psychology of aging exam 2

chapter 6- Attention

"Attention involves the ability to focus or concentrate on a portion of experience while ignoring other features of that experience, to be able to shift that focus as demanded by the situation, and to be able to coordinate information from multiple sources. Once your attention is focused on a piece of information, you are then able to perform further cognitive operations, such as those needed for memory or problem-solving."

chapter 6- Memory Controllability

"Memory controllability refers to beliefs about the effects of the aging process on memory, such as the extent to which the individual believes that memory decline is inevitable with age (Lachman, 2006). Older people who rely heavily on identity accommodation are more likely to hold negative beliefs about their ability to control their memory as they age "

chapter 8- the five factor model growth and development

1. Neuroticism- younger: HIGHER older: LOWER 2. Extraversion- younger: HIGHER older: LOWER 3. Openness to Experience- younger: HIGHER older: LOWER 4. Agreeableness-- younger: LOWER older: HIGHER 5. Conscientiousness- younger: LOWER older: HIGHER

chapter 9- widowhood

14 million widows in US, 76% are 65 and older. Widowhood becomes increasingly likely as one ages. Over 2/3 of women age 75 and over are widows. 73% of women 85 and older are widows. Men more prone to depression than women Widowed individuals have a higher risk of mortality than the nonwidowed. In the future, 3 out of 4 women will be widow.

chapter 9- Facts about marriage

60% of the Americans 65+ are married and living with a spouse. 40% is not married. 72% of older men and 45% of older women are married and living with a spouse (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2013). Marital partners are entitled to retirement, death, and health insurance benefits as well as the entire portion of estate when the partners dies.

chapter 8- Conscientiousness

Conscientious people are: Hardworking Organized Self-discipline Ambitious Energetic Scrupulous Persevering and Persistence Achievement oriented Great effort

chapter 8- Coping

Coping: Action people take to reduce stress. Effort to manage stressful situations (behavioral or cognitive strategies). • Older adults tend to be better at coping than other age groups because they engage in more attempts to confront the stressful situation rather than avoid it.

chapter 8- Openness to Experience

Creative, curious, imaginative, adventurousness, open to experiences, seek out cultural and educational experiences. Has six areas: Fantasy Aesthetics Action Ideas Values Occupational choice

chapter 8 quiz question- A major emphasis of psychodynamic theory is understanding the use of ______ in adulthood.

Defense mechanisms.

chapter 9- attachment styles

Early bond between infant and caregiver set the stage for all of the individual's later significant relationships. Through interactions with caregivers, infants develop attachment styles.

chapter 8 quiz question- Researchers and clinicians use the Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) to study the ______ model of personality in adulthood.

Five factor.

chapter 8- Psychodynamic Perspective

Freud "discovered" the unconscious in Psychology. He emphasize important of early development. Personality does not change after early childhood. You can not alter a personality in later life. Personality development are completed by the time the child turns 5 years old. Therapy has little value for people over the age of 50. Unconscious motives and impulses express themselves inpeople's personalities and behaviors. Mind: ID = Individual biological instincts. Needs for food, sex, and water. Pleasure principle. EGO = Part of the mind that controls rational thought. SUPEREGO = Attempts to control the ID's irrational instincts. Ego Psychology: EGO plays central role in actively directing behavior.

chapter 7- Language

Involves a wide range of cognitive functions, includes comprehension, memory, and decision making. ❑Average healthy older adult does not suffer losses in the ability to use language effectively under normal conditions (Hoyte et al., 2009).

chapter 9- Avoidant attachment style

Neglected in infancy. Caregiver is unavailable, distant, disengaged or rejecting. Fear of abandonment, avoid closeness or emotional connection. Stay away from close relationships. Subconsciously believe that his/her needs won't be met. Prefers life alone and does not open up emotionally to partner.

chapter 9- the availability of an intimate partner

Non-Hispanic White men (65-74 years) are more likely to be married and living with a spouse. O Men are more likely to be married and women are more likely to be widow in later life. O Lower percentage of married persons among old African Americans.

chapter 8- Trait Approaches/Theories

Personality traits are hypothesized to predict behavior and attitude Attempt to learn what traits make up personality and how they regulate to actual behavior. Trait Theories of Personality: are typically based on descriptions of an individual based on certain psychological characteristics (often tied to genetic predispositions). Assume personality traits are enduring and stable. Called Big-Five - Most acceptable trait theory in the field of personality. The most well-known approach is the Five-Factor Model (McCrae & Costa, 2003). Proposes that personality is made up of variations on 5 major traits.

chapter 9- serial Cohabitation Effect

Possible reasons: used to independence, tend to be less traditional and religious, used to getting their own way (it may cause instability).

chapter 8- Problem-focused coping

Problem-focused coping: Strategies to change situation. People attempt to reduce stress by changing something about the situation. People high in self- efficacy are more likely to use this type of coping.

chapter 8- Neuroticism (vs. Emotional Stability):

Prone to stress, worry, negative emotions, and view oneself and the world around negatively. Six facets: Anxiety Hostility Self-consciousness Depression Impulsiveness Vulnerability

chapter 8 quiz question- The quality of _______ refers to the ability to recover from stress.

Resilience.

chapter 8 quiz question- The five factor model of personality fits into which overall category of psychological theories?

Trait

chapter 9- Cohabitation

Women are more likely to cohabit if their mothers did. They are less likely to cohabit if their mother's have acollege degree. ▪ Religion and social class also affect who cohabits. Higher divorce rates among "serial" cohabitating couples who livetogether before marriage. Cohabitating before engagement, even onlywith one's future spouse, is associated with lower marital quality andhigher divorce potential (Rhoades, Stanley, & Markman, 2009). Older cohabiters report being more intimate, stable relationships. They are more likely to see their relationship as an alternate lifestyle.

chapter 9- intimacy

being close to, being a part of, and feeling familiar with another person ▪ Your relationship with others are essential to your existence throughout your life. O Psychological well-being is enhanced by positive, supportive relationships.

chapter 9- widowhood effect

great probability of death in those who become widowed. It is mediated by conditions such as depression, stress, economic hardship, and loss of social support. Changes in lifestyle may occur as well.

chapter 9- benefits of marriage in old age

marriage offers benefits and advantages to both partners 9-15% reduction in mortality among older adults for married men and women. Better physical and mental health, greater life satisfaction, and higher functional ability. Greater happiness and higher quality of life for both partners

chapter 6- Memory and Health-Related Behaviors

memory in older adults can be modified through these four health related lifestyle factors : smoking, aerobic exercise, diet, strength training "Thus, working memory may decline in later adulthood, but individuals can circumvent these declines by bringing compensatory mechanisms into play. Additionally, life course factors may come into play, such as education, stress, exposure to toxins, health and physical activity, and personality changes over time"

chapter 8 quiz question- The sense of generativity, according to Erikson, can be developed in midlife through:

mentoring other people

chapter 8- Extraversion

outgoing, energetic, positive emotions, tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others Six facets in two groups: Interpersonal traits - Warmth Gregariousness Assertiveness Temperamental traits - Activity Excitement seeking Positive emotions

chapter 7- Characteristics of Problem Solving

page 146

chapter 7- Problem Solving in Adulthood

page 146- 149

chapter 7- Adult Learners

page 149-151

chapter 8- Social Cognitive Approaches

pages 171-173

chapter 7- executive function

umbrella term for the cognitive processes that help us regulate control and manage our thoughts and actions is a set of mental processes that help us connect past experience with present action Include working memory, selective attention, mental flexibility, and ability to plan and inhibit distracting information (Miyake et al., 2000). ❑Driving ability is affected by Executive functioning (depends heavily on speed). ❑You need it to determine the route to take to your destinations, alternate between input from the road and make any changes in your route to account for traffic, construction, or obstacles in the road. Frontal lobe is responsible for much of the executive functioning of the brain. These functions include attention, working memory, planning, organizing, forethought, and impulse control.

chapter 6- younger vs older drivers

younger- Have faster response times More likely to drink and drive. More likely to drive while distracted. Younger drivers under the age 24 cause 43% of all accidents. Older drivers: + More experience + Self-regulate + Are involved in only 7% of all accidents. - Difficulty with left turns. Crashes occur at intersections when the driver is making a turn that is across the traffic (left-hand turn). Poor judgment in making left-hand turns. - Difficulty merging or yielding to oncoming traffic .- Crash rates increase starting at age 70 and rise markedly after age 80. + - - -

chapter 6- Self-Efficacy

"Memory self-efficacy is a form of self-efficacy that refers to the confidence you have in your memory;" "he degree to which an individual believes he/she can successfully complete a memory task."

chapter 6- Identity

"Researchers are investigating the interaction of memory changes with changes in self-efficacy, control beliefs, and identity." "Although older adults can overcome stereotype threat through identity assimilation (Whitbourne & Sneed, 2002), it is difficult to resist the "essentialist" views of aging as involving inevitable memory decline (Weiss, 2018)."

chapter 6- Stereotype Threat

"The concept of stereotype threat implies that older adults may perform more poorly on memory tasks that activate negative stereotypes about aging and memory."

chapter 7- intelligence tests

"assessment of an individual's overall cognitive status along a set of standardized dimensions."

chapter 6- Working memory

"memory process that keeps information temporarily available and active in consciousness."

chapter 7- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

"one of the most well-known individually administered intelligence tests. "

chapter 7- Intelligence

A higher-order cognitive functions that make up executive functioning. Represents the quality of a person's ability to think. Individual's mental ability. Some studies suggest that Intelligence start to decline in the 20s. Others believe that changes only become noticeable after the 60s.

chapter 9- never married older people

Approximately 4% of the older population has never married. O Never-married are likely to be well-adjusted. O The majority of never-married older persons typically develops reciprocal relationships with siblings, and with friends and neighbors; they may not feel lonely or isolated. O Never-married adults who have had lifelong employment tend to enjoy greater financial security in old age.

chapter 8 quiz question- A 34-year-old woman is struggling to overcome her extreme anxiety that her friends will desert her so she tends to stay away from making new friendships. According to the attachment style perspective, she would be considered to be _______ in her attachment style.

Avoidant

chapter 7- Bilingualism and Aging

Being able to speak and think in two languages benefits the individual (executive control and increase cognitive reserve). More mental flexibility and handle better tasks switching, inhibition, and conflict monitoring (Bialystok & Barac, 2013). ▪Bilingual individuals builds executive functioning. Individuals must decide which language to use in a given situation depending on its context. ▪May protect against Alzheimer's disease (Bialystok, 2011) and benefits task-switching that do not depend on verbal skills. Showed delayed onset of age-related cognitive decline in varying forms of dementia (Alzheimer's disease).▪However, Bilinguals do not do well in all cognitive tasks (working memory and Stroop interference task).

chapter 9- Ambivalent attachment style

Caregivers are inconsistent. Cannot depend on caregiver to be there when in need. Believe their partners will abandon them. Child is anxious and insecure. Afraid to be rejected. Obsessive to keep closeness.

chapter 8- Additional Studies of Dispositional Traits

Current consensus of change in the Big Five with increasing age: Absence of neuroticism Presence of agreeableness and conscientiousness Studies also show decrease in openness to new experiences with increasing age. Personality changes may be tied to cohort differences.

chapter 8- Emotion-focused coping

Emotion-focused coping: strategies to change appraisal/perceptions and how they think about the situation. Typically less adaptive and tends to be associated with unsatisfactory outcomes.

chapter 8 quiz question- People who are securely attached in adulthood show which behaviors towards people who are close to them?

Enjoy being with them, but are able to withstand separation.

chapter 9- grandparents skip generation family

In skip generation families, grandparents exclusively care for grandchildren "The term skip generation family refers to the family living situation in which children live with their grandparents and not their parents. The skip generation family may occur when there is substance abuse by parents; child abuse or neglect by parents; teenage pregnancy or failure of parents to handle children; and parental unemployment, divorce, AIDS, or incarceration. The opioid crisis is creating the need for grandparents to step in to raise their grandchildren, a problem most prevalent in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi (Anderson, 2019)."

chapter 9- gender differences in widowhood

O Widowers- O Less likely to move in with children O Less likely to have high degree of interactions with relatives or close friends O May need to learn housekeeping. O Widows- O More likely to have been worn-out by caregiving O More likely to have economic difficulties O Women with greater income and education tend to do better.

chapter 8- five factor model

Proposes that personality is made up of variations on 5 major traits. 1. Neuroticism 2. Extraversion 3. Openness to Experience 4. Agreeableness 5. Conscientiousness

chapter 8 quiz question- The idea that the ego plays a central role in behavior, is most closely associated with which theoretical perspective in personality psychology?

Psychodynamic.

chapter 7- Aging and Executive Functioning

Scores on measures of executive functioning show steady declines in later adulthood. ❑As individuals age, there is decline in mental flexibility and tendency towards perseveration. ❑There are ways that older adults can compensate for changes in Executive Functioning. Physical exercise can benefit executive functioning in older adults. Aerobic exercise training improves performance on tests of mental flexibility, attention, and inhibitory control (Guiney & Machado, 2012). ❑Video game playing benefits executive functioning (such as task switching), Strobach et al., 2012.

chapter 8- Agreeableness (Opposite of Antagonism):

Tendency to be compassionate and cooperative. Trusting, empathetic, and compliant. Slow to anger Agreeable people are: Empathetic Tolerant Sensitive Trusting Kind Warm Better liked, more compliant and conforming, lower levels of deviant behavior. ➢ People who get traffic tickets score lower on agreeableness

chapter 7- Research on Adult Intelligence

The Seattle Longitudinal Study (Warner Schaie, 1950s) investigated changes on intellectual skills as people age. The study concluded that the scores of older adults were lower than younger adults (powerful cohort influences on the rates of cognitive change in later adulthood). People close to death show diminished intellectual functioning.

chapter 8- Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

The sequence of Erikson's stages are: Trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Industry versus inferiority Identity versus identity confusion Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation (40 to 65 years): Care and concern for guiding the next generation. Ego Integrity versus despair (65 years to death):Reflection of own life. Sense of satisfaction with life well lived.

chapter 8 quiz question- People who use emotion-focused coping are most likely to try to change _______ when they have to deal with a life stress.

Their mood.

chapter 9- risk factors of divorce

Young age. The higher the age (beyond the 21/22 years) the risk is decreased. O Less education O Less income O Low emotional maturity O Premarital cohabitation O Premarital pregnancy O Parents divorced O No religious affiliation O Insecurity (feeling insecure about yourself. More likely to be unhappy in their marriages and to divorce). O Substance abuse problems.

chapter 9- Secure attachment style

people feel safe and cared for. Parents are aligned with the child. People feel confident about themselves and that others will treat them well. Able to create meaningful relationships.

chapter 8- Resilience

people that are able to cope with challenging life events. Ability to recover from stress. Ability to overcome negative emotions and adapt to new situations. The more resilient individuals were able to maintain a positive mood even on days when they experienced high degree of stress.

chapter 6- Reaction Time

what measures processing speed Reaction times slow as people age. General slowing hypothesis proposes loss of speed in nervous system is main cause of poorer information processing

chapter 9- grandparents

▪ There may be as many as 70 million in U.S., though no official data ▪ 22% in U.S. involved in caregiving, more in Europe (33% grandmothers, 26% grandfathers)

chapter 8 quiz question- Which factor in the five factor model reflects the extent to which a person is cooperative and helpful?

Agreeableness.

chapter 7- Crystallized Intelligence

The ability to reuse earlier adaptations on later occasions. Refers to accumulated knowledge and tends to increase with age. Reflects accumulated past experience and the effects of socialization oCrystallized intelligence reflects gains made in practical, everyday life expertise, often associated with wisdom

chapter 7- Theoretical Perspectives on Adult Intelligence

"f g or general factor, defined as the ability to infer and apply relationships on the basis of experience. According to Spearman, g could not be directly observed but could be estimated through tests that tap into specific mental abilities. Psychologists now find it more useful to divide intelligence into a set of multiple components. Raymond B. Cattell and John L. Horn proposed fluid-crystallized theory (Gf-Gc), the view that intelligence should be divided into two distinct factors (Cattell, 1963; Horn & Cattell, 1966). Fluid reasoning (Gf) is the individual's innate ability to carry out higher-level cognitive operations (Cattell, 1971). Originally called crystallized intelligence, comprehension knowledge (Gc) represents the acquisition of specific skills and information that people gain as a result of their exposure to the language, knowledge, and conventions of their culture. These broad abilities each reflect distinct abilities that are measured by specific tests." "Combining these theories, the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence proposes that there is a three-tier structure to intelligence. Figure 7.13 illustrates the CHC model. As shown in this figure, there are five broad areas of intelligence (motor, perception, controlled attention, knowledge, and speed). Within each area, the specific abilities are represented by "Gs," whose definitions appear in the accompanying labels (e.g., "Gh" represents tactile intelligence, a component of perception)."

chapter 6- Brinley Plot

"plot in which reaction times of older adults are graphed against those of younger adults."

chapter 7- Everyday Problem Solving

"refers to the ability to solve problems that typically occur in people's daily lives, that can be solved in more than one way, and that require the problem solver to decide which strategy will lead to the desired result. The processes involved in everyday problem-solving involve key cognitive abilities as well as the contributions of education, other demographic variables, and health "

chapter 6- Long-term memory

"the repository of information that is held for a period of time ranging from several minutes to a lifetime."

chapter 6- processing speed

'It is the amount of time it takes for and individual to analyze incoming information from senses, formulate decisions, and then prepare a response on the basis of thatanalysis." Measured by reaction time. The ability to make quick decisions and rapid responses. Processing speed begin to decline in the 30s

chapter 7- Social Aspects of Language

- elderspeak - A condescending way of speaking to older adults that resembles baby talk, with simple and short sentences, exaggerated emphasis, repetition, and slower rate and higher pitch than normal speech. ➢Simplifying your speech as you would talk to a child by leaving out complex words. ➢Infantilizing and patronizing speech. ➢A form of ageism, speaks in childlikefashion. Using "we" in questions/statements when "you" is meant. Social elements of language (the use of Elderspeack) fits into the communication predicament model :::; +Negative Age-related changes- Appearance and physical changes that lead young to treat person as "old." Olderadults are thought of as mentally incapacitated. Leading younger people to speak in a simplified manner. ----------> + elderspeak - Infantilizing and patronizing speech ("honey," "dear," "sweetie," "cute" --------------> + Further declines- Lack of stimulation from being treated as dependent child. Reduce older person's ability to use language. Failure to encourage independent behavior. can increase the older person's awareness of age stereotypes.

chapter 9- US demographic trends

1) Changing Age Structure - Population is getting older (lower mortality and greater longevity) 2) Changing Family Structure: People marrying later, working women, decrease in fertility rates, staying single, dating and cohabitation, increase in divorce, remarriage, stepfamily formation, one-parent families, gay couples/families, and grandparents raising grandchildren. 3) Change in fertility rate: timing and number of children 4) Growing Ethnic and Racial Diversity (Population is becoming less White) and more blended families.

chapter 7- Fluid Intelligence

Ability to reason speedily & abstractly (figure things out fast). Related to "on the spot" problemsolving. Mental quickness. Intelligence applied to new tasks or the ability to come up with novel or creative solutions to unforeseen problems. Decreases over time. Creativity has been linked to fluid intelligence

chapter 6- Driving and Aging

Almost 90% of people over age 65 still drive. The effects of aging can affect safe driving abilities of some older adults. Changes in visual system can impair the performance of older drivers (loss of visual acuity, increase sensitivity to glare, and difficulty seeing in the dark). O Limitations such as ability to get in and out of the car, fasten a seat belt, change the seat position, turning the steering wheel, or cope with breakdown (Arbesman & Pellerito, 2008). O Medications: some can affect driving because they can cause drowsiness, confusion, and dizziness (Sargent-Cox, Windsor, Walker, & Anstey, 2011).

chapter 9- divorce

Around 10% of U.S. adult population is divorced. Average length of first marriage lasts 8 yrs. Increased life expectancy, adults are likely to live together longer than average married couple did in the past. The pattern of long term marriages and lower divorce rates for older adults is declining Black/African American women (age 25 to 44) have higher divorce rates than Whites or Hispanic women. Divorced people tend to report lower well-being, poorer health, higher mortality, more mental health problems, and more negative life events

chapter 9- benefits of marriage in old age - USE THIS

Being in a committed relationship is a vital source of social support in old age, whether one is in a same-sex or heterosexual relationship (Cruikshank, 2013). O Married people tend to have higher levels of well-being, life satisfaction, health, and lower institutionalization. Marital satisfaction is high among those recently married, lower among those in the child-rearing period (middle age), and higher in the later stages (when children typically leave home) O Men gain greater health benefits from marriage than do women. O LGBT elders who are in committed relationships tend to be less lonely and enjoy better physical and mental health than their single peers regardless of sexual orientation.

chapter 9- same sex couples

Has been legal nationwide since June, 2015, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that the US Constitution guarantees the right for same-sex couples to marry in all 50 U.S. states. 780,000 same-sex households in US 150,000 are same-sex spouses Approximately between one and 3.5 million lesbians and gay older adults live in the U.S. The LGBT older adult population will double by 2030, thanks to the Baby Boomers. As older adults, gays and lesbians are more likely to live alone (55 to 66%) and less likely to be living with life partners and to have children. LGBT persons are more likely to rely on friends (often referred as a family of choice) rather than biological family.

chapter 9- older adults and divorce

O Divorced or separated older persons represent 15%. O Older adults are less likely than younger adults to seek divorce due to fear of loss of assets, family disruption, and relocation. O Divorce is becoming more common for those 60 and over. More elders in the future cohort will be divorced or single. Baby Boomers were the first cohort to divorce. O Divorced women are less socially accepted than Widows. O Family relationships tend to be strained by divorce.

chapter 9- sexual health of older adults

O Older adults sexuality is often misunderstood and in some cases even ignored, denied, or ridiculed. Older adults are often seen as unattractive, asexual, and lacking the energy and capacity for sexual activity. O Sexuality is much broader than sexual intercourse, encompassing expression of feelings, love, loyalty, passion, esteem, and affirmation as well as the freedom to express and respond to human closeness. O Sexuality remains a significant component of intimate relationships in later life to all individuals. Sexual interest and activity carry into 80s and 90s for many older adults. The majority of older American remain sexually active and few use condoms. O LGBT older adults - 69% sexually active during past year (ACRIA/COH, 2010). O Long-Term facilities encourage healthy romantic relationships among residents, while remaining attentive to issues of cognitive impairment and consent.

chapter 6- Attentional Resources Theory

Older adults have more difficulties on attention tasks because they have less energy available for cognitive operations (Blanchet, Belleville, & Perez, 2006). Little empirical evidence exist to support it.

chapter 8- Midlife Crisis Theories and Findings

page 175- 179 "According to the midlife crisis theory, there is a period in middle adulthood during which the individual experiences a radical alteration in personality, well-being, and goals. Subsequent researchers using a variety of empirical methods have failed to provide support for this theory, and it is generally disregarded within the field of adult development. Researchers believe that the midlife crisis makes a "good story" and may be too popular to disappear from the public imagination. Because it presents the possibility that change is possible in adulthood, however, the concept may have some value."

chapter 8- Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

▪ Erikson was the first theorist to develop a truly lifespan theory of personality development. ▪ Ego matures throughout life as the individual faces biological, psychological, and social forces. ▪ Ego development: 8 stages individuals must go through and resolve a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. Development consists in developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality.

chapter 8- Critiques of the Five-Factor Model

▪ The five factors are not independent. ▪ The idea that personality traits stop changing at age 30 does not have uniform support. ▪ Is not based on any underlying theory. It is merely an empirical observations, not a theory. ▪ More than 5 basic personality traits are needed to account for the wide personality differences among people. ▪ Don't explain all human personality. It neglects other personality traits