Psychology-mine
Other Conditions that Impair Memory
- Alzheimer's disease is a condition of the brain that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. Alzheimer's is more common in people over the age of 60, and nearly 5 million Americans have this disease. Sadly, this condition is not reversible. Harmful proteins build up in the brain, and brain cells eventually die off, leaving a person extremely forgetful, unable to remember simple things, confused, and even depressed. - Stroke is another serious condition that results in extreme disability and is the third leading cause of death in Americans. Fifty percent of strokes are preventable. They occur when a blot clot doesn't allow enough blood to the brain. Brain cells don't receive enough oxygen and they die immediately—leaving a person with devastating results, such as loss of motor skills or the ability to speak or remember things. Strokes that affect the right side of the brain result in short-term memory loss.
failure to thrive
3 a situation in which infants don't grow properly and develop as normal
Middle Adult
35 to 65
What is the median of 5, 7, 2, 4, 3?
4
myelin
4 fatty coating that surrounds neurons
puberty
5 the onset of sexual maturation
Introduce solid foods to a baby around _____ months old.
6
Formal Operations.
7 to adulthood formal operations, which is the ability to think abstractly.
Which statements are true about the sleep cycle?
A person can go through the sleep cycle multiple times in one night. The sleep cycle does not repeat itself in order of 1, 2, 3, 4, and REM. Dreams occur during the REM stage.
What happens during free association?
A person talks about a dream, making connections by openly talking.
What can be said about two numbers that have either a positive or negative correlation?
A relationship exists and should be examined.
Symbolism
Actions and urges show up through metaphors. For example, let's suppose that in real life, you're very popular. In your dream, you're at the zoo, actively searching for the lion house. For some reason, you just feel this compelling drive to find the lions. Finally you do, and then the biggest lion lets out a loud roar and all the other animals around stop dead in their tracks and listen. The lion in your dream represents you. What other symbols can you pull from this dream scenario?
Adaptive sleep theories
Adaptive theories of sleep are based in evolution and believe that sleep has a survival value to it. These theories say that sleep is useful because it saves energy and keeps a person or animal out of danger and away from predators. Sleep occurs during the time of day when a person is likely to be less competent. Could you jokingly but truthfully tell your best friend you fell asleep because you really didn't want to go to that foreign film with subtitles? Your survival instinct kicked in, and you were trying to save yourself from dying of boredom.
stage 5
Adolescence (13 to 18) Identity vs. Role Confusion During adolescent years, people ages twelve to eighteen are developing their own sense of identity. Who am I? Who do I like? What am I good at? What am I not good at? What are my hobbies? Teens go through a wide variety of experiences as they figure out their preferences for friends, people, romantic interests, hobbies, school interests, and so on. They sometimes will go through a period of time where finding their identity means that they'll shove aside responsibilities. Parents need to recognize that teens aren't necessarily being lazy, but that an important part of development is happening and that teens need support and love continually. Teens who move into adulthood without having figured out who they are will experience role confusion. They'll have a hard time figuring out exactly where they fit in life.
By age one-and-a-half, toddlers have a vocabulary of fifty words. These are basic words that have a whole meaning attached to the single word. Because toddlers at this age don't speak in sentences and only use phrases on occasion, a single word often means a whole sentence. If a toddler says "dada" at this stage, he could possible mean "hold me, Dad" or "play with me, Dad" or "Dad is coming home."
Age Eighteen Months
By this age, the young child can speak around a thousand words, and the sentences are very understandable. You'll still hear some different language rules coming out of the kid's mouth, but you know the meaning of what is spoken. For example, you know when your nephew says, "That blanket is shes," he is trying to communicate, "That blanket is her's." Sometimes the grammar rules aren't spoken one hundred percent correctly. But that will quickly change.
Age Three
Toddlers at age two can speak in telegraphic sentences. Think of a telegram from the olden days where messages were sent to people using short, concise words and phrases. Telegrams were expensive and space was limited, so people would cut out all the unnecessary words from sentences. Two-year-olds speak their sentences in a shortened manner too, usually just a couple of words long and sometimes nonsensical. If your baby brother said to you, "allgone bottle" you would still understand that he is saying that his bottle is empty, and he drank it all.
Age Two
By this age, toddlers speak sentences that are more understandable, but you'll still hear them communicate in interesting ways with different language rules. For example, a toddler may raise her voice and shriek out, "I want bath." That intense negative emotion behind that phrase really means that this little girl does not want a bath. Sometimes you'll hear the word "no" tacked onto the start of a sentence: "No go to bed." Of course, you know that whatever is spoken by the child is something that he/she doesn't want to do or have happen.
Age Two-and-a-Half to Three
Bay of Pigs
Also in 1961, the U.S. President, John F. Kennedy, made plans, which several government officials supported, to launch an attack on the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. The goal was to overthrow Fidel Castro, Cuba's leader. The attack turned out to be a disaster. Afterward, when people were questioned for supporting such a poorly considered attack, they responded by saying they didn't want to disagree with the president.
Late Adulthood Development.
As retirement age sets in, adults of sixty-five or more may experience declines in the body's ability to function as it once did. Sometimes, memory starts to go. Diseases like Alzheimer's can set in. Strokes, heart attacks, and cancer are serious conditions that the elderly can proactively try to prevent. The elderly may have grown children and grandchildren to enjoy, and many also spend time socializing with other people or volunteering for community service in order to stay active now that retirement permits some to have much more free time. The elderly can pursue more leisure activities, and their feelings of satisfaction at this age usually depend a lot on what happened in their earlier years.
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology involves the way people think and how the mind works. Cognition is the central focus—thought processes and the ability to rationalize and consider ways to solve problems. Cognitive psychology is different from the other disciplines in psychology because it accepts the scientific method and rejects the concept of introspection.
Schizophrenia, a psychotic disorder that involves hallucinations and delusions, has five types of ways of being diagnosed: catatonic, disorganized, paranoid, residual, undifferentiated.
Diagnosis Code Disorder 295.20 Schizophrenia, Catatonic Type 295.10 Schizophrenia, Disorganized Type 295.30 Schizophrenia, Paranoid Type 295.60 Schizophrenia, Residual Type 295.90 Schizophrenia, Undifferentiated Type
Conscientiousness
Do you consider yourself disciplined, organized, reliable, and hard-working? Then you are conscientious. Teachers love when you are conscientious about your school work and homework. Parents love when you are conscientious about your chores and home responsibilities. Your friends appreciate when you keep your word and show up on time to places. Conscientiousness is an important personality trait that will help you excel. Of course, the opposite of this trait is laziness and irresponsibility.
In early centuries, dreams were considered to have a spiritual connection or reveal personal information that mattered for your individual life or the people connected to you. Ancient cultures believed that dreams were messages from gods. Even today, you'll find that some people attribute religious meaning to their dreams. During the twentieth century, scientists learned that perhaps dreams are just a function of the brain and how the neurons fire and create mental images in your mind. Philosophers and early psychologists felt dreams were an expression of personal information about the self. Who is right? Well, your dreams are your own personal experience. The decision is up to you.
Dream Topic Meaning being chased feeling threatened by people or your emotions being naked feeling vulnerable or exposed failing a test feeling unprepared falling insecurity drowning overwhelmed with something in your life flying freedom and control over your life
Expectation Reactions.
(1) expectations to succeed or (2) expectations to fail.
attachment
1 the feelings of emotional connection a child has toward someone else
What is the mean of 4, 6, 8, 20, 12?
10
What is the mode of 3, 9, 11, 11, 3, 6, 2, 2, 11?
11
Adolescent
13 to 18
Young Adult
18 to 35
Preoperational
2 to 7 egocentric way. They are the center of their own world and taking another person's perspective is difficult and rare. These children are not being rude; their brains have just not developed fully yet. As a child grows older, he will learn to take another person's perspective.
How does a ZIP code relate to the rule of seven?
A ZIP code has five numbers, and is most likely to be remembered. A ZIP code has no relevance to the rule of seven.???
DSM
Axes I & II Major Categories Common Disorders Axis I clinical disorders mental disorders developmental and learning disorders depression anorexia insomnia bipolar disorder schizophrenia pedophilia Axis II personality disorders and mental retardation paranoid personality disorder antisocial personality disorder narcissistic personality disorder obsessive-compulsive disorder borderline personality disorder mild mental retardation
What makes learning and performing different?
Before you can perform, you must learn.
Who developed a therapy technique that requires a counselor to listen without passing judgment?
Carl Rogers
What is the importance of showing sensitivity to mental illness?
Casually using disorder terms may be offensive to some. More people are suffering from mental illness that we realize.
"rule book" that mental heath practitioners use
DSM, which stands for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The Roman numeral "IV" represents the fourth edition, which was published in 1994. The first edition was printed in 1952, and two other editions (with revisions) were printed in 1968, and 1980. The manual (which happens to be nearly 1000 pages long) categorizes disorders into five "axes" and each axis has a specific set of criteria used for diagnosing disorders.
DSM
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
What does the story of Baby Albert demonstrate?
Ethics of appropriateness have changed over the decades.
Your responses to the questions are evaluated and interpreted and then five main themes are considered from these 16.
Extraversion Anxiety Tough-Mindedness Independence Self-Control
Extraversion
Extroverted people spend their efforts connecting with other people and the rest of their surroundings. They are energized by being around people. Extroverts are social and outgoing. Introverted people are more absorbed into their thoughts and personal world. They are thinkers and contemplators. They usually don't consider themselves outgoing and social. Are you extroverted or introverted?
Condensation
Feelings and urges are hidden inside an event. One night, you have a dream where your anxiety shows itself. You're watching a clock on the wall, and the second hand starts ticking faster and faster. Pretty soon, the clock's hands are moving so fast it's haywire. Time has sped up, according to the clock. That out-of-control clock's rapidly moving hands symbolize increased anxiety.
Who made advances to our understanding of the conscious and unconscious mind?
Freud
what is not true of goals
Goals are mostly for the purpose of learning.
Handwriting
Have you ever had someone tell you they could interpret your handwriting? Putting dots, circles, hearts, or lines above the lowercase letter "i" is supposed to say something about your personality. Are you in a hurry, methodical, creative? If you dot your "i" with a dash, then you're energetic. If your handwriting is curvy rather than straight, then you're idealistic.
Why did humanists not like behaviorism?
Humanists felt that behaviorism reduced people to mere animals.
What is not a concept of determinism beliefs?
If you are determined, you can do anything you want. Determination influences your ability to change by small percentages.
What can a person learn from the Bay of Pigs incident?
If you don't speak your opinion against bad ideas, sometimes awful results can happen. Don't be afraid to voice an opinion that may be different from the leader. It's normal for people to feel uncomfortable about disagreeing with a leader.
Which organization approves the experiment plans coming from a college?
Institutional Review Board
Which organization requires colleges to submit plans for any experiment that is about to be conducted?
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
What is the significance of the scientific method?
It allows you to determine fact from opinion. Consistency and organization can always be expected. It gives you a standard process for conducting research.
How is the prefrontal cortex important to you?
It helps with executive functions, such as behaving in socially appropriate ways.
How do expectations relate to a job?
It's important to choose a job where you believe you are able to do the tasks of the job.
How do expectations relate to future schooling?
It's important to choose classes where you believe you are able to do the assignments.
What did Zimbardo's prison experiment demonstrate?
It's possible for people to act horribly in evil situations.
Why is encoding important?
It's the way information is first received into the brain.
Who is considered the leader of classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
Jane has been selected by the teacher to lead the classroom in a discussion on a topic from their textbook. The students participate and follow Jane's directions. Why?
Jane has stewardship over the class for the textbook discussion.
Which objective personality test interprets answers using ten categories?
MMPI-2
Why do people seem to remember nightmares more than their other dreams?
Nightmares have a more intense emotional impact.
What first made Pavlov interested in studying dogs and their salivation responses?
Pavlov noticed that the dogs salivated at the sight of a lab worker, even though the worker didn't have food to feed them.
How does a projective personality test differ from an objective test?
Projective tests have open-ended questions.
Critical Period in Learning Language
Psychologists also believe that children must learn how to speak at the critical period of time when the brain is most receptive to learning a language. This critical period is between birth and age twelve.
What is a useful benefit of psychology?
Psychology gives insights into what other people do and think.
Why should you exercise caution when taking a personality test?
Some online tests may ask for too much personal information. Personality tests don't define exactly who you are forever. Some personality tests aren't that good.
What is a problem with DSM diagnoses?
Some people don't fit into easy diagnosis categories.
What happens if a pregnant woman smokes, drinks, or does drugs during her pregnancy?
The baby is very likely to be born with physical disabilities.
Why is storing information in categories beneficial for the brain?
The brain naturally likes to seek order and organize.
When it comes to mental disorders, what is true of cultural customs and beliefs?
They can influence what people think is normal and abnormal.
How are the chemical senses different from the non-chemical senses?
They require chemical receptors in addition to neurons for sending messages to your brain.
Psychologists also believe that children must learn how to speak when the brain is most receptive to learning a language
This period is between birth and age twelve
Your body is in a constant state of transduction.
True
You'll find that infants start making distinct babble noises around three months old and especially at six months old. The first half year of life is spent making non-distinct sounds—sounds that may or may not sound like any real distinct sounds you've ever heard before.
Up to Six Months of Age
Core-Optional sleep theory.
What if you get some shut-eye to prevent a sore throat, and anything else, like maybe a nap, counts as just extra? The Core-Optional theory of sleep says that sleep has two parts: optional and core sleep. The core sleep is needed for an organism to repair and restore brain tissue. But the optional sleep is not essential; an organism can go without it. You may feel like sleeping simply to conserve energy, but as long as your core sleep needs are satisfied, then you will function well.
Positive Correlation
When a relationship of one variable increases along with the other variable, a positive correlation exists.
bystander effect
a person is less likely to give help when there are many people around
counselor
a person who helps people through their problems
extrovert
a person who is energized by being social and around others
introvert
a person who is more self-contained and draws strength by being solitary
cognition
a person's ability to think
personality
a person's unique way of thinking, feeling, and acting
fovea
allows you to see sharp images
Studies have found that people are willing to believe most interpretations about themselves.
barnum effect
Which therapies require people to think about ways they can change their situations?
behavior therapy cognitive behavior therapy cognitive therapy
Infant
birth to 2
Strokes and Alzheimer's disease are serious conditions because _____.
both conditions often result in severe memory loss
which structure in your body is responsible for neural communication
brain
dendrites
branching part of the neuron that receives transmissions from other neurons
brain stem
breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
how does the electrochemical process help you
carries messages through neurons and allows you to move your muscles
performance
carrying out or acting on an expectation or duty
What does the Big Five do?
categorizes people's personality traits into just five words
Breaking up with a partner Fighting with friends or family Death of a loved one. Marriage divorce performing moving too many responsibilities Violence, Harassment.
causes of stress
movements, posture, balance
cerebellum
auditory nerve
connects to the auditory cortex in the brain
Taste
contain the receptors that transduce the message to your brain that lets it know the type of food you've just tasted. (Remember this fact!) Depending on what you eat, taste buds on different locations of the tongue will register the flavor. Your tongue has the ability to taste sweet, salty, sour and bitter flavors. There is one other taste (sometimes called the fifth sense), called umami, which means "savory" and which is associated with monosodium glutamate and high-protein foods, such as meats.
cochlea
contains receptors for hearing
cell body
contains the nucleus of the cell
Rote
earning is simply memorizing information. Once it's memorized, you don't have to think hard at all to recall that information.
meditating even for just five minutes a day is
effective for reducing stress
aware of guilt and inadequate feelings
ego
categories of development
emotional mental physical
What is not a physiological reaction to stress?
emotions spiral out of control permanent amnesia kicks in adrenaline decreases
Affective
entertainment, tranquility, happiness, pleasurable sensations, physical well-being
punishment
event that creates likelihood that a behavior will be stopped
endocrine is one large gland
false
free will
having a choice over your actions
psychologists will also call themselves social scientists
info
you can choose to not be persuaded over things you don't want to influence you.
infor
What does informed consent do?
informs a person of everything they are about to experience gives a person a chance to back out of an experiment
For a smell to begin the process of registering in your brain, first you must _____.
inhale odor molecules into the nasal cavity transduce scent chemicals have a scent to inhale
drive
inner urge or basic instinct
myelin sheath
insulation that speeds up transmissions from other neurons
classical conditioning
learning new associations by pairing two stimuli
incidental learning
learning that occurs without intention
vicarious
learning through the experience of others without actually doing the action
The formal discipline of psychology has only been around for about 125 years.
length of study
hypothalamus
links nervous system to endocrine system, hormones excreted here
extrinsic
motivation came from outside yourself.
cerebellum
movement, posture, balance
repression
moving difficult information from the conscious to the unconscious mind
A person who randomly falls asleep most likely has _____.
narcolepsy
abnormal
not normal
depression
persistent feelings of general sadness
What does Axis II of the DSM categorize?
personality disorders
frontal lobe
personality, emotion control, planning, higher cognition
In the phrase "sat on the rug," the letter s in "sat" is a _____.
phoneme
stress
physical, mental, or emotional strain
reactions to stress
physiologically and psychologically
What are not some emotional reactions to stress?
picking fights
toxins
poisonous substances
Oahsee smells fresh-baked cinnamon rolls and suddenly her memory is taken back to being age ten at her grandma's house. Which type of consciousness is responsible for her memory?
preconscious
self-report
providing answers about yourself
Which therapy encourages free association?
psychoanalysis
Which therapy method strives for catharsis?
psychoanalysis
retina
responsible for sight transduction
Which is a characteristic of objective personality tests?
self-report paper-and-pencil questions about behavior
altruism
selfless actions
The sound waves vibrate against the eardrum, _____.
sending more vibrations throughout the middle ear
occipital lobe
sensory processing center (numbering, spacial relationships, movement, navigation, color)
When several phrases are combined, a _____ usually results.
sentence
short-term memory
temporary storage of information
predisposition
tendency, inclination, or susceptibility
projective
tests that require responses to open-ended questions.
objective
tests that require self-report
object permanence
the ability to know that something still exists, even if you can't see it
develop
to grow and expand
develop
to grow or expand
expect
to look forward to
introspection
to look within yourself
improvise
to make up something without preparation
discern
to recognize or perceive
A person's abnormal behavior does not always mean he/she has a mental disorder.
true
Abnormal behavior can be any observable behavior that is unusual or different from cultural customs.
true
An analogical representation is one type of mental image.
true
Drive theory involves a humans need to take care of basic desires like thirst, hungry, rest, sex, and safety.
true
Subjective Organization
unity (having harmony with others), transcendence (expecting abilities to go beyond the normal experience)
abnormal
unusual; different from the expected
egocentric
view the world with you at the center of it
parietal lobe
visual processing center, sensation, perception, pressure, touch, pain
What is not a requirement of learning?
waiting
determinism
you are born a certain way and don't have a choice
conception
your personal interpretation of your senses or thoughts
What is the median of 6, 7, 9, 12, 15?
9
Analogical Representations
Analogical representations are mental pictures that have a direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about
How does the view of twentieth-century scientists differ from ancient cultures when it comes to the meaning of dreams?
Ancient cultures believed that dreams had spiritual meaning.
Which statement is not true about animals and language?
Animals communicate in language that matches the full intelligence of a human. Animals and language are not significant topics since animals can't speak.
How are morphemes similar to sentences?
Both have limitations when communicating a single phoneme.
What is a similarity between concepts and categories?
Concepts and categories involve thoughts.
Which theory says that human behavior is purposeful?
Goal Theory
During lunch you watch your friend, Jordan, insert a dollar into the vending machine. Shortly after the bill is inserted, nothing happens, and the bill doesn't come back out. You then see Jordan hitting and kicking the machine.
Jordan has learned to hit the machine because she has seen other people hit vending machines when their money is eaten.
Why did wealthy people get therapy treatment during the early 1900s?
Only the rich could afford to pay for therapy.
Why didn't lower-class people get therapy treatment during the early 1900s?
Only the rich could afford to pay for therapy.
stage 3
Preschool (3 to 6) Initiative vs. Guilt From age three to age six, a child's challenge is to learn purpose and to know how to take charge. Taking initiative means being starting a task that needs to be done. Initiative can be as simple as starting a game of tag with some classmates or starting to color a picture without being told. Kids who don't master this stage will feel a lot of guilt as they grow older.
Confounding Variable.
Sometimes an experiment can have a confounding variable. This is a variable that wasn't accounted for in an experiment. The researchers might have not known about it, or they didn't plan carefully to control this extra variable. The presence of a confounding variable isn't always a good thing because it can lead to inaccurate assumptions or false conclusions.
When talking about memory and interference, what does the cluttered room example illustrate?
The cluttered room is like your brain when tons of information is received at once.
What is the best way to explain the role of the ego?
The ego is a mediator between the superego and id.
What is a possible and typical meaning for someone who dreams about falling off a ladder?
The person is feeling insecure in real life.
Why do people sometimes fear or make fun of mental illness?
They don't understand what a person is going through.
Physical appearance and weight.
Women especially worry about their body's appearance and how society judges women's beauty based on thinness. This creates a lot of stress, and there are many women who have eating disorders or who try fad diets, hoping to obtain their own ideal body type
What is the main importance of withholding personal judgment against people with mental illness?
You can attempt to objectively understand a person's troubles.
How do inkblots show your personality?
Your description of an inkblot will give deeper meaning of your inner ideas. or not relaib;e
Which is a similarity between the Rorschach inkblots and the TAT test?
Your interpretations give insights into your personality.
hierarchy
a ranking system
false memory
a recovered memory that is not true
autonomy
a sense of independence and choice in actions
symptom
a sign or indication of something
critical period
an important window of time for development
schema
an organized way of viewing the world around you
involuntary salvation
autonomic
major divisions of peripheral nervous system
autonomic and somatic
Sensorimotor
birth to 2 basic motor skills and responses to sensory stimuli. Children know how to suck and grasp and cry and use their basic motor skills to get their needs met. When they're awake and active, basic stimulation keeps them happy and entertained too.lack object permanence. This is the ability to know that something still exists, even if you can't see it. Once a child reaches the age of two, then he begins to recognize his own mirror reflections.
How do bees communicate with each other?
by dancing
What can you expect your short-term memory to do?
chunk information remember only the first and end of long lists remember the current score of a tennis game
concerned with the treatment of disease
clinical
What does Axis I of the DSM categorize?
clinical and mental disorders
Pavlov's dogs
conditioning
During REM sleep, our muscles are paralyzed. The Activation Synthesis Theory of dreams says that this temporary paralysis _____ the brain.
confuses
States and traits are mostly the same thing.
false
There is one correct way to interpret a dream.
false
auditory canal
focuses sound
corral
gather
empathy
identifying with someone's situation or feelings
Even psychologists who are skeptical of the Big Five agree that the first two categories (extraversion, neuroticism, or their opposites) are present in almost all people.
ifo
Our personalities are a unique way of thinking, feeling, and acting. It's human nature for us to want to know, understand, and be able to explain aspects of ourselves. Our personality has traits and states. Traits are characteristics that are long-lasting and enduring. States are a temporary way that we are. States are not constant. Be careful of people who may use their personalities to try to get something from you. The Big Five is the system we use to categorize and explain people's personality traits in just five words. The Big Five traits are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.
info
Overall, the 16PF is used to help you explore parts of your personality a psychologist may find healthy to discuss, or the behavior that you indicated on paper can be evaluated to help you discover what job you'd be best at.
info
There are two specific types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Both are similar in that they involve the likelihood of increasing behavior. Let's look at how they are different.
info
Descriptive statistics
mathematical summaries of results... general trends
personality traits
moody loving energetic honest reserved outgoing thoughtful considerate secretive trusting uptight
conformity
people change their behavior because of social influence
Intrinsic Motivation
reading for pleasure happiness in making crafts exercising because you feel good afterward learning to play the banjo because you love the instrument working hard because you enjoy the challenge studying hard to get ahead taking a nap to feel rested
physiological
related to a person's health or normal functioning
An actor who memorizes his lines word-for-word has demonstrated _____ learning.
rote
Piaget studied the intellectual development of children. His interest was sparked when he first gave IQ tests to kids. In fact, he was most fascinated by the wrong answers kids gave because it seemed that kids constructed a whole world around these incorrect answers.
schema
The example of learning to write shows that with a little help, most people can have their behavior_____.
shaped
What is a benefit of attending group therapy?
share opinions ask for suggestions hear a counselor's guidance
receptors
special cells that convert energy into signals for the nervous system
Symbolic Representations
symbolic representations are mental pictures that have no direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about. Instead, these mental pictures are connected by themes that are meaningful to you. Anytime you think of words and descriptions for one main concept, you're thinking symbolically.
validity
the test measures what it should
social facilitation
the watchful presence of others makes a person willing to work harder
How can you make a dog drool at the sound of a bell? Pair the sound of the bell with the sight of some food and _____.
then eventually remove the food but keep the sound of the bell
Withholding judgment on the mentally ill is wise because _____.
then you can try to understand what a person is experiencing
Our personalities are a unique way of _____.
thinking, feeling, and acting
Value Reactions
(1) positively or (2) negatively. If you positively value your task/goal/assignment, you'll realize the importance the goal has for the future. You'll have great focus. You'll feel energized and eager to learn everything you need to be successful at the task. During your task, you'll have good concentration and feel enjoyment and pleasure. (Did you ever feel these things during a great pick-up game of basketball?) If you value a task/goal/assignment negatively, you'll expect the worst and think what you're doing is pointless. You'll feel resistance and won't feel like learning anything about the task. You'll feel like you were forced into the task. You'll feel anger or dread the whole way through, or maybe even feel like you're being punished. (Have you ever felt this way when you were given the chore to clean the bathroom toilet?)
What is the mean of 7, 5, 10, and 2?
6
Late adult
65 to death
What is the mode of 4, 7, 7, 7, 4, 6, 6, 6, 7?
7
Concrete Operations
7 to 11 can think about objects and people with permanence. Children are focused on what is in front of them and how those things work. Reality is a big focus and if you were to ask an imaginative but unreal question
Children at this age can speak nearly perfect grammar and know how to make sentences and communicate very well. Their vocabularies continue to grow, and parents can encourage children to speak by helping them when they stumble and also by reading to them every day.
Age Four
Agreeableness
Agreeable people are easygoing and trusting of others. They are compassionate and helpful. Likewise, agreeable people are enjoyable and likeable. The opposite of this is distrustfulness.
What is a problem with DSM diagnoses that some people don't like?
Any diagnosis indicates that you have a mental illness, no matter how mild.
What is common in all cultures about children learning to speak?
Children's first sounds are similar in all cultures.
What does chunking do for your memory?
Chunking makes it easier for your brain to remember smaller amounts of information.
Displacement
Desires show their form in something else. For example, in your dream you've waited for the release of your favorite new CD and it's sold out, so you're mad. Then the Grim Reaper just happens to walk by, so you make friends with him and he follows you wherever you go. Your feelings of frustration are displaced, or symbolized, by the Grim Reaper.
How can you prevent insomnia?
Don't drink energy drinks or drinks containing caffeine before bed.
stage 6
Early Adulthood (18 to 35) Intimacy vs. Isolation Adulthood, ages eighteen to thirty-five, is the period of time wherein people seek out partnerships, romantic relationships, and marriage. Feeling emotional closeness is the foremost goal of this stage. If this stage is successful, a person will experience deep intimacy or feelings of closeness to the people they choose to share themselves with. Intimacy develops through togetherness, talking and sharing personal thoughts and feelings, and working through tough times in a relationship. People who are unsuccessful in this stage will feel isolated and alone.
What does the story of Baby Albert demonstrate?
Early experiments on children don't fit today's standards of ethical treatment.
Personality tests are one of the most accurate ways to let you know exactly who you are.
False
Smell
For a smell to register in your brain, first you must inhale odor molecules into the nasal cavity. Those odor molecules stimulate the neurons in your olfactory epithelium, which send neural impulses into the olfactory bulb. The information is processed and sent to your brain, allowing you to know, understand, and make sense of the smell you just encountered. Don't forget: transduction happens in the olfactory epithelium, which send neural impulses to the olfactory bulb.
Gestalt
Gestalt psychology has to do with how our mind organizes patterns. An important part of understanding requires that we see the whole picture and pattern, not just the individual parts.
Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology involves caring for individuals and feeling empathy. Humans have value and self-worth, and psychologists focus on the dignity and self-respect that they feel should be afforded to all humans. This branch of psychology is more interested in the well-being of people and the events surrounding them.
critical Period in Non-humans
Humans aren't the only ones with critical periods of development. Birds and other animals also have them. All creatures, whether human or non-human, have bodies that develop before they are born or hatched. If damage occurs during any portion of that development, when the creature becomes a part of our living world, the body will have those damages during the time spent alive.
MMPI-2 categories
Hypochondria Depression Hysteria Psychopathic Deviation Masculinity-Femininity Paranoia Psychasthenia (Obsessive-Compulsive) Schizophrenia Hypomania Social Introversion
eriksons stage Stage 1
Infant (0 to 1) From the age of birth until age 1 and a half, the basic task for an infant is to learn to trust. A baby who doesn't learn to trust and rely on the people who provide nourishment, love, and affection will experience mistrust and have difficulty getting close to people later in life. Trust vs. Mistrust
What is a disadvantage of having insurance pay for mental health treatment?
Insurance doesn't always pay for the needed amount of time in treatment.
Jason fought in the war in Iraq and witnessed some horrific sights. When he got home from the war, Jason didn't seem to remember these shocking events anymore. What happened?
Jason probably has repressed the memories.
After school, you watch your friend Katie run to a truck as soon as she hears the truck's music playing. Later, you find out the truck is the ice cream vendor's vehicle.
Katie has been conditioned to the music and has associated the musical truck with serving ice cream.
Which is not a true statement about language?
Language keeps us from misunderstanding people.
How do emotions affect your memory?
Memories with strong emotional attachments are easier to recall than other memories.
What is something positive that has resulted from changing views on abnormal behavior?
Men today are more emotionally expressive than six decades ago. Women respond to emotional stresses in a different, more controlled way. People view epileptics as normal and not demonically possessed.
Which best describes the concept of motivation?
Motivation accounts for the effort, persistence, and intensity you give a task.
What can leaders count on that makes obedience always happen?
Nothing is specified that ensures that obedience will always happen.
How do semantic and episodic memories differ?
One remembers general ideas, and the other remembers specific events.
_____ involves the likelihood of increasing behavior.
Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement
What makes psychoanalysis different from behaviorism?
Psychoanalysis considers introspection and examines the subconscious.
Which are true statements about psychoanalysis and psychophysics?
Psychoanalysis involves therapy and personal exploration. Psychophysics experiments with the five senses. Psychoanalysis considers the role of the conscious mind
Why won't some people get treated for mental illness, mild or severe?
Some people don't want a mental health record following them. Cultural biases prevent them from seeking help.
What is a concern about recovered memories?
Some recovered memories reveal child abuse. Some recovered memories are false.
How does the sociocultural perspective relate to your development as a person?
The people and your community influence you, but ultimately you control your thoughts and actions.
Psychoanalysis
The purpose of psychoanalysis is to help people examine themselves through introspection in order to resolve conflict. Psychologists in this field are sometimes called Freudian psychologists, or psychoanalysts. Their goal is to help you understand where and in what stages of your development you might have problems. Psychoanalysis delves into the desires of the mind, both conscious and unconscious.
Neuroticism
This means you are likely to feel negative emotions easily and often. A person can be moody and blue, hostile or depressed, but the opposite of this is emotional stability. Emotional stability means you are in control of your emotions and the moods you experience.
stage 2
Toddler (1 to 3) Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt Between the ages of one and three, the basic task for a toddler is to learn self-control, courage, and the will to carry out actions. Children like to feel independent and able to do things by themselves. Have you ever heard a two-year-old shout "no!" when you were only trying to help? That cry of "no!" is the kid asserting his independence. Children who don't learn independence at this age will grow up feeling shame and experience doubt about their abilities to be competent.
Negative Correlation
When one variable decreases as another increases, a negative correlation exists.
Who is considered the father of psychology?
Wilhelm Wundt
Are there any disadvantages with having insurance pay for mental health treatment?
Yes, insurance doesn't always pay for the needed amount of time in treatment.
Dreams only happen during REM sleep, the fifth stage of sleeping. Your deepest sleep happens in stages 3 and 4.
Your sleep occurs in five stages that make up the sleep cycle. REM (rapid eye movement) is the fifth and last stage of sleep, where you dream and your eyes move rapidly under the eyelids as though you were awake, yet you are not. About 25 percent of your time sleeping is spent in the REM sleep stage. The other four stages (called non-REM or NREM) make up the other 75 percent of the time you're asleep.
acquire
`to gain or obtain for yourself
dictator
a person exercising absolute power
diffusion of responsibility
a person feels less responsible to help when more people are present
perception
a personal view of a situation; ability to understand the senses
transduction
a physical stimulus is converted into nerve impulses
What are the two most common disorders in the United States?
anxiety and depression
stimulus
anything that causes a response
reinforcement
anything that causes a response an event that encourages behavior to happen again
value
believing something has worth
Interference
biggest reason you forget information.
blind spot
blood vessels and nerves don't allow vision to occur in this spot
Talking to a friend _____.
can help you see past the emotions of a stressful situation
Cultural customs and beliefs _____.
can influence what people think is normal and abnormal
What is not an ethical concern that psychological researchers must consider?
careful treatment and proper handling of animals.
retina
changes light rays into neural impulses
lens
changes shapes to help you focus
pupil
changes size to allow certain amounts of light to enter into the eye.
extrinsic
coming from outside yourself; others influence your actions
intrinsic
coming from within; your basic nature
What tool of dream analysis says that feelings and urges are hidden inside an event?
condensation
The story of H.M. demonstrates _____.
damage to the hippocampus results in amnesia long-term memory is severely affected and short-term memory doesn't work well either.
Select all the things the prefrontal cortex helps you to do.
delay gratification understand future consequences control urges work toward a goal
intentional learning
deliberately placing information into your mind
What does the DSM allow a mental health professional to do?
diagnose psychosocial problems diagnose mental and clinical disorders diagnose developmental and learning disorders
contention
dispute; strife; controversy
cynical
distrusting or pessimistic
mental disorder
disturbance of normal behavioral and emotional functioning
the big five traits
extraversion neuroticism agreeableness conscientiousness openness to experience
Infants in Romanian orphanages who are uncared for often die. What term describes this?
failure to thrive
Only humans have periods.
false
Long-term memory has a _____ capacity to hold information.
great
experimental group
group that receives the experimental treatment
control group
group used for comparison that doesn't receive experimental treatment
chunking
grouping items into smaller segments
growth spurt
growing rapidly at a very quick rate
Informal learning
happens as you live your everyday life and become aware of your surroundings. There are situations that are helpful to you on a daily basis
A female who is taking Accutane is required to be on two forms of birth control. That's how serious this medication is and how severely it will deform a baby. The medication is packaged with line drawings showing what a baby's head may look like if it received Accutane through the mother's body.
info
A person's personality has traits and states. Traits are characteristics that are long-lasting and enduring. This means traits are constant. States are a temporary way that we are. States are not constant. If you start acting the same way in every state—if, for example, you get bothered anytime someone asks you to repeat yourself—then "irritability" is more likely an internal trait of yours, rather than a temporary state of being.
info
If you want something badly enough and believe you can make it happen, you will find a way to make it happen. When you value your desires and have hopeful expectations, goals are much easier to accomplish. People's decisions are hugely based on how competent they think they are and how much they expect their abilities will allow them to be successful. When you are given a task, you can have expectations to succeed or expectations to fail. You can also positively or negatively value the task. Find a job where you believe you can be successful at the tasks assigned and take future college classes that will be of value to you and that are at your skill level.
info
Learning is a relatively permanent change of behaviors resulting from experience. Learning is different from performance, which is the execution (carrying out) of the behavior that you have learned. Learning requires the use of the neurons and axon connections in the brain. Learning involves watching people, making conscious decisions, letting people teach us, and communicating. Anyone can attempt to learn in one of three main ways: rote, informal, and formal. Three very notable psychologists, past and present, have contributed to our knowledge about learning. They are Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura.
info
Many people consider psychology to have officially started in 1879.
info
Psychologists use two different test styles to examine a person's personality. These are objective and projective test methods.
info
Development begins
instant you're conceived and continues on after birth and through the rest of your life.
severity
intensity
_____ is the biggest reason you forget information.
interface
Just do a Google search some time on the words "Myers-Briggs Personality Test" or "Kiersey Temperament Test" or "The Color Test" and see what you find about these colors and letter combinations.
letter combiations color
ear drum
location where sound waves strike
A negative correlation _____.
means one variable goes up and the other goes down
disorder
mental health disturbance
Work-avoidant goals
minimize the time and effort spent on a goal. They don't like to accept the challenges that require achievement.
sensory memory
momentary storage of information
axon
one long fiber with branches at the end
Which is not a characteristic of an objective personality test?
open-ended responses
self-conscious
overly aware of yourself and how you think people see you
hippocampus
part of the brain that aids long-term memory
modeling
patterning your behavior after someone else
Gestalt psychology focuses on _____.
people's abilities to recognize patterns
long-term memory
permanent storage of information
Learning is a relatively _____ change of behaviors resulting from _____.
permanent, experience
REM
rapid eye moment; stage of sleep during which a person dreams
The instant a sensory message reaches your body, _____ convert the message into neural impulses.
receptors
What is the main responsibility of the endocrine system?
regulate hormones
debrief
revealing and explaining all aspects of an experiment to a participant
Psychologists have the most concern about recovered memories when they involve _____.
sexual abuse
The bell curve is a normal distribution. It's a _____ distribution.
symmetrical
puberty
the onset of sexual maturation
transmission
the process of sending a message
acquire
to gain or obtain for yourself
For a smell to register in your brain, first you must inhale odor molecules into the nasal cavity.
true
Goals are more likely to happen if you first believe in or have a desire to perform the task.
true
perception
understanding something through your mind or the senses
Early Childhood
3 to12
What is the benefit of being diagnosed correctly?
A person can get the right type of treatment or medication he needs.
Adolescence Development
Adolescence is a distinctive period of development, given that your body goes through some major physical changes to prepare you for adulthood. This is called puberty. During this period of time, you will grow to your full adult height, and your body fully matures to look and operate like an adult's body. Some adolescents grow rapidly at once; this is called a growth spurt. These physical changes are results of chemical changes called hormones. These hormones have the potential to change the way you feel your emotions. Young men have increased testosterone levels, which increase their physical desires and their aggression levels. Young women have more estrogen and the potential to become more emotional at certain times since their menstrual cycles cause their hormones to increase and decrease with regularity. Moodiness may set in. Teens may feel uncomfortable with all the changes that are physically happening and not know what to think of it. Sometimes it's easy to feel self-conscious. Being a teen is cool and pretty awesome. You're discovering your identity and your personal interests in greater depth. However, amidst the discoveries, it's easy to overestimate how great you are. This is called your personal fable. Do you believe that tragedy and trouble will never come your way? Do you think that you can speed but you'll never get caught by a cop, just because? Do you understand the world and how it works in a way that most other people probably don't realize? Don't worry, lots of teens think this way. These are the types of thoughts that come with the personal fable. The honest truth is that so many other teens are consumed with themselves that they don't notice you the way you think they do. This is a good thing, and it is perhaps comforting to know that you aren't being scrutinized for the things you feel insecure about. But also know that while you are special and unique, so are others. You're not a cut above the rest, but are equally as good as others. As much as you think the world and everyone around is watching you at all times, they really aren't. So, has your personal fable burst, or do you feel relieved? Your teenage years may seem a bit turbulent. Socially, your interests change too. Teens find it very important to fit in—to say the right phrase, to wear the cool clothes, to be popular. Friends and relationships are very important at this stage of development. Having a close or best friend helps you to explore your thoughts and feelings. It's a chance to experience feeling close to people, especially as you develop interest (like a crush or romantic feelings) for guys or girls. During your teenage years, your mental abilities change. Teens develop the ability to think abstractly. They can consider possibilities and ideals besides looking at just reality. Teens can hypothesize. They can predict outcomes and consequences. During this period of development, teens begin to realize and understand deeper meanings and moral reasons for why or why not to act and behave in certain ways.
How are concepts and categories useful for writing an essay?
Concepts and categories will help you organize your ideas into paragraphs and sentences.
what is true of goals
Goals are measurable. Goals are actions to be accomplished. Goals allow you to accomplish your personal desires.
Which is a true statement about language?
Language's meanings change. Language has the power to influence. Language shapes our perceptions.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is a personality test that asks 567 true-false questions.
MMPI-2
stage 4
Preadolescent (6 to 12) Industry vs. Inferiority From age six to age twelve, children learn their work ethics and develop a sense of industry. They learn to be dutiful, play well with others, and feel like equals among friends. Children begin to place a lot of importance on friends. A child who doesn't successfully master this stage will feel inferior to friends and have a hard time getting along and making friends with others as he grows up.
What makes the restorative and adaptive theories different?
Restorative theories believe that wounds will heal better while you rest.
Most people, when given a list of items or number, will remember only what was at the start and end of the list. Serial Position Effect definitely shows how well some information makes it into long-term memory and what information stays in short-term memory.
Serial Position Effect. Primacy-Recency position.
Tristan started violin lessons a month ago but has trouble remembering the names of the notes on her sheet music. What can she do to learn the note names?
She can create an acronym to remember the lines of the trebel clef.
Axes III, IV, & V Major Categories What The Axes Examine Axis III medical conditions and physical disorders diabetes brain injury HIV/AIDS cirrhosis Axis IV psychosocial and environmental problems How severe are the stresses in a person's life? Axis V Global assessment of functioning How functional (on a scale of 1-100) is a person?
The DSM has come a long way since it was first published in 1952. Just as people change and develop, so do ideas about disorders and treatment. As more awareness of certain disorders developed, categories and classifications were modified. Categories of mental illness have become more specific, and descriptions of a single mental illness are listed in detail. When a modern professional is evaluating a patient according to the DSM-IV, a specific diagnosis can be made rather than just citing that a patient has some "neurosis" or "psychosis." For example, Bipolar I Disorder (a mood disorder) has thirty different ways in which a patient can be diagnosed. The number in the left column is a diagnosis code and the wording in the right column is the specific diagnosis of bipolarism. Examine the following table and notice some of the thirty ways bipolar disorder can be diagnosed: in full remission, in partial remission, mid, moderate, severe with psychotic features, severe without psychotic features, etc.
TAT
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) asks a person to tell a story based on a picture he is shown. Several pictures that can be interpreted in many ways are shown. And depending on the story you tell about the items in the photo, a psychologist can interpret your ideas and thoughts and tell you about yourself. Once again, the validity of this test is slightly uncertain since stories can be interpreted in many ways, although this test is particularly useful for identifying and measuring a person's need for achievement and power and people's desires for association. A psychologist just needs to listen to the story being told and count the number of times a person talks about "achieving" or "being in control" or "being around people."
By eight weeks, all of the embryo's organs are present, and the heart is actually beating.
The embryo is basically an extension of the mother. So, anything that goes into the mother also goes into the embryo. This includes good things, such as food and nutrients, but also substances that are dangerous to it such as alcohol, tobacco and drugs.
What might a psychodynamic theorist think about a person with extreme shyness?
The shidy person needs to explore his feelings of shyness in order to overcome being bashful. The shy person may need to transfer any feelings connected to shyness over to a therapist. The shy person could benefit from frequent moments of introspection.
What happens to sparrows that don't learn their song during the period?
The sparrows have lost their chance to ever fully learn their song.
Freudian Dream Tools for Analysis
When you interpret dreams through psychoanalysis, certain tools are needed to decode, or understand, the meaning of the events and symbols in a person's dream. Freud uses the concept of manifest content, which is your remembered ideas and descriptions of your dream. Your dream and actions might seem normal or even weird and crazy, but it's through this remembered or manifested content that you can dig deeper and find the hidden meaning in the latent content—the ideas and symbols of your dream that are hidden or scrambled.
cope with stress
You can choose to focus on the problem and overcome it by using imagination. Visualize what you want to have happen or how you want to act differently and mentally prepare yourself.Meditation or some uninterrupted alone time (even if for just five minutes) on a daily basis is excellent for reducing feelings of stress. You can have a happy thought tucked away so that when times get stressful, you can think of your happy memory.
How can you help motivate someone for the positive?
You can pay attention to the driving force behind someone's actions and then use it to motivate action.
How does a good hypothesis help your research experiment?
You can predict the outcome of your experiement.
How is the rule of seven useful?
You can section a long list into just seven items each, for better memory. You can remember to not give too much information, since people don't remember much past seven items. You can memorize the seven pieces of information more quickly.
rehearsal
a form of practice to keep information in the memory
category
a grouping of concepts
morpheme
a meaningful unit of language (words)
Overlearning is _____.
a method for improving your memory. immediately available for recall. an elaborate process that involves practice, memorization, recitation and rehearsal.
The period is _____.
an important window of time for development often referring to the development of an unborn baby something that even sparrows experience
What is an example of a social influence?
an uncle or aunt your best friend a teacher
Honeybees are other creatures that communicate with each other in elaborate ways, considering they are simple insects. Honeybee scouts will find food and come back to the hive and communicate their findings to the forager bees. If food is less than seventy-five meters away, the scout bee will dance a "round" dance. If the food is farther away than seventy-five meters, the scout bee will dance a "waggle" dance. Then the forager bees fly off to find the food, and they don't need the scout bee to come along and show them where to look. This is yet another example of how animals and insects have their own way of communicating, in a language that makes sense to them.
bee communication
How does transduction allow your body to experience its senses?
by converting the sensory messages into neural impulses
Which type of therapy helps a person to overcome challenges by setting goals and helping a person to mentally focus on what is being changed?
cognitive behavior therapy
pinna
collects sound
Hearing
collects sound That's because the pinna (your outer ear flap) collects sound waves that then travel through the auditory canal. The sound waves vibrate against the eardrum, sending more vibrations throughout the middle ear. Eventually, these sound vibrations reach the cochlea. The cochlea is filled with fluid and small hairs. As sound vibrations travel into the cochlea, the hairs move and create energy that turns the sound waves into nerve impulses that are then sent to the brain. Again, remember how we mentioned that transduction is always happening? It's important to remember that for your auditory senses, the cochlea is responsible for converting sound waves into neural impulses.
obedience
conforming to rules made by authority; dutiful or submissive compliance
terminal branches
connect to muscles to relay information for how they should move
reasons for deformities
genetic mutations harm to a growing, unborn baby problems at birth growth or hormone disorders diseases
reliability
getting the same results time after time
shaping
giving reinforcement to the smaller behaviors that eventually make up the new behavior
Which thoery says that human behavior is purposeful?
goal theory
critical periods
in the womb
Although you're born with a genetic potential, such as aggression, you aren't an aggressive person until that trait becomes expressed, such as through fighting with siblings. Biological potential gives you to opportunity to possibly act a certain way. You're predisposed to some behaviors, depending on your genes. The concept of free will believes that people have complete control over all aspects of themselves and that people can change if they so desire. You are who you want to be. Determinism believes that you're born the way you are and that your genetics determine the outcome of who you become and what your personality is like. There is no changing; you are who you are. This debate of free will vs. determinism has been going on for centuries.
info
Obedience means following the rules that are requested by people in authority over you or by someone who is in authority of a situation. You can be obedient to rules that are not laws. People are more willing to obey people in authority as opposed to their peers or people whom they perceive to be just as themselves. People in authority positions must act responsibly about the rules they choose to make and enforce. Zimbardo's prison experiment shows that it's possible for normal people to act horribly in evil situations rather than just being an evil person. Milgram's experiment concluded that many people definitely obey authority even when it means the results aren't good or the outcome may even harm someone else. The poor planning of the Bay of Pigs disaster demonstrated that often people are unwilling to voice an opinion that is the opposite of their leader's.
info
The five axes of the DSM represent ________.
major categories that a mental heath professional will use to assess a person
What do the five axes of the DSM represent?
major categories that a mental heath professional will use to assess a person
people to observe and model behavior, four things must happen.
pay attention to the person who is modeling the action; remember the details of what that person did; be able to repeat the action successfully (For example, if you have poor coordination, you might not be able to instantly model a dancer.); be motivated to do the behavior that was just watched.
social loafing
people don't work as hard in groups than if they were to work alone
context-dependent,
people remember information very well about their surroundings or can even recall past memories simply by being in the very place where the event first happened.
correlation
relationship between two variables
learning
relatively permanent changes of behavior resulting from experience
catharsis
releasing emotions that have been held within
recovered memory
remembering long-forgotten memories with someone's help
operant conditioning
repeating behaviors based on outcome
qualitative
research that explores the "why" and "how" of situations
fear of failure
resignation resentment anxiety embarrassment fear
ethics
rules of conduct; moral principals
idiosyncrasies
specific behaviors or mannerisms that are peculiar to just one person
treatment
specific care given to help a person get well
continuum
spectrum, range, or series
manifest content
the aspects of a dream or fantasy that you remember
mode
the number that occurs most often in a given set of numbers
Classical conditioning requires _____.
the pairing of two stimuli
somatic
the part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for your voluntary body movements
How can people use sensory processes in a practical way?
they can be used to persuade people. They can be used to influence a person's perception. They can be used to calm you down by listening to soothing music.
what is a requirement of learning>
thinking, observing, being taught
decode
to figure out or unscramble hidden meaning
The neuron is the basis for neural communication.
true
Activation Synthesis Theory
During the late twentieth century, James Hobson and Robert McCarley developed the Activation Synthesis Theory to explain dreams. Their research says that we randomly have dreams because the neurons in the cortex of our brain are actively firing during REM sleep. The neurons will fire to parts of the brain and trigger certain motor functions, depending on which brain part receives the neuron's impulse. However, our muscles are temporarily paralyzed during REM sleep and so the brain is confused—how is it supposed to perform the motor skill when the muscles don't work? Our brains try to process this confusion through a story and rely on previous memories to make sense of everything that just happened. Hence, you have a dream. This theory was criticized because it didn't account for feelings and emotions, but later Hobson changed his opinion of dreams and said that our dreams do reflect past memories, emotions, and desires.
Here are the eighteen groups categorized into four smaller groups.
Group 1 Poise (how you handle yourself in situations) Ascendancy (your ability to influence others) Self-assurance (your belief in yourself) Interpersonal adequacy (how you feel you measure up to others) Group 2 Socialization (how you get along and relate to others) Responsibility (do you honor your commitments?) Intrapersonal values (the values you share with your surroundings) Character (how do your internal traits influence your actions) Group 3 Achievement potential (you ability to accomplish) Intellectual efficiency (your belief in how you believe your intelligence helps you) Group 4 Intellectual modes (how you function when you engage in stimulating ideas) Interest modes (how you function when you're interested)
Couples therapy
Husbands and wives who are having trouble in their marriage can attend couples therapy. In couples therapy, two people meet with a counselor, and the counselor helps them become more aware of how to work through differences. Then the therapist will teach the couple strategies for overcoming those differences. For example, a husband, Pete, might be told that his long nights at work make his wife, Amelia, feel alone and isolated. Perhaps he can change his work schedule or make more of an effort to spend some time with Amelia. And Amelia, in turn, might be told that her silent treatment toward Pete when he comes home late eliminates the opportunity for him to attempt to talk with her. For her part, Amelia can work on setting her upset feelings aside and pleasantly welcoming her husband home.
stage 8
Late Adulthood (65 to death) Late Adulthood (65 to death) In late adulthood, ages sixty-five and upward, many adults can look at their lives and see how they have been involved, how they helped out others, and how their children turned out. This stage of life is a chance for a person to see and feel the integrity, or goodness, of their lives. A person who doesn't proceed through this stage with success will feel despair, as though life has been wasted, misspent, or worthless, because nothing meaningful was done for others, such as friends or family members.
Peter is concerned about the horrible feelings he constantly has and his tendency to always feel anxious. What is a healthy action he could take?
Listen to a mental health professional who can guide him through his troubles.
Nutrition for Infants
Little babies may sometimes be pudgy or look fat to you, but that is necessary for their development. In fact, putting a baby on a diet is a major no-no! Fat is necessary for proper brain development. As the brain hard-wires and the baby is making brand new connections about life and all the stimulation that is received (from games of peek-a-boo or from toys, for example) fat is needed for the myelin sheath to cover neurons and transmit brain messages. What is myelin exactly, you ask? And neurons? Neurons are networks that carry messages about what your brain wants your body to do. And the myelin sheath is a fatty coating that surrounds the neurons to help the electrical impulses travel through the neurons. Putting a baby on a diet and depriving him of the needed fat that helps brain development can actually hinder his mental development.
Accutane
Now let's look at an example of a drug that, although legal, nonetheless will create severe developmental problems. Have you heard of Accutane? It's a common but powerful prescription medication used to treat severe acne. It has such high levels of vitamin A that it will create deformities in an unborn child. During those crucial weeks when an embryo is developing, too much of a good thing (like Vitamin A) is actually a bad thing. Developing embryos who get a dose of Accutane can have several defects, including hearing or vision problems, mental disabilities, brain damage, heart problems, or fluid-filled spaces in the brain.
Those who did have money to undergo therapy most likely received psychotherapy, Freud's method. That was the common and most accepted method of treatment for working through mental disorders. Specific standards about mental illness weren't in place, and a person had to trust that his therapist knew what to do and hope that an accurate diagnosis was given.
Only psychiatrists are able to prescribe medication to treat mental disorders. Psychologists and therapists can't; they have to refer patients to a psychiatrist if they felt the patients need treatment for more serious conditions. A psychologist is not even allowed to tell a person what type of medicines he/she ought to take.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).
Pavlov was a behaviorist who discovered the technique we call classical conditioning. He taught that animals could learn new associations by conditioning them respond to cues that trigger the senses. Pavlov's work with animal learning had application to humans, as we learned to train our pets or got hungry on Saturdays at noon even though the lunch bell didn't ring.
What does the Barnum Effect demonstrate?
People are willing to believe interpretations about themselves.
What do the experiences of Genie and Victor demonstrate about language acquisition?
People have a critical period of time when they best learn language.
What does it mean to say that memories are "context-dependent"?
People often attach their surroundings to their memories.
What does it mean to say that memories are "context dependent"?
People often attach their surroundings to their memories. People remember information best when they're in the original place where they learned it.
What is a practical use of classical conditioning?
People on diets can learn to recognize when they have already paired their hunger signals with the sight of a restaurant. People can train their dogs with good behavior. People can housetrain an animal.
What can you learn from the scuba divers who remembered certain words better either above or below water?
People remember information best when they're in the original place where they learned it.
Semantic and Episodic Memory.
Psychologists categorize long-term memory into two types: semantic and episodic. Semantic memory is memory about general ideas, principles, and facts. Episodic memory is memory about specific events in your life. Let's suppose that your very first memory was about a birthday party you had as a kid. This is an example of semantic memory. If you remembered sticking your finger in the frosting of your birthday cake, that's an example of episodic memory.
What did the first portion of Sperling's test show?
Sensory memory is very sensitive and is quick to forget.
Group therapy
Some therapy requires having you and others with similar struggles meet together in a group. As group members, you offer support to one another in that you understand what others are experiencing. You also may discover that some recovery strategies that others have used might help you too. Additionally, group therapy allows a counselor to discuss specific topics with several people present and then people can share their opinions or ask for suggestions from others. Group therapy is often collaborative, but it is always guided by a professional.
Psychological
Stressful situations have the potential to make a person moody, irritable, depressed, anxious, angry, rash, or any other negative emotion that is not characteristically normal. Frustration can set in as you remember what life was like before getting stressed and wish it could go back to being that way. Your memory is often impaired. If you have a boyfriend or girlfriend, he/she might notice that you're not acting like your "old self" and that you might be more prone to picking fights. Your parents might notice that you're quicker to burst into tears over simple things. Perhaps you notice that your own impulse to want to punch something feels greater. Stress has a powerful impact on the way we feel and think.
Illegal Drugs
Taking drugs, particularly at the beginning of pregnancy, can slow fetal growth,or cause malformations or mental disabilities. A baby's heart, arms, legs, or face may show defects because the mother put toxins (drugs, or tars and nicotine from tobacco) into her body during the first ten weeks of her pregnancy. You've heard of crack babies? They are born addicted to drugs because their mothers took crack while pregnant. The sad part is the babies had no choice about receiving those drugs and now have severe health problems, such are low birth weight, or lung and heart problems. But saddest of all, the babies will suffer withdrawal after birth, just as an adult would after deciding to quit using drugs. The first days of life for those babies are very difficult; sometimes they die.
The Milgram Experiment
The unsuspecting teacher was given a set of question and told to ask the learner for answers. Any answer that was wrong resulted in the learner being given an electrical shock for punishment. Each wrong answer required that the teacher give another shock in voltage that was fifteen volts greater than the last shock. The learner pretended to act injured and distressed. One learner even complained of heart problems (untrue, of course) and asked for the teacher to not shock him on the next wrong answer. Guess what? Twenty-five out of forty of the teachers gave voltage shocks to the learner, all the way up to the maximum amount of voltage. Milgram was amazed that more than half of the teacher participants would knowingly physically harm the learner simply because the teacher was told to deliver a voltage shock for each wrong answer. Milgram concluded that many people definitely obey authority even when it means the results aren't good or could harm someone else.
hippocampus is inside the temporal lobe. The way it's shaped often makes people think of a seahorse. The word hippocampus literally means "curved horse" in Greek (hippos = horse and kampi = curve). The hippocampus is responsible for aiding your long-term memory. It also helps with your spatial perceptions, meaning it helps you see depth and breadth, recognize dimensions, or remember how far up to lift your leg to reach the next stair, just to give a few examples.
These brain structures are important for normal memory and unfortunately, some people have damage to these areas of the brain. The damage can result from accidents or simply aging, as in the case of Alzheimer's disease. Regardless, people who have a damaged prefrontal cortex and/or hippocampus all have the same resulting long-term and spatial problems with their memory.
Requirements for Learning
The process of learning uses the neurons and axon connections in our brain to transfer the electrical impulses that give us the signals to think, act, move, or behave in the way we desire. Learning requires us to be aware of our surroundings and to use our five senses to perceive our world. Learning also requires thinking, which of course couldn't happen without brain function or your senses. Learning involves watching others and learning from their examples When we learn, we make conscious choices and exercise our ability to think and to decide what actions we see others do and want to do ourselves. We also learn when other people teach us things directly. Learning requires communication. This may involve inner speech (like telling yourself to run to the finish line even though you are dead tired), or listening to others (like your track coach who tells you to pump your arms harder) to master a new task.
Restorative sleep theories.
The restorative theories of sleep believe that the body heals itself during your slumber. When people or even animals are asleep, it gives the body the chance to make physiological and biochemical changes. Infections are fought, wounds healed, brain processes cleared. Sleep is needed for recovery, and the more rest you get while sick, the better and more quickly your health will improve. If you're already healthy, then you will maintain that health. So if you want to avoid lugging around a box of tissues, you can help your body avoid catching cold by getting adequate rest.
What should you consider when taking a personality test?
The results do not define exactly who you are. Some of the personality tests available are not very good.
Sociocultural
The sociocultural perspective considers how society and culture influences a person through all stages of life. Many of the ways we behave and think are influenced by our surroundings—our family, friends, schools, or community. Simply living in your neighborhood opens you up to many other influences and living experiences, as does being a citizen of your state and country.
Sleep Disorders
Those who do know what sleep deprivation is like know how horrible the feeling is the next day—grogginess, inability to focus and pay attention, irritability, listlessness, moodiness. If it's an experience that's repeated day after day, bad sleep habits set in, if they aren't there already. Sleep deprivation has the ability to change your mood, and your friends might notice a change in your personality or in your ability to handle the small challenges of life that would otherwise be normal to work through. Sleep deprivation—whether it's intentional or the result of a disorder—is not pleasant, nor recommended (who would want it?). The human body needs sleep to rest, rejuvenate, and give the brain a rest and the body a chance to heal. When you deprive yourself of sleep on purpose or if you can't sleep or are constantly unrested for long periods of time, a deeper problem might well be present.
How Observational Learning Applies to You
You can pick up or drop habits through the example of others. Given that observational learning is so influential, it's also important to pick the people you spend your time with. Bad behavior from friends will eventually rub off; it's hard to resist something you watch for too long. The same goes for violent movies and video games. Media that shows violence is very likely to spark aggression in you or teach you how to act aggressively toward other people. Monitor what you watch and notice how it changes the way you feel. Likewise, it's also important to choose role models, people to look up to. If you don't have the best home life, you can always look to someone in your community that you find stable or a good role model. Don't let your home situation be the reason why you choose to carry out bad behavior. You can choose to let the influence of other good people into your life.
How do you formulate a perception?
You experience the outside world through your senses.
What is most likely to happen if you value a goal and believe you can accomplish it?
You'll find a way to make the goal happen.
What is the benefit of deep processing over surface processing?
You'll have a better ability to remember information in the future.
Why is deep processing better than surface processing?
You'll have a better ability to remember information in the future.
Young Adulthood Development.
Young adults between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five are concerned with work, relationships, and family. College or trade school becomes a path for some, work and careers become important to others. And most begin to focus on serious, paired-off romantic relationships. Socially, this stage of life is important to many people who choose to marry and start a family. This is the period of time where great efforts are made to build intimacy and emotional closeness with the important people in their lives.
How do the Rorschach and TAT tests show your personality?
Your description of a picture will give deeper meaning of your inner ideas.
Sight.
Your eyes work first by having light enter through your pupil, which controls the intensity of light you see. Your cornea helps to focus those light rays and your lens changes shapes to help you conceptualize images that are either far or near in proximity to you. The incoming light and how it focuses is changed into neural impulses that register as an image in your brain. Remember how we mentioned that transduction is always happening? It's important to remember that for your vision senses, the retina is responsible for converting light waves into neural impulses.
Locate an example of social influence.
Your friends are wearing designer clothes, so you do the same. You parents respectfully resolve a disagreement, and you decide to work through differences with your friends' opinions. Your teacher mentions that Juan has the highest exam score, so you decide to study harder so you can have the top score next time.
Projection
Your own desires are pushed onto someone else. Here's a classic example. In your dream, you're hungry and you want to get a bite to eat. Maybe some pizza. You call your best friend, Tawnya, because you know she'll hop on her scooter and meet you at the mall. Just as you leave, your mom stops you. She's wearing a police uniform. "Where are you going?" she barks. To avoid getting into trouble for trying to go hang out on a school night, you suddenly say that it was Tawnya's idea to get food, not yours. The ego is protecting you from getting in trouble to preserve your sense of well-being. You've projected your own idea onto Tawnya to avoid trouble.
Determine an example of a social influence.
a brother or sister your best friend a community leader
motive
a goal or reason behind why you act a certain way
sample
a group of people selected from a population
The prefrontal cortex is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for executive functions. Executive functions are the decisions you consciously make and have control over. Your prefrontal cortex is extremely important. Look at all the things this area of the brain helps you do.
delay gratification understand future consequences determine good and bad, better and best suppress urges behave in socially appropriate ways predict outcomes determine differences between conflicting thoughts work toward a goal
industry
devotion to completing a task
desire
drive
Children of what age category learn to master language and discover the correct way to structure sentences?
eaarly childhood
insomnia
inability to fall or stay asleep
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember events that happened prior to a brain injury
anterograde amnesia
inability to store long-term memories
Patricia bikes to school, but along the way she wonders when she "just knew" how to ride a bike. What type of learning is this?
incidental
Positive reinforcement
increases a behavior by giving you something.
Negative reinforcement
increases a behavior by taking away something.
Self-assertive Social Relationship
individuality, self-determination, superiority
lifespan is comprised of six stages
infant, early childhood, adolescent, young adult, middle adult, and later adult.
Everyone has stress. Stress occurs in a variety of situations. Some stressors are: finances, marriage, divorce, fights, moving, physical appearance, etc. People react to stress both physiologically and psychologically. Physiological reactions include increased cortisol levels, lowered immunity after prolonged stress, increased heart and breathing rates, and increased adrenaline. Psychological reactions include depression, anxiety, irritability, anger, etc. People have different ways of coping with stress. People can use visualization, reappraisal techniques, or meditation techniques. They can talk to a friend, too.
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First, and most important, any personality test, while it may define aspects of you, does not define you. Do not let a personality test lead you to believe that you're only one way and one type of person and that this is how you'll be for the rest of your life. Second, the official personality tests cost money to take. In fact, they're quite expensive and usually you have to buy the book and other materials that go along with the test, or pay a person to administer the test. If you take a personality test that you found on the Web, it's most likely not the original, official test that was developed. Third, some personality tests are not considered very reliable by psychologists.
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It's possible to be been seen as altruistic, when in reality our actions aren't. Not everyone can discern sincerity. When altruism fails to be the real reason we selflessly do something for others, you can guarantee the reason is this: desire for a reward. Some people don't believe in altruism. They believe every altruistic action can have some hidden reason why it really isn't altruistic. Every kind act has some potential for you personally benefiting. Some people say that altruism is a paradox. Those who do believe in altruism say the opposite view is very cynical.
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Piaget studied the intellectual development of children. He was a "stage" theorist because he believed that kids develop in order of specific stages. Piaget's four stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, operational, and formal operations. Erikson expanded Freud's theories of development into his own theories on development. He developed his stages on human development around the social and emotional ways in which people develop and the conflicts they work through. Piaget and Erickson's theories have differences in the number of stages and the aspects of human development they look at. Piaget believed that all people automatically go through all four stages and Erickson believed that it's possible for some people to not successfully complete one or more of his eight stages.
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Psychology is the study of people's thoughts and behavior. The word psychology literally means "the study of the mind." Psychology is a relatively new field. It's been around for about 125 years. Wilhelm Wundt is the father of psychology. Sigmund Freud is famous for psychoanalysis. Behaviorism developed to measure the observable actions of animals and people. Other perspectives have developed over time. Studying psychology will help you develop tolerance, patience, and empathy.
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The instant a sensory message reaches your body, receptors convert the message into neural impulses. That message travels to your brain, completing a process called transduction. Your body is in a constant state of transduction. Taste and smell are interesting senses in that they are considered "chemical senses." They require chemical receptors in addition to the neurons that sight and hearing require for sending messages to your brain. Every one of your senses has a specific part that is responsible for transduction. For vision, it's the retina. For sound, it's the cochlea. For taste, it's the taste buds. For smell, it's the olfactory epithelium. Knowledge of how the sensory processes work can be used to persuade people.
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Why do people sometimes fear or make fun of mental illness?
lack of understanding knowing the truth of a disorder is frightening
deprivation
lacking; going without
observational learning
learning by watching other people
enduring
long-lasting
Which study is best for examining the lifespan of twins who grew up apart?
longitudinal study
needed to develop
love, care, nurturing, physical touch and stimulation, brain stimulation through games, people interaction,
observable
noticeable; able to be seen
Which describes a conscious experience?
noticing that the front door has two locks on it
compliant
obedient
Formal learning
occurs in a school system or when you have someone teaching you directly—such as a mentor to a student. Formal learning is organized and purposeful. You are very aware of your actions and thoughts when you are formally learning.
Self-determination theory
people are intrinsically motivated when three innate psychological needs are met Everyone needs to feel competent, have autonomy (or have a sense of independence), and feel related/connected to others
Why does it not always work when you declare yourself a leader of a group?
people are less likely to obey people that are just like themselves. People are more likely to obey someone who represents authority.
Primacy-Recency Effect.
people to remember the beginning and ending parts of what you say. Don't get offended if they forget what's in the middle. You as the speaker can strategically plan what you want to say by beginning or ending with the most important information.
Psychophysics is the study of _____.
people's reactions and perceptions to stimuli
6PF. The 16 Personality Factors (16PF) is a 187-question test that evaluates sixteen dimensions of your personality. Here they are:
perfectionism Warmth Reasoning Emotional Stability Social Boldness Sensitivity Vigilance Abstractedness Liveliness Rule-Consciousness Self-Reliance Tension Dominance Privateness Apprehensiveness Openness to Change
Extrinsic Motivation
reading the assigned article for a good grade lifting weights to show off muscles losing weight because the doctor says to learning to play the banjo because your parents bought you one earning money to pay bills studying hard because you earn money for each grade above a C buying flowers for your girlfriend as an apology gift
What feeling would you likely experience if you negatively valued a task or goal?
resistance anger dread
stewardship
responsibility given to you to watch over someone or something
cochlea
responsible for hearing transduction
olfactory epithelium
responsible for smell transduction
taste buds
responsible for taste transduction
somatic
responsible for voluntary bodily movements
After recovering from a motorcycle accident, Manuel finds he has difficulty remembering events prior to the accident. What type of memory loss is Manuel experiencing?
retrograde amnesia long-term memory
mnemonic device memory tricks
rhyming, imagery, and chunking
Cognitive
satisfying curiosity, attaining understanding, engaging in intellectual creativity
You are a junior in high school and have always been fascinated with bridges. You think it would be great to build bridges for a living but have no idea that you should study engineering in college to accomplish this goal. You've decided that it's time to talk to someone who can help you plan for college and give you guidance and the information you need. Who should you talk to?
school psychologist
Stage N1 Light sleep begins. Muscles relax, and your consciousness of your surroundings diminishes. Stage N2 Light sleep continues. Complete consciousness of the external world disappears. Stage N3 Deep sleep begins. This is the stage where sleepwalking and -talking, bedwetting, and night terrors occur. Stage N4 Deep sleep continues. Stage 5 REM sleep. The brain is active and dreaming. Your eyes move rapidly under the eyelids. Muscles are paralyzed so you don't act out your dreams.
sleep cycle
In 1968, an experiment was conducted to see if people really were less likely to help out when others are present. The experiment began with a woman bringing a person into a room and telling him/her to sit and wait for just a bit. In some cases, there were already other people in the room; in other cases, the person was in the room alone. The woman then left the room and through the door came the sounds of the woman first tripping and then groaning in pain about how much she had hurt herself. Actually, the woman really didn't trip. It was a tape-recorded track of the tripping and moaning. But the waiting people didn't know this. The results? Seventy percent of the people who were waiting in the room all by themselves actually went next door to try to help. Only thirteen percent of the people who were in the room with other people got up and went next door to try to help.
social loafing
Integrative Social Relationship
social responsibility, fairness, supporting others
neurons require to transmit messages to muscles
sodium and potassium ions
controlling your squinting
somatic
variable
something that is likely to change
umami
sometimes called the fifth sense; associated with monosodium glutamate and high-protein foods
During what sleep stage does bedwetting happen?
stage n3
Which is an abnormal behavior related to mental illness?
starving yourself to stay skinny being constantly suspicious
informed consent
statement from a research participant that says he/she understands what is about to happen and still agrees to continue
Psychophysics
study of people's reactions and perceptions to a stimulus. interested in people's five senses and how those senses responded to outside stimulation.
psychotic
suffering from delusions or hallucinations
Wang stares into the sky and notices the clouds are fluffy white. What is this an example of?
surface processing
Katee lives in Connecticut where the leaves change colors every fall. When she sees this sight, Katee thinks of the start of school, hot chocolate, and jackets. What type of mental image is this?
symbolic
`Which is an example of a goal?
taking a nap to feel rested swimming in the pool for exercise watching a movie to relax
Which two senses are considered "chemical senses"?
taste and smell
Observational learning: Albert Bandura, a social psychologist,
teaches you new actions; can encourage bad behavior; can motivate you to start or stop behaviors; can motivate you to do certain actions more frequently
strategies
techniques for working through tough situations
Accutane is a legal drug, but so severe to an unborn child _____.
that an unborn child exposed to this drug will have birth defects that a woman is required to take two forms of birth control while on this drug that after birth, the baby will have vision and brain damage, heart problems, and mental disabilities.
phoneme
the basic unit of meaning (letters and sounds)
Which is an example of a pop psychology tests?
the color test
attachment
the feelings of emotional connection a child has toward someone else
zone of proximal development
the gap between a person's current level of development and the potential development that can be achieved
latent content
the hidden aspects of a dream that you must figure out
median
the middle number in a set of ordered numbers
autonomic
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls how your organs work
lifespan
the period of time you live from birth to death
encoding
the process of placing information into the mind
withdrawal
the process the body goes through when quitting drugs
how do sodium and potassium ions transfer in and out of an axon
through gates that open up
Which is an abnormal behavior related to mental illness?
throwing up food to stay skinny
What is the purpose of encoding?
to acquire information into the brain
diagnose
to classify or determine
What is the purpose of the DSM?
to diagnose mental illness to diagnose psychosocial problems to diagnose clinical disorders
What is not the purpose of the DSM?
to diagnose physical ailments
What personal skills do you learn through studying psychology?
tolerance patience empathy
Goals are more likely to happen if you have positive expectations.
true
If you pay attention to a salesperson's personality state, you can possibly prevent yourself from buying unnecessary things.
true
Knowing too much information can cause you to forget what you want to remember.
true
People are willing to believe most interpretations about themselves.
true
Personality tests are a great way to learn more about yourself.
true
Retrieving information requires a purposeful effort to remember.
true
The happiness an elderly adult feels is largely based on how successful earlier events in her life were.
true
autonomic and somatic nervous systems are different based on voluntary and involuntary control of body movements and organ functions
true
Determine which could be a sample chosen from a population.
twelve students who play the French horn in the brass section of an orchestra
intrinsic
you desire to do something from the inner will you have. It's in your basic nature to be naturally motivated toward a task
interpretation
your personal meaning given to places, events, situations, and people
autonomic
controls how your organs work
Carl Rogers developed a therapy technique that requires a _______.
counselor to listen without passing judgment
H.M.'s operation on the hippocampus showed that _____.
damage to that brain area results in amnesia long-term memory is severely affected short-term memory doesn't work well either
Placing positive value on a task
first step in forming a successful goal
rote
from memory
personality and emotions
frontal lobe
Which of the following four senses experience transduction?
sight smell hearing taste
failure to thrive
a situation in which infants don't grow properly and develop as normal
neuron
a special cell that has a cell body, axon, and dendrites
paradox
a statement or idea that seems to contradict itself
Your two-year-old brother says "nomore car," and you know this is an example of _____.
a telegraphic sentence
state
a temporary aspect of your personality
Visualizing a school play and how you'd deliver your lines perfectly is _____.
a way to cope with stress
What results when you combine several phonemes together?
a word a morpheme
Performance goals
accomplishing the task and preserving an image and reputation. People's egos are tied closely with these goals, and they engage in activities simply to show how competent they are.
babies are making sounds that resemble words you'd hear. Some of the first sounds an infant will speak are "mah," "dah," "puh," and "buh." Or sometimes "mama" and "dada." Many cultures report that these sounds are the first that children make, regardless of what language is spoken. The tongue, mouth cavity, and throat don't have to shift, change positions, or twist in any special way to get that sound out. Try saying "writer" our loud. Now say "mah-mah" out loud. Notice that the w, r, and t sounds of writer require you to shape your lips and mouth very specifically, whereas "mahmah" or "mama" doesn't. Perhaps you can understand and appreciate more why the simpler words and sounds come out of an infant's mouth. This little baby is still learning sounds and how to use his/her motor skills.
age one year
confederate
an accomplice
trait
an aspect of ourselves that is stable and enduring
concept
an idea or thought
Pablo is asked to think about his favorite birthday party, and he pictures a cake with candles and frosting and he can even remember the words "happy birthday" spelled out. What type of mental image is this?
analogical
What are some feelings that you'll likely experience if you expect to succeed?
anticipation happiness excitement desire for focus
interference
anything that inhibits your brain's ability to remember
People are most likely to be obedient to rules that _____.
are set up by people in authority
When must a psychological researcher debrief human test subjects?
at the end of every experiment
temporal lobe
auditory processing, speech, vision, memory, hearing
consciousness
awareness of your existence, sensations, thoughts, surroundings
parts of a neuron
axon, dendrites, myelin sheath
Abnormal behavior is not always related to mental illness, _____.
but some odd behavior can result from drug usage, which can create a disorder.
One reason is that many people consider mentally ill people weak or unstable or think they're unworthy of trust, which is unfortunate. Maybe they are and maybe they aren't. Or maybe they were prior to getting help and medication, but now they're just fine. However, there are many people who aren't trustworthy and they are not mentally ill. One thing to always remember is that people change. Is it normal for an anorexic person to steal because of the disorder? No. But is it normal for someone with impulse control issues to steal? Yes.
Another possible reason is lack of understanding. It's wise to withhold judgment about any person until you understand exactly what that person is dealing with. Not knowing about, or understanding, what a person truly is suffering from can make us uncomfortable or afraid of other people's judgments or insecure about our own sense of wellness. Mental illness is treated as a taboo topic, and you don't hear people readily admitting they suffer from panic attacks or having deviant sexual desires. Many, many people suffer from depression but pretend they don't have a problem or don't want others to know of their struggling feelings. Nobody chooses to be mentally ill. Why make fun of something that causes people pain and over which they have no control?
ways of learning
Anyone can attempt to learn in one of three main ways: rote, informal, and formal.
Early Childhood Development
As children grow up through their elementary school years, you will not find a significant amount of physical change. Kids get a little taller ever year, which is normal, but physically significant changes occur in later stages. Children at this age learn to interact and socialize with the world around them. They learn how to play and share and they develop good manners as they interact with brothers and sisters and friends on the playground and in the classroom. Children of this age learn to master language and discover the correct way to structure sentences. They learn to think about space and objects and refine their abilities to see reality and not just imagination. Children are greatly influenced by the family environment in which they grow up. They learn to express their emotions, control their tempers, and feel close and attached to parents or caretakers. Psychologists believe that children attach to parents in four ways: securely attached, anxiously attached, avoidant, or disorganized. Attachments. The securely attached child is comfortable having a parent come and go and is happy and pleased when parents are around. They trust their parents and feel confident that they are cared-for and protected. The anxiously attached child is more emotionally up-and-down when parents come and go. The child is unsure, uncomfortable, and not emotionally confident in the parent. These children are a bit fearful and inclined to worry. The avoidant child does not care when parents come and go and is emotionally closed off from the parents. Please keep in mind that this is not a normal way for children to act or behave. Usually such a child's trust has been violated at a very early age and the kid learned to behave and react avoidant. The disorganized child doesn't seem to notice when parents come or go and shows no emotional reaction. This type of attachment sometimes blends with anxious and avoidiant children.
Solomon Asch's famous conformity experiment in 1958 demonstrates this very concept.
Asch gathered several groups of students together and showed them two images. The first image had a straight line and the second image had three lines. One line was exactly the same length as the first image's line. And the other two lines on the second image were obviously shorter. Asch asked students to tell him which of the three lines matched the line on the first image. The correct answer was unmistakable. Line 2 was the same length as the line in the first image. One by one the students were asked to give their answer. However, Asch had confederate people in the group—students who were not really taking the test. Instead, these confederates were placed in the group to purposely give the wrong answer about which line matched the length of the other line. When it came time for the students to give their answers, 37 of the 50 participants conformed to the incorrect answer at least once. After all the groups had been tested to see if students would give the correct answer, results showed that only twenty-five percent of students were likely to stay with the correct answer despite others giving wrong answers.
According to Freud, these memories are stored in your preconscious mind. Not everyone accepts the idea of the preconscious, but you can be confident that everyone agrees on whether you are awake or asleep. Consciousness and nonconsciousness are both pretty standard, so let's take a look at the nonconscious world—that precious thing you do called sleeping.
Babies will sleep for a good majority of the day, while the elderly often need only six hours, sometimes even less. When you are growing and developing physically, your body needs its rest. Perhaps when you hit your teen years, you suddenly noticed that you felt like sleeping more. But it wasn't just that you felt like it, you needed it. Growth spurts and growing in general consume a lot of energy, and resting rejuvenates your body and gives you the mental clarity and focus to go through the day functioning normally.
Albert Bandura (1925-present)
Bandura is known as the father of social learning theory. He believes that people learn as they play and interact with people and the world around themselves. Your surroundings influence you, just as you influence your surroundings. Bandura's area of special interest was in examining the ways in which young children followed the influence of older adults. He studied their aggression levels and how likely they were to behave in certain ways.
Biological
Biological psychology is the study of biological structures within a human and how they relate to a person's behavior and way of thinking. The concept of the mind and how it is influenced has always been an interest of philosophers. Biological psychologists are interested in all aspects of the human body and its functions. They study anatomy and parts of the brain such as neurons and axons, including their capacity for transmitting messages.
Diagnosis Code Disorder 296.56 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Depressed, In Full Remission 296.55 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Depressed, In Partial Remission 296.51 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Depressed, Mild 296.52 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Depressed, Moderate 296.54 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Depressed, Severe With Psychotic Features 296.53 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Depressed, Severe Without Psychotic Features 296.50 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Depressed, Unspecified 296.46 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Manic, In Full Remission 296.45 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Manic, In Partial Remission 296.41 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Manic, Mild 296.42 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Manic, Moderate 296.44 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Manic, Severe With Psychotic Features 296.43 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Manic, Severe Without Psychotic Features 296.40 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Manic, Unspecified 296.66 Bipolar I Disorder, Most Recent Episode Mixed, In Full Remission
Bipolar I disorder
How are symbolic and analogical representations similar?
Both are mental images. Both require thinking. Both are a basic element of thought.
How are the Core-Optional and adaptive sleep theories the same?
Both believe that sleeping is necessary for healing.
What is a similarity between incidental and intentional learning?
Both bring knowledge into your brain.
How are sleep apnea and narcolepsy the same?
Both conditions leave you feeling tired during the day. Both conditions can result in headaches during the day.
Why are strokes and Alzheimer's disease serious conditions?
Both conditions often result in severe memory loss. Both conditions kill brain cells.
How are the MMPI-2 and the CPI similar?
Both interpret answers using categories. Both have groups of questions that check for validity. Both have ways of checking to see if people lied in their answers.
How are negative values and expectations for fear of failure similar?
Both involve negative emotions and outlooks. Both are likely to make a goal less likely to happen.
Problems with DSM diagnoses
But what if your symptoms are mild and with just a few session of therapy, you could be back to normal. If you are diagnosed with a mental illness, it goes on a permanent record. That can seem a bit extreme to some. Likewise, American culture still has biases against mental illness, so some people may be opposed to getting help from a psychiatrist simply because they don't want a mental heath record trailing them. Women who experience terrible pains and moodiness from menstrual cramps can be diagnosed with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Sometimes a doctor may choose to prescribe an antianxiety or antidepressant drug to help a woman during her cycle. Some women are for this, and others are against it. Either way, those who do get help from a professional for this normal physical process (menstrual cycle) now have a mental disorder labeled with it. Sometimes people don't fit into specific diagnosis categories. For the longest while, when less was known about ADD, many symptoms were lumped under that category. You might have been having trouble with anger impulse controls while someone else had short-attention-span problems, but you both ended up labeled with the same disorder: ADD. Many of the Axis II personality disorders overlap. How do you know which personality disorder you truly have if you have symptoms from many categories? Likewise, a lot of obsessive-compulsive (Axis II disorder) symptoms sometimes get lumped under the anxiety disorder (Axis I disorder) umbrella. It's a tough call. Where do you draw the boundaries, and how do you know when to split hairs? That's a tough situation that many mental health professionals face to this very day and must still take time to figure out.
Cognitive Dream Theory
Calvin Hall, a well-known psychologist during the 1950s, developed a cognitive theory about why people dream. He believed that dreams involved conception and perception of images. Conception and perception are described as being able to see or experience an object through your senses (perception) and then interpreting the object in a way that is meaningful to you (conception). While you sleep, your brain has memories of many things you have experienced with your senses throughout the day. You have perceived the sun's daylight, the smell of your breakfast, the feeling of the clothes you put on, the sound of water from the faucet, and so on. These perceptions of experiences from the day, and memories of perceptions from the past (such as the cool splash of the swimming pool on a hot summer day), are remembered while you sleep. Your brain takes these perceptions and conceptualizes them with personal interpretation to create a dream. Consider for example that memory of the cool splash of the pool on that hot summer day. Perhaps your brain chooses to conceptualize that memory, and you end up having a dream. Maybe it's a bad one because you were actually pushed into the water, which caused the splash, and you were upset and distressed that someone kept you from choosing for yourself whether or not to get into the water. Hall says you can dream about anything that you have ever perceived in your waking life. Dreams are interpreted by connecting the dream events to the experiences you have in the waking world. Here are three ways our conceptions get dreamt about.
Physiological
During the period of time that you feel immediate stress, coritsol levels rise in your body. This is your body's natural way of giving your memory an immediate boost for retaining information and functioning normally. Cortisol will activate your immune system and help you fight off illness and disease.having cortisol in your system for long periods of time (meaning you are stressed out for a long time) actually wears away your immune system's health. Although cortisol is a quick fix for temporarily keeping you healthy, it can also lead to your poor health after extended periods of stress. Stress can also create a fever, decrease or increase appetite, or cause fatigue and the desire to sleep a lot (to avoid the situation.) During immediate stress, your heart rate and breathing also increase and your adrenaline levels go up. Just imagine going to the doctor for a booster shot, and you know that you're going to get stuck with a needle. Many people don't like shots, so the thought of getting one creates those heart and breathing rate increases. And during the actual shot, you'll have those reactions again, perhaps with a lightning-quick urge to jerk your limb away from the doctor out of automatic reflex because you don't want the pain of the shot. That's your adrenaline kicking in too. Together, all of your physiological responses create your "fight or flight" system.
Infant Development
During these infant years, a baby's growth and development are primarily concerned with developing the basics. (You don't see little babies being concerned with how many friends they have or if their diapers are cool-looking and have the right kind of sticky tabs.) During this phase of life, an infant needs physical nourishment for healthy growth along with mental nourishment to encourage brain and motor skills development. Physical nourishment comes in the form of proper food and nutrition. Breast milk is healthiest for infants because of the antibodies that are passed from mother to baby. And introducing solid foods at around six months of age is good for helping babies develop a taste for foods that they will eat in the months and years to come. Mental nourishment comes in the form of stimulation from their surroundings, like playing with blocks, looking at spinning mobiles, turning pages of books, grasping and holding to develop motor skills. Social development occurs through interacting with parents, being held, feeling comfortable and secure, giggling, and other forms of play. Did You Know? When introducing solid foods to babies, it is best to give them fruits and other sweet foods last! Start with bland foods first. Once a baby gets used to the desirable sweet taste of certain foods, he's not going to want to go back or even start trying to like strained potatoes or carrots. Remember, taste, not color of food, is what you need to consider.
thorndike experiment
Edward Thorndike from Harvard University began experimenting with cats in his basement. Thorndike wanted to see if a cat would learn how to get out of a box if it performed the right action, so he placed cats in cages called puzzle boxes. Naturally, those felines didn't like being cramped up. They went berserk inside the cages, pawing and hissing and wildly attempting to get out by banging against the sides and knocking against the door. In the process of all this flailing, a cat would accidentally tilt a pole that was inside the cage. The pole caused the door to open, which in turn allowed the cat to escape. This same cat was placed in the cage again. Thorndike wondered if the cat would realize that in order to escape, the stick just has to be knocked again. Of course, the cat went nuts inside the confining cage and sure enough, the intense movement finally hit the pole. The door opened, and the cat escaped. Thorndike placed the cat in the cage again. And again, and again. After being confined several times in the cage, the cat started to realize that each time it hit against the pole, the door opened. The thrashing became less intense. The cat became quicker to tilt the pole and eventually learned how to let itself out of the cage without much effort at all. This is an example of operant conditioning in practice. The concept works on both people and animals.
epilepsy
Epilepsy is a neurological disorder. That means the brain is malfunctioning when a person experiences seizures, which can be caused by epilepsy. But as recently as fifty years ago, this physical disorder was not understood well. Throughout many centuries, epilepsy was viewed as a mental disorder, and it was believed that people who had it were possessed by demons that brought on convulsions. In reality, epilepsy is a physical disorder, not a mental one. Ignorance and fear led people to assume that people with epilepsy were mentally disturbed.
Conceptions of the self social roles and our self-concept Conceptions of other people the roles of family, friends, and other people and how we feel about them Conceptions of the world our surroundings and environment, like our home, neighborhood, or school and if they're beautiful, peaceful, chaotic, or icky
Freud believed that dreams are a gateway into the unconscious mind. He felt that a dream was a small way of viewing our urges and desires from deep within and that all we needed to do was examine and study our dreams to reveal their meanings. Dreams are important and filled with symbols, and the way to understand a dream is to explore its content by free association. This is a process in which a person talks about the dream and connects it to ideas or else just speaks about it without worrying about what it meant or how it sounded. You dream in symbols because the unconscious mind doesn't speak in words. So you or a qualified psychoanalyst can pay attention to the dream details you speak about and then make some interpretations about the hidden meaning behind those images. Freud wrote an entire book about dream analysis, called the Interpretations of Dreams, published in 1899. Although today some of his ideas are considered old and maybe even ridiculed a bit by others, people still give him credit for his extensive work with dreams and their analysis. Freud said that we dream about things that during our waking hours we don't even know about. But during dreamland, our id and superego are still at odds, and the dreams are a way of expressing wishes of things we want to see happen—or not happen.
Oddly, the word cycle in this instance doesn't mean that you go through stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 to get to REM sleep. Instead, your level of sleep begins at 1, works up to 3 or 4 and then goes back down to 2 or 1 before you enter the REM sleep. This also means that you will go through the sleep cycle more than once a night. You could possibly enter dreamland up to five times or more, depending on the length of time that you sleep.
Get adequate sleep. It's the healthiest gift you can give your body and mind. Sleep deprivation will make a person moody, irritable, forgetful, and more susceptible to getting sick. It shows its sign through dark circles under the eyes. Sleep deprivation can give your headaches, make you hyperactive, and lead to dizziness, fainting, and even depression. There are so many disadvantages to being sleep-deprived, and yet Americans push the limit.
ways to overcome insomnia
Go to bed at the same time each night. Wake up at the same time each morning. Use your bedroom for sleeping only. Read, play, use the computer, or do homework in other rooms. Keep your bedroom slightly cool, dark, and quiet. Don't drink caffeine (sodas, energy drinks, tea) in the evening or just before your bedtime. Don't eat a heavy meal, greasy or spicy foods, or sugary sweets before going to sleep. Exercise, but not before your bedtime. (Exercising stimulates your body.)
The Story of H.M
In 1953, a young man referred to as H.M., had severe problems with epilepsy. His seizures occurred so often that doctors suggested he have an operation on his brain to fix the problem. However, in 1953, doctors didn't know enough about the brain to realize that the procedure they were about to perform on H. M. would affect his life drastically. H.M. lived through the operation in which the surgeons removed his hippocampus. The operation was successful in that H.M. had fewer seizures, but the unfortunate part of this real-life story is that H.M. experienced a terrible memory loss of two types. The first type of memory loss he had is called anterograde amnesia. He couldn't store long-term memories anymore. In fact, for the rest of his life, H.M. thought he was twenty-seven years old—his age at the time of the operation. He also could read the same book over and over and not remember what he'd read. H.M. had to write notes to himself to remember to that he had already eaten a meal, picked up his dry cleaning, gotten the mail, and so on. He simply was unable to remember anything long-term anymore. The second type of memory loss H.M. had was retrograde amnesia. He was unable to remember many events that had happened in life prior to the operation. His short-term memory was somewhat functional, but his memory abilities were never the same as they were before the surgery. From him and from experiments on animals and on other people, scientists and cognitive psychologists learn that hippocampus damage creates memory difficulties. Long-term memory is severely affected and short-term memory doesn't work well either. Connections Forgetting is a symptom of depression. You can tell if a person has Alzheimer's disease or is simply depressed. How? By listening to that person's complaints about memory. People with depression often say they can't remember things and complain of their forgetfulness. However, people with Alzheimer's don't know to complain of these things. If someone you know happens to remember that they "don't remember," then most likely she or he doesn't have Alzheimer's.
George Sperling's Iconic Memory Test
In 1960, a psychologist named George Sperling wanted to test people's sensory memories. Specifically, he wanted to see how well people's iconic (visual) memory worked. Sperling wanted to show the sensory store at work. Sperling tested individuals one-by-one by showing a visual display and then immediately asking people to report what they saw. Each display had rows of letters and/or numbers, which were shown for just fifty milliseconds. Sperling noticed that when he asked people to recall what they saw, just a few letters and numbers were recited. He concluded that the sensory memory faded very fast. Next he tried something different. Sperling showed the same display of numbers and letters, but also included three different sounds to indicate which row to pay attention to. Then he immediately asked people to recall the letters and sounds in the row. People were able to successfully recall almost everything in the row. Sperling also noted that once the numbers and letters were shown, he had to immediately signal a sound for a person to know which row to look at. If Sperling waited just even a second after the display was shown to indicate which row to view, people had difficulty remembering what they saw. Why? Their sensory memory saw all the letters and numbers at once. This is more difficult to recall than just one row with a few letters and numbers. The amount of time it takes to recall all the letters and numbers is too great. The experiment showed what we've already learned; that sensory memory is very sensitive and quick to forget.
Zimbardo's Prison Experiment
In 1971, Philip Zimbardo, a professor of psychology at Stanford University, wanted to observe what a person's reactions were to being a prison guard. He set up a situation where twenty-four students (who were pre-screened for normal behavior, which means that those with violence or drug abuse in their histories were excluded) were selected to play the role of either a prison guard or a prisoner. People volunteering for the experiment did not know which role they would be taking; a coin toss determined this. The experiment was to last two weeks, as psychologists took notes and made observations of how people reacted in their roles. But in a matter of six days, the whole experiment was shut down. Why? In just that brief period of time, the people who had been assigned as prison guards became extremely mean and sadistic. They had no formal training on how to be a guard. They were allowed to make up their own rules for keeping order. They acted harshly and cruelly to the prisoners. Oddly, these prisoners accepted the treatment and even tried to revolt. They acted like real prisoners, even though they were not! Everyone was playing a temporary role, but somehow, being given the authority to act as a prison guard led these people to assume they could be mean and cruel.
Cultural customs and beliefs can influence what people think is normal and abnormal.
In other words, what is considered normal and abnormal depends a lot on what a society and culture says is or isn't acceptable. In the examples given, abnormal behavior simply means that a person is acting differently from what is normally expected. Abnormal behavior can simply be the result of people choosing to act weird
How Long-Term Memory Works
Long-term memory has the capacity to hold all sorts of information. You can access it whenever you need it, simply by using a retrieval cue. Note that this is a difference between long-term memory and short-term memory. Short-term memory doesn't need a retrieval cue or something to prompt a memory. But long-term memory does. Consider this example to help you further contrast the difference between short-term and long-term memory. Imagine you are in a library full of books. The walls are just lined with shelves from floor to ceiling. Holding a book in your hands to read the pages of information is like your short-term memory. You won't hold that book all day long. Instead, you are temporarily accessing the information. All the books with all of their information on those bookshelves represent your long-term memory. You know what's in each of those books, and the library is available whenever you need it. Your brain holds countless pieces of information and concepts that you can learn and retrieve, even after days, years, and decades pass by.
Middle Adulthood Development.
Many adults between the ages of thirty-five and sixty-five are in the middle of raising older kids and seeing them go off to college or at least move away from home. Much of an adult's focus is on family relationships and sometimes "parenting their parents" by taking care of a mom or dad that is elderly and unable to care for him/herself. Adults of this age span often have midlife transitions, which are not bad things to experience. At some point in life, most everyone is going to ask themselves if they are doing what they want to be doing. You'll find many people switching jobs, going back to school, picking up a hobby (such as acting in community theatre or learning to play the banjo), or resuming old interests that were set aside. Physical health and strength begins to decline with advancing age. Women experience menopause. Men's testosterone levels decrease a bit too. As retirement approaches, many of life's successes will already have been accomplished and are positive points to reflect on. Of course, there will be disappointments too, but part of living a healthy life is learning to experience and manage a wide range of emotions and situations, such as the death of a loved one.
Some abnormal behaviors are mild, some abnormal behaviors are extreme. Some people have mild mental illness; their behavior is uncomfortable but usually manageable (such as people who are functionally depressed). Then there are some who exhibit extremely abnormal behaviors due to mental illness, such as making paranoid accusations that someone has installed surveillance cameras to watch them in their own home, having hallucinations, or acting impulsively. Behaviors such as this could lead a mentally ill person to act in harmful ways to himself or threaten the safety of others.
Mental disorders, mild or severe, are not to be taken lightly. Good health—physical and mental—is always desirable. Regardless of the mildness or severity of mental illness, professional help is always available. Luckily, you're a high school student, which probably means you have a school counselor who is always available and willing to talk with you. Everything you tell the school counselor is confidential. Even your parents and friends don't have to know that you spoke to the school counselor.
stage 7
Middle Adulthood (35 to 65) Generativity vs. Stagnation During middle adulthood, people ages thirty-five to sixty-five have the chance to give back to the communities and the society that helped them grow up. It's an opportunity to give service to schools or donate time at volunteer organizations. It's a chance to pass on values to kids and other people of importance. A person who does not pass through this stage successfully will feel stagnant, or stuck, as though life is not going anywhere. People will get absorbed into themselves and focus on their own needs or wants and worries rather than giving back to their surroundings.
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is a sleeping disorder in which people suddenly have an uncontrollable urge to fall asleep during daytime hours. People with this disorder take lots of naps, may find it unsafe to drive, and also may find themselves falling asleep without choice during the day at work or school. Although narcolepsy isn't the most common sleeping disorder, about 7 percent of Americans have it. Scientists think it may have a genetic basis. Narcolepsy can be treated with stimulants and antidepressants to help a person fall asleep at the appropriate times and get better rest. This sleeping disorder still needs more research to determine how to help people overcome it.
Finances
Not having the amount of money you need or are accustomed to will create huge feelings of stress.
When compared to many of the scientific disciplines that have existed for centuries, the field of psychology is relatively new. Likewise, the treatment of mental disorders and attempts at understanding the human mind is even newer. The more we discover the human brain and the more we conduct psychological research, the greater the information we have on hand to help and treat people—both with better therapy skills and newer, more specific medications. Key Point Just a century ago, oddly behaved people were often committed to insane asylums. Mental disorders were simply not understood and therefore not well-treated. The Bethlehem Royal Hospital in London was one such lunatic asylum. The word "bedlam," which means chaos and confusion, was derived from this hospital's name and represented the way people within the institution behaved. Psychiatry has evolved greatly in the past sixty years.
People suffering from depression and other disorders did so quietly, unless their behavior was so extreme that others would commit the sufferer to an asylum. Mental illness just wasn't understood at the turn of the twentieth century to the extent we understand it today. We are fortunate for our circumstance today, and it has taken years to get where we are. There is still more to discover
What did the Milgram Experiment demonstrate?
People will obey authority even when the results will harm someone.
Rorschach Inkblots
Perhaps the most famous and problematic of the projective tests, the Rorschach inkblots allow people to give their own interpretation of what they see in the random shapes of inkblots. A person taking this test will be shown ten different inkblots—five in color and five in black and white. Each time you're shown a new inkblot, you're asked to tell what you see. Your answers supposedly will reveal much about you simply by how you respond. As decades have passed, this test has been discredited by some psychologists: the inkblot images are supposed to be private and the tests given only by a trained psychologist, but other people have gotten their hands on them and leaked them to the public at large.
differences between erikson and Piaget
Piaget focused on intellectual development, and Erikson focused on social and emotional development. Erickson was influenced by Freud's stages and Piaget was influenced by his own observations of children while performing IQ tests. Piaget also has just four development stages and Erikson has double that amount: eight. Erickson believed that it's possible for people to go to the next stage of development without fully completing the current stage they're in. Piaget believed that all people automatically go through all four stages and that you don't get stuck in one stage.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Pregnant women are cautioned to not drink alcohol because it may damage a developing embryo or fetus and cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), which may be apparent after birth. FAS slows the child?s ability to think. Other symptoms of FAS can include mental retardation, heart problems, stunted physical development and other defects. In some cases of FAS the baby's face is slightly smaller than average. The eyes are shorter and more round. The top lip is thin, and skin above the lip is smooth rather than having a philtrum, that little groove under your nose.
How Short-Term Memory Operates
Short-term memory is the temporary storage of information in your brain. Sometimes it is called working memory, because your memory is working in the moment to temporarily hold on to the information you remember. Playing a game of pick-up basketball and remembering the current score requires using your short-term memory. When you're playing a video game and you know you have just three more levels to go, and five more items to locate, your short-term memory is holding on to those levels and items for you. Cognitive psychologists have found that people are able to remember about seven items, numbers, or objects at a time without forgetting. They call this the rule of seven, which simply means that short-term memory allows people to remember up to seven (plus-or-minus-two) items at a time. Anything more than that requires a person to take special effort to accurately remember all those items, and that process involves placing info into your long-term memory. The short-term memory also has ways of making the process of remembering easier. You can actively try one of these processes, such as rehearsing, reciting, or creating mnemonic devices. These are helpful when studying for a test or quiz or remembering directions to someone's house or a list of birthday presents you want.
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990
Skinner was a behaviorist who developed the concept of operant conditioning. He taught that animals and people could learn to do new behaviors depending on whether actions were encouraged or stamped out. Skinner's developments on learning showed that behavior could be shaped and molded into desired actions with just a little help. For example, rewarding a kid for sharing toys by giving him a cookie teaches him that sharing is a desirable behavior.
Abnormal Behavior that Results from Mental Illness
Some abnormal behavior occurs as a result of mental illness. Claiming to hear voices, having panic attacks when thinking about a certain topic, believing you absolutely have to take dangerous drugs in order to perform well, starving yourself to stay skinny, throwing up your food to stay skinny, obsessively washing your hands several times a day, or being positive that your next-door neighbor is a spy are examples of abnormal behavior that are a result of mental sickness.
Implicit, Explicit, and Procedural Memories
Some other ways your long-term memory works is through implicit, explicit, and procedural memories. Implicit memory is an unintentional form of memory. It leads to procedural memories such as tying your shoes or dialing a number on your phone. On the other hand, explicit memories require a conscious remembrance, such as remembering that you put bread in the toaster for breakfast this morning, or that you need to take the dog outside for a walk.
Concepts describe categories.
Thinking is an action of the brain that allows you to make sense and understand your surroundings. All the concepts or ideas that you learn are automatically categorized in the brain. Storing information in an orderly way, such as by categories, allows the brain to work with greater efficiency. Thoughts are made from mental images. There are two types of mental images: analogical and symbolic. Symbolic representations are mental pictures that have no direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about. If you run track and field sprints, running may create a mental image that represents freedom, victory, or even cheetahs (the fastest land mammal). Analogical representations are mental pictures that have a direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about. If you were asked the shape of a horse's ears, first you would imagine a horse's head and ears and then determine from your mental image if that horse's ears are pointy, rounded, floppy, or upright. A concept is a big idea that represents a category. A category is a way to group ideas. Concepts and categories help you organize information and can help you write better essays. Paragraphs are like concepts, and each sentence is a way to categorize information.
Openness to Experience.
This category is self-explanatory by the title alone. How often do you open yourself up to trying new things—new foods, new classes, new people, new situations? Can you set aside your self-consciousness or insecurities and be willing to experience the joy of learning and experiencing new things because you were open to trying the new experience? Maybe you tried sushi for the first time or rode on a roller coaster. What if your teacher says she has a new project coming up and needs a volunteer? Will you raise your hand and help out? If you don't, examine yourself for a moment and decide how closed off you are to trying new things. Sure, it's comfortable and safe. You'll never have to be embarrassed or worry that your friends or others might think you look dumb. But think about what you have missed out on in the past because you weren't willing to try anything other than what you knew and were comfortable with.
Two examples in particular have been noted as people study language development. In 1797, a young boy was found wandering in the forests in France. This boy was named Victor, often called the Wild Boy of Aveyron. He couldn't speak and apparently had lived in the wild and survived on his own for many years. He was captured twice and escaped once. But when Victor was willing to stay and not attempt to escape, several people took care of him and tried to help him live a normal human life. Victor was about twelve years old when he was found, and a man named Jean Marc Gaspard Itard attempted to teach him how to speak. He was sure this boy was not animal-like at all, rather just in need of help and training. After all, Victor was a human being. Itard worked a lot with Victor, who made progress in behavior and social skills and could understand what people meant when they spoke to him. However, in the end, Victor could speak only a couple of words himself. This observation led researches to conclude that language must be learned during a certain critical period of time in a young person's life. This same conclusion was reached again nearly two hundred years later when a young girl named Genie was discovered in 1970 in Los Angeles. She had been locked in her room and tied up frequently. She was twelve years old and spoke perhaps twenty words maximum, but she had never learned language because her parents barely spoke to her. Psychologists worked with Genie to help her learn language and how to speak. They had some success, but in the end they arrived at the same conclusion that the other researchers had about Victor of Aveyron. Based on these two experiences and other studies, language psychologists believe that children must learn how to speak at the critical period of time when the brain is most receptive to learning a language.
When a Child Doesn't Learn to Speak
Why is sleep deprivation bad for your health?
You can end up with headaches, dizziness, or depression.
Depression
a mood disorder, has fourteen ways of being diagnosed. Adjustment disorder has six ways a person can be diagnosed. Sleeping disorders have four ways of being diagnosed (hypersomnia, insomnia, mixed, parasomnia). A quick search of any Web search engine for "DSM diagnosis codes" will give you several results that will show all the Axis I and Axis II disorders and their many diagnosis codes. The great thing about such detail is that the appropriate professional can much more accurately diagnose a person's disorder. It's the difference between saying, "You have some nerve pain" vs. "You have a toothache." One description isn't that helpful, the other description lets a dentist determine if a cavity filling or root canal is best to fix that toothache. That's how it works for treating abnormal behavior that results from mental illness. A general description won't help you get the right type of therapy or medication you could have, but a specific diagnosis will allow you to get the specialized treatment you need and the specific kind of medication that is just right for the disorder you have (if you have one).
insomnia triggers
can result from many different triggers; some are emotional and some are physical. Have you ever had a big exam, like a final or the ACT, and couldn't sleep the night before? While it's normal to feel a little stress and pressure at such times, it's definitely not normal to feel so much stress and pressure that you have difficulty sleeping for days on end. Have you ever had an argument with your best friend? Are you maybe having some trouble with a teacher at school, or are you changing schools soon? Again, these are emotionally stressful situations to encounter, and it wouldn't surprise anyone if you had a restless night's sleep, or you stayed awake worrying or concerned. It's when you frequently stay awake or wake up during the night repeatedly that you might want to consider going to the doctor or talking to a counselor, because what you're experiencing is insomnia. It may take some professional help to enable you to sleep normally again. Don't be embarrassed; it's always okay to ask for some help if you need it.
Sleep Apnea.
eople with sleep apnea stop breathing for a minute or so, and then startle semi-awake, gasping for air before going right back to sleep again. This can repeat itself throughout the night. No wonder someone with sleep apnea doesn't feel rested when the morning comes! Would you feel rested if you woke up several times throughout the night because you couldn't breathe? That's a reason for concern, too. People with sleep apnea really need to get medical attention to protect their health, and possibly even their life. You can tell when someone has sleep apnea just by listening to her/him sleep. A person with sleep apnea often snores loudly (though this is not the cause) and wakes up frequently during the night, to catch a breath. Of course, in order to find out if someone has sleep apnea, you'll have to be awake during the time they slumber. And it's unlikely that your parents or siblings would want you hovering over their face in the middle of the night, waiting for them to demonstrate sleep apnea! But if you suspect sleep apnea, you can listen from another room to hear if snoring stops and restarts in sudden spurts. If it does, bring the observation to the family member's attention. You can also look for chronic sleepiness.
According to Freud, what do dreams do?
eveal urges and desires allow you to see into the unconscious mind
belief in success
excitement happiness anticipation pride awareness of new skills
scientific method
experimental method used to find fact and separate opinions
adverse
extremely unfavorable
Because the critical period involves the development of embryos and young children, adults do not need to be mindful of their actions.
false
Retrieving information is the same as intentional learning.
false
Wilhelm Wundt
father of psychology
myelin
fatty coating that surrounds neurons
inferior
feeling inadequate or less than someone else
Oddly, there are some people who can survive on very little or no sleep at all. This is not a test or feat that is recommended for you to try. However, here is an example of someone who went eleven days without sleeping. The man's name is Randy Gardner and he holds the Guinness Book of World Record for being the person to go the longest without sleep. In 1965, this high school student from San Diego, California, decided to demonstrate in a science experiment that sleep deprivation had no bad side effects. He chose to not sleep for several days straight. On the eleventh day, he was coherent and able to talk to people, play arcade games, and give a press conference. He spoke normally, without slurred speech or slow brain functions. For all practical purposes, Gardner functioned just fine, and his experiment was successful. Experimenters who observed him during those eleven days, however, noted that he became moody, slightly paranoid, forgetful, and delusional at times. He may have been alert enough to play games, but his behavior was affected, and that can't be ignored. Gardner slept for a full fourteen hours and forty minutes after the eleven days passed, and he went back to living his life normally. However, researchers still hold the position that sleep deprivation is dangerous.
garner
The concept of free will believes that people _____.
have complete control over themselves can become who they want to be willingly can change their attitudes
competent
having adequate skill or knowledge
apathy
having no feelings toward something
cornea
helps to focus incoming light rays
ulterior motives
hidden reasons for acting a certain way
impair
hinder, stunt
two structures that are very important for memory
hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.
A person's lifespan is labeled as infant, early childhood, adolescent, young adult, middle adult, and later adult. As you go through each of these six major periods of life, you develop in significant ways that are unique to your category. During the infant years, a baby's growth and development are primarily concerned with the basics. Fat is necessary for proper brain development. As the brain hardwires, the baby is making brand-new connections about life. As children grow up through their elementary school years, you will not find a significant amount of physical change. Children of this age learn to master language and the correct way to structure sentences. Children are greatly influenced by the family environment they grow up in. They learn to express their emotions, control their tempers, and feel close and attached to parents or caretakers. Adolescents experience puberty and sexual maturation. They often feel self-conscious or have personal fables about their greatness. Adulthood lasts an average of sixty years and is viewed in three categories: young, middle, and late adulthood.
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A person's lifespan is labeled as infant, early childhood, adolescent, young adult, middle adult, and later adult. As you go through each of these six major periods of life, you develop in significant ways that are unique to your category. Piaget's studied the intellectual development of children. He is a "stage" theorist because he believes that kids develop in order of specific stages. Piaget's four stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, operational, and formal operations. Erikson developed his stages on human development around the social and emotional ways people develop and the conflicts they work through. A critical period is an important "window of time" for development. It most often is referring specifically to the development of an unborn baby. Even animals have critical periods of development. The critical period of development for a particular organ can be damaged with the use of drugs, and then when the baby is born, he/she will experience physical or even mental problems. There is one aspect of development that has a critical period after birth. That is the process of learning a language. Our personality has traits and states. Traits are characteristics that are long-lasting and enduring. States are a temporary way that we are. States are not constant. The Big Five traits are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience. The concept of free will believes that people have complete control over all aspects of themselves and that a person can change if he/she desires. You are who you want to be. Determinism believes that you're born the way you are and that your genetics determine the outcome of who you become and what your personality is like. Objective personality tests are simple self-report exams, usually using paper-and-pencil, where you fill out responses about your own behavior. Three common objective tests are the MMPI-2, 16PF, and CPI. Projective tests are a way for psychologists to better understand you besides just reading about your own answers on a paper test.
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CPI. The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) test is similar to the MMPI-2 test, and people as young as thirteen can take the test. The format is just the same, where people answer true-false questions, only there are fewer-just 434 questions. About half of the questions from the MMPI-2 are used on the CPI test and when it's scored, the answers are evaluated into groups of eighteen. Three of those eighteen groups check for validity (i.e., did the person try to cheat the test?).The difference between the CPI test and the MMPI-2 test is that the CPI doesn't look solely for disorders.
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Conducting research and doing it in an orderly method, called the Scientific Method, is important for finding facts and separating opinions. The Scientific Method has six steps. Good research can involve conducting an experiment to test a hypothesis and analyzing the resulting data. Independent variables are changed around by the experimenter. Dependent variables are measured and examined. Qualitative research is an alternative to experiments. The major ways to conduct observational studies are through case studies, cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations.
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Consciousness is your state of wakeful alertness to the world around you. When you sleep, you are nonconscious. Memories that are easily brought to memory come from the preconscious, according to Freud. Restorative sleep theories believe that people rest so their bodies can heal and repair. Adaptive sleep theories believe that sleep is a function of survival and for conserving energy. The Core-Optional sleep theory believes that only a certain amount of sleep is necessary, and the other amount of your night's rest is optional. The sleep cycle has five stages. The first two stages are light sleeping, the second two stages are deep sleeping, and the fifth stage is REM sleep, where dreaming occurs. Sleep deprivation has a lot of negative side effects and is not healthy. Insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea are three major sleep disorders. With insomnia, there are steps you can take to help overcome it.
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Dreams occur during REM sleep. Everyone dreams, but not everyone remembers their dreams. Dreams have significance to people. Ancient cultures placed spiritual meaning on dreams. During our last century, scientists have declared that dreams are a function of the way the brain works. People's dreams and meanings reflect personal interpretation. Some dreams have similar themes, like being chased, failing a test, falling, drowning, being naked, or flying. The Activation-Synthesis dream theory believes that dreams occur because of random nerve firings from the cortex during REM sleep. Calvin Hall's cognitive dream theory involves the brain's memory of conception and perception of objects. The brain takes the meaning of your senses and creates a dream. People dream about conceptions of the self, others, and the world. According to Freud's psychodynamic theory, dreams are a way to see into the unconscious mind and reveal urges and desires. Dreams can be interpreted by using tools to identify displacement, projection, symbolism, and condensation.
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During early stages of development, the embryo is incredibly sensitive to anything a mother puts into her body. Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause severe damage to a developing embryo. When the child is born, you may see the effects of the alcohol, which is called Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). A baby's organs can be damaged if a mother uses drugs during pregnancy, and then when the baby is born, he/she will experience physical or mental problems. Developing embryos who get a dose of Accutane can have several defects, such as hearing or vision problems, mental retardation, brain damage, heart problems, or fluid-filled spaces in the brain. There is an aspect of development that has a critical period after birth. That is the process of learning a language. This applies to both humans and animals. Psychologists believe that children must learn how to speak during the period when the brain is most receptive to learning a language.
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Encoding is the process of bringing information into your mind. Psychologists have determined that you'll remember information better depending on how well you learn it the first time you come into contact with something you need to know. Specifically choosing to learn information is called intentional learning. Incidental learning occurs without any intention or effort. Surface processing involves learning superficial characteristics, and deep processing involves learning the deeper meaning of materials. Every person has three memory systems. These systems are sensory memory, short-term memory (sometimes called working memory) and long-term memory. The sensory memory is responsible for the momentary storage of information. Short-term memory is the temporary storage of information in your brain. Long-term memory is the place where information is permanently stored. Long-term memory has the capacity to hold all sorts of information. Chunking is the process of grouping items into smaller segments. Your brain has an easier time remember smaller amounts of information. The Primacy-Recency Effect shows that people mostly remember the beginning and ending of information. Semantic memory is memory about general ideas, principles, and facts. Episodic memory is memory about specific events in your life. Retrieving information requires a purposeful effort to remember. Memories are often context-dependent, meaning that people remember information best when they are in the original place where they learned it.
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Just because someone displays temporary abnormal behavior, it does not necessarily mean that a person is suffering from a mental disorder. Unless you are a psychiatrist or licensed psychologist or another type of clinical practitioner, it's not your responsibility to diagnose someone with a disorder. Even psychiatrists and psychologists sometimes have a hard time diagnosing an illness. It's hard to always pin down with complete accuracy what is right or wrong with a person and determine what is abnormal or normal for that person, especially when culture is a major factor in a person's experiences. Mental health professionals have a "rule book" called the DSM to follow, which guides them in making diagnoses. The first edition was printed in 1952, and two other editions (with revisions) were printed in 1968 and 1980. The current edition was printed in 1994. DSM diagnoses come with problems. What if you'd like a little help to make it through a tough time? Any diagnosis from the DSM-IV indicates that you have a mental illness, even if you just have moodiness due to your menstrual cycle. Sometimes the DSM-IV categories don't fit a person. Sometimes symptoms get mislabeled.
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Language can influence your actions and shape perceptions. Language is a complicated but necessary method of communication between humans. Language requires a lot of cognitive ability. Language is hierarchical and composed of phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences. The basic unit of meaning is a phoneme. Phonemes combine to create morphemes, or words. Phrases combine to create sentences. Young children commonly acquire language in specific stages of development. These stages of language acquisition are common across cultures. By age four, young children have acquired the basic skills of speech to communicate as adults do. Babbling is the first way that infants learn to use language. Mah and dah are often the first words that one-year-olds learn to speak. Toddlers use telegraphic speech. By age three, and especially age four, children are fully understood in their speech. Animals communicate but they don't use language with words. Animals use gestures and sounds to communicate. Some animals are intelligent enough to communicate with humans in basic ways through sign language. Bees use dancing to communicate to others in the hive.
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Motivation is an abstract idea that describes and explains the reasons you choose to accomplish a goal. Motivation accounts for the effort you place into starting something, the reason you persist in a task, the effort you give a task, and the intensity of the effort you give. Motivation is also fueled by desires and emotions. The concept of motivation gives you the opportunity to also encourage and influence other people's actions for good, especially if you know the driving force or motive that compels a person's actions. Drive & Need theories of motivation believe that humans are trying to satisfy their basic needs or wants: thirst, hunger, sleep, sex, safety. Goal theories imply that human behavior is purposeful and that we strive toward goals. When it comes to learning, there are three goal theories: learning goals, performance goals, and work-avoidant goals. If you are intrinsically motivated, you desire to do something from the inner will you have. Being extrinsically motivated means that the motivation came from outside yourself. Many goals and actions you perform every day are both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated. Self-determination theory says that people are intrinsically motivated when they feel competent, autonomous, and related.
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Now that you know what morphemes are, you can combine them to make words. The example of kids and talked are words combined from a couple of morphemes. Some words are just one morpheme, like animal or cat. Nonetheless, you can take these words and place them together to create phrases. Examples of some phrases are ran away, crossed the street, shopped around, she will, the animals, and so on. Think About It! Language is not limited to sounds only. Communication can happen by physical gestures too. American Sign Language is used by the Deaf to "speak" to one another using their hands. You also might notice that angry drivers communicate their displeasure with gestures. Last of all, you can combine phrases together to make sentences. This is what you're likely most familiar with. Sentences are created by placing phrases together. The next time your English teacher says, "Use complete sentences," you'll have a better understanding of what she means. Don't use just groups of words (phrases), but combine your phrases to make sentences! From these sentences, we have a basic grammar that is set in place within our language system. All languages have a grammar pattern, but they are not the same in every language.
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Observational behavior is how people learn through observing the actions of other people. You can choose to repeat those actions (modeling) or choose not to repeat actions (vicarious learning) but still understand. For observational learning to be successful, four things must happen. Pay attention to the person who is modeling a behavior. Remember the details of the behavior. Repeat the behavior successfully. Be motivated to do the behavior. You can learn good and bad habits through observational learning. You can be motivated to do something you wouldn't normally consider doing. Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment tested to see if young children would model an adult's aggressive behavior toward a blow-up Bobo doll. The results showed that children do model aggressive behavior and that boys were twice as aggressive as girls. Observational learning can prevent you from taking on bad habits. You can choose your friends wisely for their good influence. Your personal choices of TV and movies will help your behavior.
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Informal learning is different from formal learning because _____.
it's less structured you may not be aware it's happening
People can display abnormal behavior at almost any time by doing something that is not socially acceptable. Cultural customs and beliefs can influence what people think is normal and abnormal. Abnormal behavior simply means that a person is acting differently from what is normally expected. Abnormal behavior can simply be the result of people choosing to act weird or wanting to be different on purpose. Not all abnormal behavior is a result of cultural views and traditions, though. Some abnormal behaviors occur due to mental illness. Some abnormal behaviors are mild; some abnormal behaviors are extreme. Some people have mild mental illness in that their behavior is uncomfortable but perhaps manageable (such as people who are functionally depressed). Regardless of the mildness or severity of mental illness, professional help is always available. Mental illness is a strong word in our society, and it's easy to make fun of or mock people who have mental illness. One thing to always remember is that people are able to change. Nobody chooses to be mentally ill. Why make fun of what people don't have control over?
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People who have mental illness, either severe or mild, have hope and help waiting for them. Although at times they may feel isolated or misunderstood, or it may seem as though they are all alone, they are not. Mental heath professionals are extremely compassionate and understanding. There is nothing to be embarrassed about. Therapy was once for the rich. Because all costs were paid by the individual seeking therapy, only the wealthy could afford these services. Today, many communities offer free or limited-priced therapy, guidance, and counseling. Students can turn to their school counselors for free. However, private individual counseling still does have a cost affixed to it. There are five main types of therapy methods: psychoanalytical, behavioral, cognitive, cognitive behavioral, and humanistic. Counseling can be for individuals or couples or can be done in groups. Many Americans suffer from anxiety and depression. Many others suffer from other disorders. Being sensitive to these illnesses is helpful since you never know who might have a mental illness.
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Personality tests are a great way to learn more about your personality, your likes and dislikes, and your reactions to certain situations. People feel really comforted to know that they and other people can understand who they are. "The Color Test," the "Myers-Briggs" and "Kiersey Temperament Test" are affectionately called pop psychology tests because they are popular, easily accessible, and seemingly everyone can get hold of one of these tests and give it to themselves if desired. Studies have found that people are willing to believe most interpretations about themselves. This is called the Barnum Effect. Objective personality tests are simple self-report exams, usually using paper-and-pencil, where you fill out responses about your own behavior. Three common objective tests are the MMPI-2, 16PF, and CPI. Projective tests are a way for psychologists to better understand you besides just reading about your own answers on a paper test. Projective tests are mostly open-ended, with questions that allow psychologists to interpret your answers and find deeper meaning about your concerns, desires, and feelings. Three common projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblots, TAT, and Handwriting.
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It's human nature for us to want to _____.
know about ourselves explain aspects of ourselves understand what we do
cope
knowing how to handle or deal with a situation
Repeating behaviors based on outcome is called operant conditioning. Edward Thorndike experimented with cats to show how operant conditioning worked. Reinforcement is the concept that repeating a certain event will increase the likelihood of a behavior happening again. Reinforcement has two specific types: positive and negative reinforcement. Both involve the likelihood of increasing behavior. Positive reinforcement increases a behavior by giving you something. Negative reinforcement increases a behavior by taking away something. Punishment makes a person likely to stop doing a behavior. Punishment is more than just being sent to your room. Anything can be considered punishment if it makes you stop doing a behavior. A new behavior is created by giving reinforcement to the smaller behaviors that eventually make up the new behavior. This is called shaping. Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that he could control animals to act in a new way by pairing two stimuli together. Pavlov is considered the leader of classical conditioning. He described his findings in terms of conditioned stimuli and responses and unconditioned stimuli and responses.
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Studying psychology will help you develop tolerance, understanding, patience, and empathy. Psychophysics is concerned with stimuli and people's perceptions. The five senses and how those senses respond in certain situations are studied by psychophysicists . Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of psychology and contributed many research findings that paved the way for other psychologists. He is known for setting up the first psychology research lab, in Germany. Several main schools of thought have emerged. Different ideas led people to study, support, and practice different fields of psychology.
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The ability and degree to which you can remember information easily depends on the way in which you encoded it. For that reason, it's important to note that the very instant that your brain comes into contact with information is crucial. This is the starting point for getting information into memory. Paying attention to what needs to be learned will help you later on when it's time to remember something. A person has two methods of processing the information during encoding. These methods are called surface (shallow) processing and deep (elaborate) processing. Surface processing involves learning superficial characteristics, and deep processing involves learning the deeper meaning of materials.
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The brain has two structures that are important for memory: the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive functions, such as decisions and conscious control. The hippocampus helps your long-term memory. Damage to the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex will cause memory problems. The story of H.M shows that amnesia and short-term memory loss occurs with hippocampus damage. Alzheimer's disease and strokes are two other serious conditions that can impair memory. Too much information in your brain can actually be the reason why you forget information. Some forget memories that are painful and traumatic through repression. Counselors can help an individual recover memories from long ago, but there are concerns with this because some recovered memories are false. You can use little tricks to improve your memory. These are called mnemonic devices. Some of these devices are acronyms, rhyming, imagery, and chunking.
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Type of Therapy Main Focus What Occurs in Therapy Significant Psychologist Associated with this Method Date of Therapy's Origin Psychoanalysis attempts to help a person recognize inner conflicts that he/she might not be aware of. Clients: Talk about your feelings; Try to understand your unconscious; free association; Transfer negative feelings out of yourself. Strive for catharsis. Sigmund Freud 1870s Cognitive Therapy attempts to change the way a person thinks about troubles and challenges Clients explore the reasons behind fears and problems. Clients become aware of how to change. Aaron T. Beck 1960s Behavior Therapy Specific goals are defined, and person works to meet those goals by modifying behavior. Counselor uses conditioning. Client learns how to do new behaviors. B.F. Skinner 1950s Cognitive Behavior Therapy attempts to help a person overcome challenges by setting goals and helping a person to mentally focus on what is being changed Client sets goals for new desired behavior. Client explores how to reach these goals. Client becomes aware of the impact of his actions. Albert Ellis 1950s Humanistic Therapy A therapist listens to a person's troubles with complete acceptance and helps individuals to reconcile feelings about their real selves and their ideal selves. Counselor listens without any judgment. Client explore guilty and anxious feelings. Client gains confidence about self by talking about problems. Carl Rogers 1940s
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When there are fewer people around to give assistance, a person is more likely to volunteer to help out. When more people are around, people are less inclined to help. This is called the bystander effect. The bystander effect teaches us that people are less willing to help out a troubled person when many people are around. When fewer people are present, a person is more likely to volunteer to help a troubled person. We tend to feel less responsible. This is called diffusion of responsibility. When people work in groups, social loafing often occurs. People don't work as hard when they know others are helping out. However, a person is more likely to work hard when he/she knows that they're being individually watched. This is called social facilitation. Often, people find their decisions influenced by the way other people make their own decisions. This is conformity. Conformity is not a bad thing. It's only inappropriate when you conform your behavior to bad, unethical, or illegal behavior, or if you give up your personal values.
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Charles walks from a dimly lit room into the backyard where the sun is shining very brightly. Charles feels the sun's heat and stands to enjoy the feeling of sun's summer rays on his skin. He doesn't mind the heat. He welcomes it! According to Hall's cognitive dream theory, Charles' positive view of the bright sun represents his _____ of the sun.
interpretation
task
mastery (learning), creativity, management, safety
Learning goals
mastery goals Students with these goals are focused on learning the task at hand and learning the meaning and message behind the task.The whole focus is on learning and absorbing as much information about the topic as possible.
What does Axis III of the DSM categorize?
medical conditions and physical disorders
mnemonic device
memory tricks to give you cues and aid your ability to retrieve information
Changing views on abnormal behavior show us that _____.
men today are more emotionally expressive than six decades ago women respond to emotional stresses in a different, more controlled way people view those with epilepsy as normal and not demonically possessed
psychologist
mental health professional who has a Ph.D.
More than 9.5 percent of the American population suffers from depression. That's almost 19 million people. Nearly 40 million Americans suffer from anxiety. These two illnesses alone cover a broad spectrum of people. Six percent of Americans have social anxiety disorder. One percent have obsessive compulsive disorder. Eight percent have specific phobias.
mental illness stats
analogical representation
mental pictures that have a direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about
symbolic representation
mental pictures that have no direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about
endocrine functions
metabolism, growth, puberty, tissue function, influences mood, sexual maturation, ovulation, produces testosterone, body temperature, wakefulness, protein synthesis
not possible emotional reactions to stress
moody and cooperative
endocrine
mother's produce breastmilk
Observation Before you even begin to experiment, you will have observed something in life that you'd like to learn more about. Perhaps you're interested in learning more about childhood or teenage obesity. Step 2 Research This is your chance to read and find out what has already been written and discovered on your chosen topic. Consult newspaper or magazine articles, check a book out from the library, read some Internet sites, or access some research journals (if you have connections to a local college). Step 3 Hypothesis The hypothesis is a statement that tells what you expect to find. Step 4 Test This is where you design and carry out your experiment. You will need to have your hypothesis in place. You'll choose your sample to test, and you'll have independent and dependent variables, along with a control and experimental group. Step 5 Data Analysis Read, interpret, and evaluate your findings. What do your results mean? Do they match what you hypothesized you'd find? Step 6 Communication Describe what you found in your experiment and how it compares to what you expected to find.
scientific method
Expecting to succeed
second ingredient for making your goal happen.
First, be sensitive to the fact that people may have a mental illness that you don't know of. Be careful about the words you use to joke with your friends. Words like "retard" and "schizo" are inappropriate names to call someone, just as it's insensitive to joke around that someone must be bipolar because of their perhaps temporary behavior. Second, be aware that you or someone very close to you could be suffering from anxiety or depression (the two most common disorders in America) or some other mental struggle. It's possible that later down the road you yourself might develop a mental illness, or you may have to give support to someone who is sick. It's not a sign of weakness to get help. Sadly, 54 percent of people polled think that depression is a personal weakness. Remember that asking for help is never bad. People who make the effort to get help are strong. Everyone deserves the chance to live a healthy, well-adjusted life.
sensitive to mental illness
What is the difference between behaviorism and cognitive psychology?
Behaviorism focuses on actions only. Cognition focuses on people's thoughts, desires, and motives.
What is the difference between behaviorism and humanistic psychology?
Behaviorism focuses on observable actions only and humanists focus on the whole person.
Prior to 1879, people who studied behavior associated themselves with:
Biology
What is not a reason correlations are useful?
Correlations allow you to determine causes.
What is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal research?
Each study requires a different amount of time involved.
A researcher wants to find out the values and opinions of a group of high school freshmen. What is the best method to use?
Take a survey.
What associations does a dog make when being conditioned to drool at the sound of the bell?
The dog associates the sound of a bell with getting food.
What makes the id different from the superego?
The id is part of the unconscious mind, and the superego is always conscious.
A psychologist at Harvard University wants to conduct an experiment using rats and mazes. The experiment doesn't involve humans. Must the researcher have the IRB give approval to conduct the experiment?
Yes, the IRB must approve any experiment regardless of whether it's animal or human testing.
Why is studying psychology useful?
You can have a better perspective for other people's experiences.
What are reasons you would need to be debriefed after an experiment?
You took a placebo pill or any type of medication. You were deceived during the experiment to spark a reaction. Your mood and feelings were manipulated. You simply participated in an experiment.
discipline
a branch of knowledge
perspective
a specific way of thinking or view
population
a whole group of people
What is not a major field in psychology?
actionism
A researcher wants to find out if adults who watch violent television shows will behave more aggressively. Name the dependent variable.
aggression
Informed consent _____.
allows you to quit an experiment at any time
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approves experiments conducted by a college
What is the difference between psychoanalysis and psychophysics?
both B and C Psychophysics studies the five senses and their reaction to stimuli. Psychoanalysis attempts to resolve conflict.
Schizophrenia is a mental illness that often develops after the teens, usually occurring in a person's twenties. Which mental health professional is the best recommendation for a friend who confides to you that she fears she might have schizophrenia?
clinical psychologist
If your parents were going through a divorce and you needed to talk to someone, who would be the best professional to see?
counseling psychologist
biological tendencies
id
Biological psychology is the study of biological structures within a human and how they relate to a person's behavior and way of thinking. The psychodynamic perspective believes in exploring thoughts and feelings through introspection. The id controls biological desires. The superego is our moral conscience. The ego is the mediator between the id and the superego. Behaviorism looks at observable behavior. Animals and people can have their behavior controlled through conditioning, wherein they learn new associations. The sociocultural theory considers the influence of your social interactions and the cultural influences upon your development. People will have different experiences depending on their culture and their social interactions. The humanistic perspective is concerned with viewing people as a whole and not in parts. People are aware and have choice. People have thoughts and need to be cared for and receive empathy. Cognitive psychologists want to know how and why people think. They believe that people have control over their thoughts and that humans have willpower and motives.
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A researcher wants to find out if children who read mystery novels will display fear after the book is finished. Name the independent variable.
mystery novels
Descriptive statistics are useful because _____.
you can analyze results and draw conclusions
How would a humanist treat a person who came to him with a problem?
A humanist would express condolences for the problem and acknowledge your feelings. They might help to find solutions to the problem.
What is the median of 5, 12, 13, 19, 24?
13
After school, several students skateboard at the nearby park. Your best friend, Erwin, is a good skateboarder and happens to fall when attempting a fancy trick. After falling, Erwin gets back up and starts repeating the trick over and over again.
Erwin is motivated to learn the trick to perfection and knows that practice makes perfect.
Zero Correlation
No relationship exists between two items that have zero correlation.
What is not something a humanist would believe about people?
People can be analyzed into basic parts.
Why is it important for humans to have awareness and choices?
People can make better decisions. People can be more aware of their surroundings. People can choose their own purpose in life
What did Wundt's pendulum experiment demonstrate?
People need time to shift between two different stimuli.
Descriptive statistics are mathematical summaries of numbers. You can use the mean, median, and mode as different ways to find measures of central tendency. The mean is the average of all the numbers in a given set of data. The mode is the most frequently occurring number, and the median is the number smack dab in the center of all your numbers. Remember that it is not necessarily the number in the center position; it is the one that is the middle of all the numbers when the numbers are placed in order. Correlations examine relationships between variables. There are three types of correlations: positive, negative, and zero. Zero correlation means there are is no relationship. A positive correlation means that one variable increases as the other variable increases. A negative correlation is not a bad thing. It only means that one variable decreases as another variable increases.
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descriptive statistics
mathematical summaries of results
You are preparing to do a hard task and so you say to yourself, "I can do it!" What is this an example of?
motivational self-speech
mental health professional who attended medical school
psychiatrist
What is the correct order in which these theories emerged, from earliest to latest?
psychodynamic, behaviorism, humanistic, cognition
psychophysics
psychology field that studies physical stimuli and human sensations and mental states
ethics
rules of conduct; moral principles
During times of emergency in a public place, people act differently when there are several people than when there are just a few. If you had fallen and badly injured yourself, the surrounding masses of people are less likely to help you than if just one or two people were present. This is called the bystander effect. Which type of psychologist would be most interested in studying why people in crowds are less likely to help a bloody, injured person needing help?
social psychologist
informed consent
statement from a research participant that says he/she understands what is about to happen and agrees to continue
biological perspective
study of anatomy
mean
sum of all numbers divided by the total number of scores; the average
moral conscious
superego
psychology
the study of how people think and behave
What is not a major field in psychology?
totalism
Psychology literally means the study of the mind.
true
