testing the ability of experts to make forecasts. The performance of experts has been tested against actuarial tables to determine if they are better at making predictions than simple statistical models. Seventy years later, with more than two hundred experiments in different domains, it is clear that the answer is no. If supplied with an equal amount of data about a particular case, an actuarial table is as good, or better, than an expert at making calls about the future. Even if an expert is given more specific case information than is available to the statistical model, the expert does not tend to outperform the actuarial table.

recency effect

the tendency to remember things later in a list. This is based on short term memory

Thin slicing

the term for when people can extract useful information from small bits of behavior. But, we can be fooled by this- psychopaths for example are very charming at first but later they are not.

Activation-synthesis theory

the theory that dreams represent brain activity during sleep- dreams reflect the brain's attempt to make sense of random and internally generated neural signs during REM (made my Hobson and Mccarley). throughout day and night the balance of neurotransmitters shifts continuously and REM sleep is triggered by a surge of acetylcholine. Acetylcholine activates nerve cells in the pons and dwindling levels of serotonin and norepinephrine decrease reasoning, memory, etc. The pons sends incomplete signals to the thalamus (sensory receiver). This is the activation part of the theory. The forebrain tries to assemble the incomplete parts into a story. That's the synthesis part of the theory. Because reasoning is low (due to low hormone levels above) and amygdala is ramped up which increases fear and excitement the dreams are usually illogical and adds strong emotions. Hobson says dreams are protoconsciousness which is a primitive state of brain organization and in this state perceptions and emotions take over.

Encoding

the way we get information into our memories- we format the memory in a manner that we can use, and this is where many failures of our memories come from- for example when books never make it to the shelf at the library we cannot find them ever again. We have to pay close attention to something in order to encode it- we cannot encode every events and even then we can only encode some parts of the events we do remember.

Secondary reinforcers

they are things such as a chip or token that are associated with a primary reinforcer

disgust reactions-

they can be acquired rather easily- such as associated a picture of a rotten egg (CS) with the UCS (actual rotten egg). Most of these reactions are based on biologically important- such as avoiding dangerous foods or animals.

underextension

think that a word applies to something like a name would- calling only their cat, cat

Mystical experiences

those during which we feel at one with the universe, transcending our body, feelings of joy, etc for only a small amount of time. This explains the formations of many world religions and is different across different faiths- christians report oneness with god and buddhists report achievement of inner peace. These can occur during rituals, praying, fasting, meditation, etc. Scientists have begun to study this in the laboratory- they ask people to recall these experiences and parts of the brain associated with memory, emotion, complex functions are activated. Neuroscientists also tested psyligen which is a hallucinogenic drug that affects serotonin receptors- they found that people who took this reported higher instances of mystical experiences

Night terrors

thrashing, whimpering, screaming, and crying during sleep but often the person cannot remember what has happened. These are usually in children, harmless, and should be ignored by parents unless the child is in danger. They occur in non-REM sleep and can occur in stressed adults.

Procedural memory

used for motor skills and habits.

Dialects

variations of the same language used by people different geographic languages, social backgrounds, etc. People of two different dialects can oftentimes understand each other so they are not distinct languages. These are not errors in the native language but rather follow different rules. People often assume that speakers of a dialect are trying to speak the native tongue, but are failing which can lead to prejudice and people can lose out on job, social, and economic opportunities.

iconic memory

visual memory

elaborative rehersal

we attempt to add unto the original in order to make it meaningful. It is shown that elaborative rehearsal is more effective than just memorizing.

maintenance rehearsal

we do not attempt to change the stimuli and keep it in its original form.

next in line effect

we forget who came before us because we were so concentrated on what we were going to say- caused by encoding

acquisition

we gradually learn the the conditional response. If the time presented between the CS and UCS is shorter than the animal will have a greater CR to the event because in the animals eyes one is more likely to have caused another. In order for this to work the CS must be presented before the UCS- you cannot make the animal associate the meat powder with the metronome if you it after- does not feel like causation to the organism.

weapon focus

when a crime happens with a weapon that's what the witness is most likely to remember.

Misinformation Effect

when a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information

Insight learning

when an animal understand the problem and develops a complex solution not through trial and error- they have an aha moment.

deviation IQ

when computing IQ for adults- using the standard deviation it expresses the norms of a person's IQ relative to a person's age group.

retrospective bias

when our current state can distort memories of the past.

Sexsomnia

when people commit sexual acts while asleep.

Narcolepsy

when people may experience sudden bouts of sleep- ranging from seconds to hours and is caused by genetic abnormalities or trauma. This can affect day to day functions and is often accompanied by depression and anxiety.People with narcolepsy may suffer from cataplexy which is the complete loss of muscle tone- they may fall limp even while being awake and alert- they plummet immediately into REM as well. Normal people enter this during REM, which suggests this disorder may be due to off kilter sleep cycle/wake cycle.

Psychological dependence

when someone craves the drug in their mind.

Lucid dreaming

when someone is aware that they are dreaming and can conclude that from events occuring in their dreams. When people lucid dream the part of their cerebral cortex associated with evaluating thoughts/feelings and self-perceptions ramp up. Other electrical tests say that lucid dreaming is between sleep and wakefulness- wake and REM sleep

State dependent learning

when the internal environment of the organism during the original memory and retrieval process is the same- when intoxicated people can remember stuff better that they learned while intoxicated.

substance use disorder

when they experience recurrent significant impairment or distress associated with drugs.

hyperthymestic syndrome

when they remember every memory that they have ever had and that is their only abnormality and is probably due to a difference is brain structure.

Stimulus generalization

when things that are very similar to the CS elicit the same response as the CS. This event occurs along a generalization gradient- the more similar the original CS something is the more of a CR it will receive- this idea helps us transfer what we have learned to new things.

priming memory

when we can more easily identify a stimulus when we have encountered a similar stimulus before.

Stimulus discrimination

when we exhibit a less pronounced CR to things that are different from the original CS- this allows us to tell the difference between different kinds of stimuli- we would react more strongly if we saw a tornado outside of our house than we do when its on television.

Functional Fixedness

when we experience difficulty imaging the function of an object as useful for anything but that function- we cannot get past the conventional use for an object. Studies have shown that if we shift our focus to smaller details rather than the entire thing it may be possible to break out of it.

Top down processing

when we fill in information with our background knowledge- this is another way that our brain's fill in the gaps that are missing.

Cryptomnesia

when we forget that our idea actually originated from someone else.

Mental sets

when we have trouble generating alternatives once we have already thought of a solution that's dependable. This occurs when we have been boxed in by our experiences. Fixing this problem may require inhibiting the functions of the parietal and frontal lobe as these have to do with previous thinking.

Anterograde amnesia

when we lose some of our capacity to make new memories. This is the most common type. Amnesia patients usually recover very slowly if they recover at all. One case of this happening is with a man named HM. Large parts of his temporal lobes were removed and he had this type of amnesia- he never made a new memory in his entire life. His implicit procedural memory was intact. When researchers examined his brain they found damage to the hippocampus, amygdala, and other connecting parts of the limbic system leading researchers to believe that when this system is damaged the memory is severely harmed. Overall hippocampus leaves implicit memory but not explicit.

retrograde amnesia

when we lose some of our memories of the past.

chunking

when we memorize information by organizing material into meaningful groups

Hindsight bias

when we overestimate the probability of how accurately we could have predicted something after the event has occurred. Confirmation bias is our tendency to seek out information which supports our beliefs and falsify those that we are against.

explicit memory

when we recall information intentionally

Implicit

when we recall things although not intentionally- no conscious effort such as remembering how to open our front doors.

partial reinforcement

when we reinforce it only some of the time. Partial reinforcement is actually shown to lead to slower decline in response than continuous- the behavior will continued to be performed in the hopes of a reward. Continuous reinforcement leads animals to learn behaviors more quickly.

rehearsal

when we repeat the information mentally, but we lose it quickly if our memory is distracted.

representative heuristics

when we simplify things to make them easier, but can cause a memory illusion.

Extinction

when we stop delivering reinforcers following a previously reinforced behavior and usually this behavior declines and then disappears. In such cases we see an extinction burst which is when the undesired behavior increases in intensity because the child wants the reinforcer and then gradually stops.

Insomnia

when you cannot fall asleep, wake during the night, or wake early in the morning. This is the most common type of disorder and effects 9-15% of people. Insomnia is also known to be correlated with higher healthcare costs- but may be due to other illnesses that accompany it- such as depression,etc. People may have bouts of insomnia due to stress, anxiety, but can become recurrent if they get frustrated with trying to fall asleep

out of body experience

when you observe your own body doing something and this implies that our sense of self is not locked into our own bodies. They are described as floating above and observing themselves and this is fairly common- 10-25% of people have these. People who have these often also have vivid hallucinations, lucid dreams, perceptual distortions, etc. Some people experience these with drugs, when sick, or under stress. There is no good evidence for this- they cannot replicate the results from people that saw something specific that they wouldn't have noticed in their regular bodies

Keyword method

when you think of a keyword that helps you remember or that is associated with the original word.

Context dependent learning

where this phenomenon is at work and refers to the idea that we retrieve memories better when the external context of the original memory matches the retrieval content- this may even be impacting students exams- this is why we should take them in the classroom we learned them in.

Stage two

where we spend about 65% of our sleep cycle and is when our heart rate, breathing, and muscles relax- We have sudden electrical bursts during this stage - rising and falling waves called K complexes on the EEG first appear in this stage.

morphological markers

which are morphemes but change the meaning of the word based on grammatical rule.

algorithms

which are step by step procedures can also help with deliberate thinking in problem solving that require you arrive at the same solution every time with the same steps. These are very inflexible but insure that we do not miss any steps.

sensitive period

which is a stage where people are more receptive to learning a new language and it is easier, but there is no definite critical period- it does decline after age 7. The less is more hypothesis says children have more limited information processing abilities than do adults and build from the ground up while adults try to impose organization making it more difficult.

Discovery learning

which is giving students experimental materials and then asking them to figure out scientific principles on their own. But, it is shown that methods of direct instruction when we directly tell students how to complete a problem is usually more efficient than discovery learning- it may increase students ability to pose questions on their own but many will never solve the problems with this approach alone. This is a bad idea for people with weak cognitive skills.

neuroeconomics

which is how the brain works while making financial decisions. Using fmris we can see which areas of the brain become alert involved with processing awards and attending to different opinions. Heightened areas that deal with attentional control are correlated with better decision making. This field helps us understand why decision making can go wrong.

consciousness

which is our ever changing state of thoughts, emotions, bodily sensations,actions, and events. Consciousness can even change while being awake- 2-4% of the population has fantasy-prone personalities which tend to daydream around 50% of the time.

jamais vu

which is when something seems unfamiliar even though it previously seemed familiar.

Distributive cognition

yet another approach to problem solving- refers to a group problem where multiple minds bounce ideas off of each other across coordinated brain's. This can be useful as long as everyone has a unique perspective- otherwise people can get stuck in the same mindset and not move on.

Working backwards is a good strategy to follow when

you have many options at the beginning of a problem, but few options at the end.

What was research with the Tarahumara and what was the finding? Why has so much research been done with colors?

● asked English-speakers and Tarahumara-speakers about the names of colors in between green and blue ● found that the names of colors have different borders (blue and green encompass different ranges in the two languages) ● a lot of research has been done with colors because the first tests of linguistic relativity were about colors (codability and memorability in 1954)