Psychology Review Ch. 7-9

According to Young, the range of the hedonic continuum extends from the maximum negative end (___________________) through a neutral _____________________ zone, to the extreme positive end (_____________________). (p. 208)

(distress), indifferent, (delight)

Give two reasons why attitudes do not always predict behaviors well. (p. 253-254)

1. attitudes are more strongly correlated with patterns of behavior than they are with individual behaviors 2. some attitudes are more important to us

The text cites three ways to reduce dissonance. Briefly describe the three. (p. 271)

1. change one of the cognitions - smoking not bad because not illegal; 2. alter behavior to reduce inconsistency - quit smoking; 3. add consonant cognitions - smoking relaxes me (rationalization)

What are the three problems of balance theory, according to the text? (p. 270)

1. it is undoubtedly true that people resolve cognitive inconsistencies in various ways 2. balance theory does not take into account the importance of the items that are out of balance 3. how much imbalance must occur before behavior is triggered

Briefly, what are four problems with Lewin's analysis of behavior? (p.242)

1. terms are not clearly defined - open to interpretation. 2. psychological fact can change from moment to moment. 3. post hoc (after the fact). 4. experiments lacked proper control groups

The sound of ___________________________________________ is not even three times as intense as _________________________________________________." Why? (p.258)

12 hands clapping, sound of 2. social loafing.

In the McGill University adult sensory-deprivation experiments, how long did most outside participants stick with the study? (p. 220-221)

2 or 3 days

What percentage of the Yale undergrads escalated the shocks to the 450-volt maximum? (p. 290)

26 of the 40 participants

The effects of isolation were minimal and reversible when a monkey was isolated from birth to what age? (p. 216-217)

3 months

Troland divided stimulation of the nervous system into three categories: beneception, nociception, and neutroception. Briefly describe each term. (p. 207)

Beneception- occurs when pleasant feelings are aroused by stimuli Nociception- occurs as the result of stimuli that arouse unpleasant feelings. Neutroception- exists when stimuli cause neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings

True or False: Pfaffman stated that hedonic intensity and sensory intensity are the same. (p. 209)

False

What does one expect in a nation that contains a large number of persons high in need for achievement who become entrepreneurs? (Expectancy-Value Theory, Slide 16)

Folklore that stresses work, knowledge, and freedom instead of family, tradition, and relationships.

Berlyne argued that we attempt to maintain an optimal level of arousal. What happens when the level gets too high or too low? (p. 213)

If stimulation drops too low we become motivated to increase our arousal level, if it becomes to high we will be motivated to lower it

On the continuum of internality-externality, where do individuals at both extremes perceive rewards and punishments come from? (p. 244-245)

Internal individuals- perceive rewards and punishment as resulting from their own actions External individuals- perceive the rewards or punishments they receive as being beyond their control

Define hedonism. (p. 206)

The seeking of pleasure and avoidance of pain

What is meant by conformity? [... and don't use the word conform!] (p. 281)

a change in one's belief or behaviors as a result of real or imagined pressure from a group or individual

Tolman's approach emphasized the idea that organisms develop what? (p. 237)

a cognitive map of their environment

The opponent-process model assumes that the physiological process that triggers the initial hedonic reaction will be opposed by what? (p. 225)

a second physiological state

What effect did the presence of another individual who differed from the group have on subjects in Asch's studies? (p. 283)

a substantial disinhibiting effect, gained motivation to deviate

What is social loafing? (p. 257)

ability to slack off when working in a group expecting the group to work hard enough to accomplish the task

What are two of the most influential factors observed in sensation seeking? Explain. (p. 224)

age and sex because men are consistently higher in sensation seeking than women and for both men and women, sensation seeking declines with age

Social learning has been suggested as a factor in several behavioral issues. Name three from the text. (p. 245-246)

alcohol use, violence, and academic achievement

Breslin et al. found that _________________________ did not affect gambling choices, but ____________________________________ did have an effect. (p. 225)

alcohol, sensation seeking

When lab animals are given a choice of sugar solutions, they prefer higher sugar concentrations up to what point? (p. 208)

as far up the concentration scale as we care to go

Derived motives usually extinguish quickly when __________________ with the primary ______________________ is cut, but the infant-mother attachment seems ______________________. (p. 216)

association, motive, lifelong

What are the three major components of intention according to Ajzen? (diagram on p. 254)

attitude toward behavior, subjective norm, perceived behavior control

Why does the central core of the inner-personal region have a greater influence on behavior? (p. 240)

because the core regions are in contact with many other regions

Why does performance in a group decrease, according to social impact theory? (p. 264)

because the pressure to work is dispersed among the members of the group

How did Milgram's subjects think they were "teaching" the other subjects (confederates)? (p. 288)

by delivering increasingly painful electric shocks for incorrect answers

What does the author's cat do when he/she wants to go outside? (p. 237)

claw the couch

What appears to prevent the anaclitic depression common in institutionalized infants? (p. 219)

close interaction with an individual responsible for their care

The energizing of behavior as a result of others competing in the same task is called what? (p. 279)

coaction effect

What was different about the performance of monkeys that received food rewards for solving puzzles? (p. 213)

delivery of food actually tended to disrupt performance on the puzzles, and the rewarded group lost interest sooner

The important point for our purposes is that when place learning occurs it suggests something. What does it suggest? (p. 239)

different circuits within the brain mediate cognitive learning on the one hand and stimulus-response learning on the other

When subjects in Asch's experiments did not conform to the group decision, what feeling did they seem to experience? (p. 282)

discomfort

Sensory deprivation effects are probably not confined to high-altitude flying. Cite the example from the text. (p. 222)

driving alone at night on an arrow-straight interstate highway might produce effects similar to those produced by high-altitude flying

What happened when Sherif put subjects together in the light-judgment experiment? (p.281)

even though participants were individually consistent, they changed their judgements when put into a group situation in order to agree with each other

Our reactions in new situations will be based on generalized expectations from the past. Explain. (p. 244)

even though we may never have been in such a situation before, these generalized expectations will guide our behavior

According to Harlow & Harlow (1966) and Sackett (1967) what is apparently necessary for normal development? (p. 217)

experience with both mother and peers

The reaction of an object is the result of all the forces acting upon that object within the field containing it. What is this idea called? (p. 239)

field theory

The studies of pilots cited in the text reported feelings of confusion, loss of contact, isolation, illusions, etc. According to Clark and Graybiel, what three conditions were associated with the disorientation? (p. 222)

flying alone, flying at high altitude, and a minimum of activity

For what did McClelland and Atkinson's submarine base subjects think they were being tested? (p. 247)

for visual acuity

The indifference and abuse noted in Harlow & Harlow's "motherless monkey mothers" bears a striking resemblance to _____________________________________________. (p. 218)

incidents of human child abuse

Performing a well-learned task in front of an audience increases two physiological measures but not a third. Name the three. (p. 280)

increased heart rate and vasodilation but no significant increase in blood pressure

Describe the Ringelmann effect. (p. 257-258)

individual performance within a group decreases as size of group increases. Lack of coordination of effort

What does the collective effort model predict? (p. 260)

individuals will be motivated to perform well in tasks if they expect that their effort will lead to obtaining a valued goal

What problems were noted when Riesen's dark-reared cats were exposed to a normal lighting environment? (p. 215)

it revealed perceptual deficits and violent emotionality

Why is pain useful? (p. 210)

it tells us we have been injured

When the time interval between occurrences of "state A" is long enough, it retains its original qualities—whether they are positive or negative. What does this lead us to predict about skydiving once a year? (p. 227)

it would not lead to exhilaration but continued terror

What do subjects do in the Thematic Apperception Test? (p. 246)

make up a story or describe a situation depicted in an ambiguous picture

What is the difference between mastery goals and performance goals? (p. 251)

mastery goals will seek to master a task for the sake of increasing personal competence. performance goals is how ones level of competence compares to others is the primary motivator.

What two types of interactions are apparently important for normal development of an organism? (p. 220)

mother-infant and peer-peer interactions

What is the basic idea underlying expectancy-value theory? (p. 243)

motivated behavior results from the combination of individual needs and the value of goals available in the environment

The tendency to approach or avoid achievement situations is thought to result from what four variables? (p. 248)

motive for success, motive to avoid failure, estimate probability of success, and incentive value

What are Murray's manifest needs? [Not a list - a description.] (p. 246)

needs that direct and energize behavior - learned and activated by environmental cues. Recurrent concerns for goal state - interal active, external incentive, expectant theory

How did Melzack's research lead him to describe the relationship between injury severity and pain experienced? (p. 210)

no simple and direct relationship existed between the two

In Ajzen's theory of planned behavior, what is the difference between perceived behavioral control and actual behavioral control? (p. 254)

perceived behavior control is one's level of belief in one's ability to successfully perform a given behavior. actual behavior control is one's perception is accurate

What did Festinger & Carlsmith's subjects actually do during the experiment? (p. 272)

perform repetive, boring task (turning pegs in a board) - then convince others it was interesting. Then rate the experiment

What did the TAT suggest the subjects in the failure condition were significantly more concerned with? (p. 247)

performing a task well in relation to a stated standard of excellence

Which area of the brain stem may also influence the perception of pain at the spinal cord level? (p. 211)

periaqueductal gray matter

Positive and negative affect are closely associated with what types of behavior? (p. 208)

positive affect is associated with approach behavior and negative affect is associated with withdrawal

What paradigm do researchers often employ to observe affective intensity differences of substances? (p. 207

preference tests

Ditto for door-in-the-face effect. (p. 286-287)

presenting people with a very large request can sometimes increase compliance motivation if seeking compliance to 2nd smaller request.

Other than behavioral tests, what did participants also experience during the isolation period? (p. 220)

propaganda talk on existence of psychic phenomena (ghosts, telepathy)

For what does REST stand and with which researcher is it associated? (p. 223)

restricted environmental stimulation technique. Suedfeld.

Describe the results of the running roach experiment. (p. 279)

roaches paired in the runway ran faster than those who had to go alone

Dissonance theory predicts that we may selectively expose ourselves to information about a choice after one has been made. Explain. (p. 274)

sensitive to ads or info that support choice and avoid indication that you could have made the wrong choice. (not liking the cars you didn't buy)

What are the three properties of the affective processes represented by Young's continuum? (p.207-208)

sign, intensity, and duration

What does Tolman mean when he calls behavior molar? (p. 236)

something must be studied as a whole and not reduced to it's component parts

Tolman argues that in order to understand behavior we must ______________________(p. 236)

study it as a phenomenon in it's own right

For addicts, stimuli associated with both the pleasurable state A and the aversive state B reinforce the same behavior. What behavior? (p. 226)

taking drugs

Pfaffman's research indicates that _______________________________are sufficient to trigger approach or avoidance behaviors without being tied to physiological change. (p. 209)

taste sensations

Explain the final criticism of the Asch studies. (p. 284)

that Asch's studies may no longer be relevant

What does research on sensory restriction indicate about stimulation during development? (p. 215-216)

that adequate stimulation is necessary for normal development

According to Rotter, what determines our preference for an event? (p. 243)

the events reinforcement value

"Disconnection" surgery attempts to abolish certain types of pain but is often unsuccessful. What does this suggest (according to the text)? (p. 210)

the experience of pain is more than just simple perception of painful stimulation

The incentive value of success is the value of actually achieving the goal and represents what fact? (p. 248)

the fact that some goals are worth more than others

Lewin's approach was a dynamic one, emphasizing what? (p. 239)

the forces acting to initiate behaviors are constantly changing

Which group found the taped discussion more interesting in the Aronson & Mills study? (p. 273)

the group subjected to the severe initiation of reading lurid passages and four-letter words aloud

Explain the foot-in-the-door effect. (p. 286)

the idea that people are sometimes more likely to consent to a large request if they had previously agreed to a smaller, related request

How did the isolated puppies in Thompson and Melzack's studies compare to normally raised pups on problem solving? (p. 215)

the isolated puppies were always deficient compared to the normals in ability

It appears that the mechanism suppressing the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland in children suffering from deprivation dwarfism is actually a disruption of what? (p. 219)

the normal sleep pattern

Coactors and audiences will facilitate performance if ____________________________ ________________________________________________________________. (p.280)

the performer's correct response is highly likely

What is meant by the "social facilitation of behavior"? (p. 279)

the presence of others energizes the behavior of the contestants to higher levels

It appears that the tolerance that develops to a continually-used drug can be partly explained as what? (p. 227)

the result of conditioned A and B states

When Montgomery's rats explored two mazes, what seemed to determine the length of time they spent in the second maze? (p. 213-214)

the second maze was maximally different from the first

Non-utilitarian problem-solving games like chess or bridge seem to be motivated by what? (p. 213)

the sensory stimulation they provide

Participants in electric shock experiments reported that the process was painful more often when something existed in the experiment's instructions. What was that something? (p. 211)

the word pain

Children suffering from deprivation dwarfism are deficient in height and appear to be malnourished even when they have adequate diets. Describe their emotional states. (p. 219)

these children were lethargic, apathetic, and withdrawn

Describe the 'after-reaction' noted by Solomon which occurs after a first parachute jump. (p. 227)

they appear stunned for several minutes and begin to interact socially

When Thompson and Melzack kept puppies isolated for many months, what did they note about the exploratory behaviors of the isolated pups? (p. 214-215)

they were extremely active and playful

Harlow and Suomi stated that facial design of their surrogates was not important. According to them, what does an infant believe about his/her mother's face? (p. 216)

to a baby, the maternal face is beautiful regardless of how others may judge it

What is one way of summarizing Lewin's approach? (p. 242)

to note that to understand behavior one must understand all the forces that are related to that behavior

What is cognitive dissonance? (p. 271)

we attempt to maintain consistency of our beliefs, attitudes, and opinions with our overt behavior

Name one of Pepitone's several reasons why some organisms seem to be inconsistency seeking rather than inconsistency reducing. (p. 278)

we might increase inconsistency so as to maximize our pleasure when the inconsistency is finally reduced

What is the main idea of Bem's self-perception theory? (p. 276)

we observe our own behavior much like an outsider would then make judgements based on those observations.

When may hedonic explanations of motivation prove to be less useful? (p. 210)

when applied to behaviors associated with the stimulation of distance receptors

What is Lewin's concept of tension? (p. 240)

when tension exists, the individual becomes motivated to reduce it. (internal motivation)

Of what were surrogate mothers constructed? (p. 216)

wire or soft terrycloth