Psychology Terms

Coping Mechanisms

-Appraisal-Focused - Affects thought associated with the stressor. -Problem-Focused - Affects the stressor itself. -Emotion-Focused - Affects the feelings associated with the stressor.

Stress

-Causes the body and mind to operate at a heightened state. -Homeostasis is the normal operating state for one's body and mind. -Stressors are things that cause stress. -Acute Stressors are stressors which appear suddenly, must be dealt with immediately. -Chronic Stressors are stressors which are long lasting and a constant source of worry.

Studies relating to the Effectiveness of Promoting Health

-MPOWER Study -Truth Campaign

Sociocultural Factors of Addiction

-Take into account the influence of the environment (learning it from parents, peer pressure, cultural norms, accessibility, etc.). -Bandura's Social Learning Theory is a perfect example of this. (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation). -Bauman et al.

Pro-Social Behavior

Behavior that benefits another person or has positive social consequences.

Helping Behavior

Behavior that intentionally helps or benefits another person.

Acculturation

The adoption of cultural traits, such as language, by one group under the influence of another.

Enculturation

The social process by which culture is learned and transmitted across generations.

World Health Organization

Year (of finalization of model) - 2008 -MPOWER model for preventing (and treating) tobacco addiction. -M: MONITOR tobacco usage and prevention policies. -P: PROTECT people from smoke. -O: OFFER HELP for quitting. -W: WARN about the dangers of tobacco. -E: ENFORCE bans on tobacco advertising, promotion, and sponsorships. -R: RAISE TAXES on tobacco and tobacco products. -MPOWER in Turkey: AIM: Test the MPOWER model on preventing tobacco usage in Turkey, where 1 in three adults used tobacco. PROCEDURE: -MPOWER was implemented: -M: Tobacco use is monitored, and prevention policies are developed by the Tobacco and Alcohol Market Regulatory Authority, TUIK, and the Turkey Demographic and Health Survey. -P: In Turkey, a campaign is conducted under the name "Smokeless Airspace" to prevent passive smoking. Laws were implemented to prohibit people from smoking in closed spaces, and in 2015, the "use of tobacco and tobacco products was restricted to at least 5-meter distance from the entrance doors of the places defined as closed areas used heavily and collectively by people, such as airports, bus terminals, train stations, shopping centers, cinemas, theaters, health institutions; for government organizations with designated smoking areas, which do not have more than 30% of open areas, at least 10 meters from the entrance door; in all public places used by children; walking paths; and public exercise areas established by institutions." -O: Across Turkey as of 2017, there are 303 registered smoking cessation clinics for one to be referred via the "Hello 171" line. Among other studies, in a retrospective study conducted by Tezcan et al. in two smoking cessation policlinics in Konya in 2009, all of the cases quit smoking within the first 15 days, and 64% did not resume smoking by the 1-year follow-up. -W: Turkish radio and television programs have to air stimulating and educating programs on tobacco products and other harmful habits. Furthermore, it is compulsory that all tobacco products produced in Turkey or imported to Turkey include written warning messages in Turkish, mentioning the harms of tobacco products. -E: It is forbidden in Turkey to include tobacco products and manufacturers' names in advertising and promotions using the logo or trademark, organizing campaigns that encourage or promote the use of these products, or support any activity using the logo or product brand. -R: The no. 4760 Special Consumption Tax Law, aiming at taxation in some private consumption expenditures entered into force on February 12, 2002. FINDINGS: -The prevalence of tobacco use in Turkey, according to the Global Adult Tobacco Surveys in 2008 and 2012, has dropped to 27.1% from 31.2% (in males from 47.9% to 41.5%, and in females from 15.2% to 3.1% ) -According to the Turkish Statistics Institute (TUIK) 2016 health survey, the proportion of tobacco users aged 15 and over was 32.5% in 2014, which dropped to 30.6% in 2016. EVALUATION: -Though a decrease in tobacco usage rates has been seen, the rates have fluctuated over time, as either the tobacco users or companies are finding ways to ignore the MPOWER implementation. However, the model is flexible and further implementation can lower the rates.

Deborah Tannen

Year - 1990 -Professor of linguistics, poet, and NYT writer. -Wrote "You Just Don't Understand -Women and Men in Conversation" in 1990. -Men perceive the world in a hierarchical social order. Conversations become negotiations for status, life becomes a struggle for contents, and relationships become asymmetrical. -Women perceive the world as a network of individuals. Conversations become negotiations for intimacy, sharing, and community and relationships are symmetrical. -These styles are not necessarily mutually exclusive of each other and one model may not be better than the other. Rather, they should each be understood to prevent misunderstanding and ill feelings.

Collins and Miller

Year - 1994 AIM: Investigate the links between self-disclosure and liking both of which play a central role in the development and maintenance of relationships through the formation of a meta-analysis. PROCEDURE: -The study is a meta-analysis. -Studies were found through through a computer search of Psychological Abstracts (1955-1992), looking under the keywords self-disclosure, liking, attraction, and reciprocity; as well as through published lists of studies of this nature. -The studies chosen followed the following criteria: -a. The study had to contain either a manipulation or self-report measure of self-disclosure. Only studies that varied either the amount (breadth) of disclosure (such as time spent talking or number of statements made), or the intimacy level (depth) of disclosure (such as superficial vs. personal topics) were included. -b. The study had to contain a measure or manipulation of liking or attraction toward a target. In all cases, liking was measured through some form of self-report. Studies which measured constructs other than liking or attraction (such as impressions of a target (how friendly or trusting they seemed)) were excluded. -c. Studies that had used either a clinical population or a therapy analogue (such as studies which examined the impact of therapist self-disclosure on client evaluations and therapy outcomes) were excluded. -d. The study's report had to include sufficient statistical information so that an effect size could be estimated. -The studies fitting criterion A were subdivided and it was determined where they fit in the category. -Variables considered across studies included: -a. Study paradigm (what type of study it was). -b. Gender of the subject. -c. Gender of the discloser. -d. Type of disclosure measure or manipulation (breadth or depth). -e. Type of liking or attraction measure. -f. For lab studies, if the target and subject had a meeting period beforehand. -g. The procedure and nature of the target-subject interaction (such as passing notes or speaking over an intercom). -h. Whether the interaction was reciprocal or one-way. -i. Any other variables of interest. -In the end, over 70 studies were looked at. FINDINGS: -There was an overall positive relation between disclosure and liking. Furthermore, the set of well-controlled experimental studies allowed them to infer a causal relation: In first encounters, higher disclosure led to increased liking. -Study Paradigm: The largest mean effect was obtained for relationship surveys that had involved people in ongoing relationships. The next category, acquaintance studies, involved subjects who interacted (or believed they were interacting) with a live partner in a laboratory setting. The mean effect for this category was significantly greater than zero, but, as predicted, was smaller than the mean for studies involving ongoing relationships. The next category, impression formation, involved subjects who did not actively engage in an interaction but simply observed or read about a target who disclosed at either a high or low level. This category obtained a small but statistically significant mean effect. However, as predicted, this effect was significantly smaller than that for studies that had used either an acquaintance paradigm or a self-report questionnaire. The final category, field studies, was the only one to obtain a significant negative effect, indicating that higher levels of disclosure were related to less liking in this context. This mean effect was significantly different from the remaining three categories. -Discloser Gender: The mean effect size for female disclosers was significantly larger than the mean effect for male disclosers. Moreover, the mean effect for male disclosers did not differ significantly from zero. This is inconsistent, though, as some studies only reported pooled effects. -Subject Gender: There seemed to be little evidence for global differences between male and female recipients of disclosure. -Attributions for Disclosure: The studies provided some evidence that the relation between disclosure and liking may be stronger if the recipient believes that the disclosure was given because of something unique or special about him- or herself -Relative Level of Disclosure: For the set of studies included, there was not strong evidence that high disclosure lead to less liking relative to moderate disclosure. This finding must be viewed with caution, however, given the small number of studies and the difficulty in comparing disclosure levels from one study to the next. -Depth vs. Breadth: Operationalizing disclosure in terms of intimacy level (depth) produced stronger liking effects than did operationalizing disclosure in terms of time spent talking or the number of self-relevant statements made (breadth). -TL;DR: -People who engaged in intimate disclosures tended to be liked more than people who disclosed at lower levels. -People disclosed more to those whom they initially liked. -People liked others as a result of having disclosed to them. -Relationships that value disclosure are more likely to be maintained. EVALUATION: -This study is dependent on the studies which it analysed. If the studies it analysed featured any bias or false reporting, then the results of this study may be skewed. -However, this study may be especially valid assuming the studies it looked at were all valid. -Because the studies this one looked at didn't all focus on manipulating certain variables (say, gender), results in these categories cannot be strongly supported, and may only be suggested.

Claus Wedekind et al.

Year - 1995 AIM: Determine if women unconsciously assess the health of a potential mate, considering the effect on potential children. More specifically, Wedekind wanted to see if women are attracted to a man because of his MHC. PROCEDURE: -Study surrounding the Major Histocompatibility Complex, a group of genes that play an important role in the immune system. MHC genes make molecules that enable the immune system to recognize pathogens; in general, the more diverse the MHC genes of the parents, the stronger the immune system of the offspring. MHC genes are expressed in codominant fashion - that is, that one inherits the MHC alleles from both of their parents - and they are expressed equivalently. It would be beneficial therefore to have evolved systems of recognizing individuals with different MHC genes and preferentially selecting them to breed with to maximize immune responses. Evolutionary psychologists argue that our "smell" is the sign of our MHC. -The sample was made up of 49 female and 44 male students from the University of Bern, Switzerland. -Each participant was "typed" for their MHC, and a wide variance of MHCs were included in the sample. It was noted if the women were taking oral contraceptives. -The men were asked to wear a T-shirt for two nights and to keep the shirt in an open plastic bag during the day. They were given perfume free detergent and soap, asked not to use deodorant, asked to refrain from smoking, etc. to prevent other smells from altering the results of the study. -After the two days, the shirts were put in closed boxes with "smelling holes," and the women were asked to rank the smell of 7 shirts. Whenever possible, the women were tested in the second week after menstruation, as women appear to be most odor-sensitive then. -The womens' sense of smell was honed in upon by having them use a regenerative nose spray 14 days prior to the experiment and by having them read "Perfume." -Three of the seven boxes contained T-shirts from men with MHC similar to the woman's own, three contained ones from men with MHC-dissimilar men, and one contained an unworn T-shirt. -Alone in a room, every woman scored the odours of the T-shirts for intensity (0-10) and for pleasantness and sexiness (0-10, with 5 as neutral). FINDINGS: -Women scored male body odours as more pleasant when the MHC was dissimilar as opposed to when it was similar. -The difference in odour assessment was reversed when the women were taking oral contraceptives. -The odours of MHC-dissimilar men reminded the test women more often of their actual or former mates. EVALUATION: -Not generalizable, as only women and college students were tested upon. -The study's results have been replicated by other studies, including Jacob et al. and Yamazaki et al., the latter of which achieved the results with rats. -The validity of the study's results assumes that the women have never seen or interacted with the men before. Though the possibility of this is low, there is still a chance of it. -The assumptions made from the results may be too reductionist in that they oversimplify the the behavior of human mate selection and ignore cognitive and sociocultural factors. -Demand characteristics were minimized in that the study was double-blind.

Saunders et al.

Year - 1996 AIM: Determine the overall effectiveness of stress inoculation training and identify conditions that may moderate the effectiveness of this approach. -"Establish the overall significance and magnitude of effect of stress inoculation training." -"Examine factors that may increase or decrease the effectiveness of stress inoculation training." -"Stress inoculation training is typically implemented by experienced Ph.D. level trainers; can it be implemented successfully by less experienced trainers? Can training be implemented effectively in group settings? Is training as effective in the field as in the experimental laboratory? In the following, we describe seven factors that may moderate the effectiveness of stress inoculation training: the type of subject population, the number of training sessions, the training setting, the type of skills practice utilized, the size of the trainee group, the experience level of the trainer, and the type of control group employed." PREOCEDURE: -Meta-analysis of 37 studies (1,837 subjects total). -Examined separately those studies in which stress inoculation training was conducted with a highly anxious subject population and those studies using a normal anxiety subject population. -Studies were selected for inclusion in this meta-analysis if they reported (or allowed the retrieval of) a comparison of the effectiveness of stress inoculation training versus a control group. -Examined the effects of stress inoculation training on three separate outcome measures: state anxiety (anxiety induced by a situation), performance anxiety, and performance. FINDINGS: -Indicated that stress inoculation training was an effective means for reducing performance anxiety (strong magnitude), reducing state anxiety (moderate magnitude), and enhancing performance under stress (moderate magnitude). -Type of Subject Population: SIT was an effective stress intervention for both high-anxious and normal anxiety subject populations. The data further indicate that the overall positive impact of stress inoculation training on reducing performance anxiety was significantly stronger for normal-anxiety subjects than for high anxiety subjects. There was no significant relationship between the type of subject and the effect of stress inoculation training on reducing state anxiety or enhancing performance. -Number of Training Sessions: The beneficial effect of stress inoculation training on reducing performance anxiety and reducing state anxiety increases with increasing training sessions. However, the data suggest that even a minimal training intervention of one session is likely to produce positive effects. The overall positive effect of stress inoculation training on enhancing performance was not moderated by the number of training sessions. -Training Setting: Effects of stress inoculation training on reducing performance anxiety and state anxiety are as strong in the field as in the experimental laboratory. -Type of Skills Practice Utilized: For reducing performance anxiety, stress inoculation training incorporating imagery practice was more effective. However, the behavioral practice of coping skills was more effective for enhancing performance. -Size of the Trainee Group: As the size of the training group increases, stress inoculation training becomes less effective in reducing state anxiety. As the size of the training group increases, stress inoculation training becomes less effective in enhancing performance. Stress inoculation training becomes more effective at reducing performance anxiety as the size of the group increases. -Experience Level of the Trainer: Stress inoculation training was shown to have a significant impact on reducing performance anxiety, reducing state anxiety, and enhancing performance whether training was conducted by a more experienced or a less experienced trainer. However, surprisingly, the data indicate that less experienced trainers were more effective than more experienced trainers. -Type of Control Group Employed: Stress inoculation training was shown to have a significant impact whether the intervention was compared to an equivalent control group or to a no-contact control group. However, the data also indicate a tendency for stronger effects to be reported when the comparison of training effects was made to a no-contact control group than to an equivalent control group. EVALUATION: -Method triangulation by using a number of different studies strengthens this study's validity. -Because the study tested Stress Inoculation Training and because of its nature as a meta-analysis, there is potential that studies which supported SIT were picked out for use based on the method for picking studies. -The studies used may have featured researcher bias. -Considering that SIT is an umbrella term for a number of different techniques with different goals, there may be too many variables to make the result definitive. For example, studies using less experienced trainers may have focused on easier goals for the trainees.

Berry

Year - 2003 Four Types of Acculturation: -Marginalization: A person no longer wants to maintain their traditional culture and does not want to adapt to the new culture. -Separation: A person clings to their traditional culture and resists new culture. -Assimilation: A person rejects their traditional culture and fully adopts the new culture. -Integration: A person wants to maintain their cultural heritage, but also wants to learn some of the values, attitudes, norms, and behaviors of the new culture.

Morry

Year - 2007 -ATTRACTION-SIMILARITY MODEL -When people are attracted to others they tend to perceive them as similar, projecting their personal attitudes on them. This is the basis for friends and partnership. Perceived similarity is a main factor in satisfaction regarding attraction and relationships, and it has the psychological benefits of validating one's own views. -See Markey and Markey

William James; Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky

DUAL PROCESSING THEORY -Originally proposed by William James, but formalized by Kahneman and Tversky in the 1990s -Explains the different levels of information processing in individuals. -The processing of information is divided into two pathways. -System 1 Processing -Fast, automatic, involuntary. -Unconscious process that one is not in control of. -Information processed in this automatic manner lacks specific details and context. -Used for complex decisions. -System 2 Processing -Slow, deliberate, voluntary. -Conscious process where one is aware that the processing is occurring. -Working memory is used and information is more explicit and detailed. -Used for everyday decisions. EVALUATION: -Whether or not the two processes are distinct from each other or two ends of a spectrum is largely unclear. -Supported by Atler and Oppenheimer.

Cognitive Factors of Addiction

-Addicts tend to display flawed thinking patterns such denial, rationalization, etc. -Oftentimes addicts will eventually experience cognitive dissonance (Festinger). This is the uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory beliefs/ideas at the same time. -McMasters & Lee.

Addiction

-Defined by the American Psychological Association as "a chronic disorder with biological, psychological, social and environmental factors influencing its development and maintenance." -Includes a compulsion or craving to use a substance continuously in order to experience the psychological and physiological effects. -The more an addict uses a substance the more it takes to reach the desired effect because the body builds up tolerance to it. This can lead to overdoses. -Withdrawal occurs when addicts don't use the substance regularly. There are psychological (depression, mood swings, irritability, etc.) and biological (tremors, sweating, increased heart rate, etc.) effects of withdraw. -Doesn't have to be related to a substance. It can be related to behaviors (gambling, shopping, eating, etc.) as well. -A lightening rod of controversy because some people think its a choice and other people think it's a disease.

Biological Theories of Attraction

-Fischer believed that love and attraction are a product of dopamine, adrenaline, oxytocin, and serotonin. Pheromones are hormones released by bodies to affect the behavior and physiology of others of its species. -The point of attraction is to ensure survival of the human species. It is hardwired into our brains by millions of years of evolution. -Studies supporting this include Fischer et al. and Wedekind et al.

Biological Factors of Addiction

-In tobacco, the active ingredient is nicotine, which is a stimulant. It increases heart rate and blood pressure, and releases dopamine. These feelings wear off, which causes the user to want more. -Terminal buttons become accustomed to this artificially stimulated release and can stop naturally releasing dopamine. As the body becomes more tolerant to nicotine, the user must use tobacco with greater frequency to achieve the desired effect. It could also cause the user to seek out other substances that can help them achieve the desired effect. -DiFranza et al.

Proximity Factor

-Physical closeness and frequency of interactions are important in attraction. We are attracted to those we are around and see most often. -PROXIMITY THEORY OF ATTRACTION: Suggests that simply being in the physical presence of another individual will enhance the possibility of becoming friends and attraction.

George Homans

-SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY -States that whether one acts on any given situation is based on the appraisal of perceived cost against benefits. -Costs: Time, effort, money, potential harm, etc. -Financial reward, esteem, affection, avoidance of failure or humiliation, etc. -This is a very broad theory that can apply to many different areas in psychology.

Richard S. Lazarus

-Stated that stress is a condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that "demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize." -Stated that, "Coping is constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing".

Globalization

-The process of interaction and integration among people of different nations. -Driven by international trade and investment aided by modern technology. -Values of a global culture include individualism, free-market economics, democracy, freedom of choice, individual rights, openness to change, and tolerance of differences. -There are multiple dangers associated with this, including: -It could be too capitalist (benefitting large corporations). -It minimizes local cultures and customs. -It's too ethnocentric. -It's culturally insensitive. -It destroys cultural identities. -Local Culture: The culture one grows up in and shares with others in the same environment. -Global Culture: The culture that one comes to learn and perhaps adapts to through travel, media, and social networking.

Albert Bandura

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Year - 1977 -Learning takes place by observation and imitation of the actions of others. (Differs from Skinner's "conditioning" because there is more emphasis on inner motivational factors.) -Combines other learning theory principles such as consequences and associations. -Four factors leading to the replication of a behavior: -Attention: Extent to which one is exposed to and notices the behavior. -Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. -Reproduction: Ability to perform the behavior that the model demonstrated. -Motivation: Will to perform the behavior. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY: Year - 1986 -An expansion of SLT which describes a dynamic, ongoing process in which personal factors, environmental factors, and human behavior exert influence upon each other. -Three main factors affect the likelihood that a person will change a health behavior: self-efficacy ("how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations"), goals, and outcome expectancies. -Reciprocal Determinism: A person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Causes of strong self-efficacy: -Mastery experiences: Having a success, for example in mastering a task or controlling an environment, will build self-belief in the area whereas a failure will undermine this belief. To have a resilient sense of self-efficacy requires experience in overcoming obstacles through effort and perseverance. -Vicarious experiences: Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by their sustained effort raises one's belief that they too possess the capabilities to master the activities needed for success in that area. -Verbal persuasion: Being persuaded that one possesses the capabilities to master certain activities means that one is more likely to put in the effort and sustain it when problems arise. -Emotional and Physiological States: Depression can dampen confidence in one's capabilities. Stress reactions or tension are interpreted as signs of vulnerability to poor performance whereas positive emotions can boost one's confidence in one's skills. ( Cognitive Model of Behavior (can scientifically study internal behavior): -Input - In the environment --> -Mediational Process - Mental event --> -Output - Behavior ) EVALUATION: -Focuses on processes of learning and in doing so disregards biological and hormonal predispositions that may influence behaviors, regardless of past experience and expectations. -Assumes that changes in the environment will automatically lead to changes in the person, when this may not always be true. -Can be broad-reaching, and therefore can be difficult to operationalize in entirety.

Evaluation of Yoga as a Coping Strategy

STRENGTHS -Supported by research. -Holistic approach to stress (physical, cognitive, and spiritual). -Variety of practices. -Promotes social interactions. -Many biological benefits (flexibility, strength, circulation, cardiovascular improvement, etc.). LIMITATIONS: -Requires commitment and dedication. -Requires an instructor. -Vast variety in practices - lack of uniformity. -May not be as appealing to those with tremendous physical or cognitive limitations. -Participant bias. -Participant variability.

Evaluation of Stress Inoculation Therapy

STRENGTHS: -Supported by successful research. -Individualized. -Focused on long term success rather than quick short term gains. LIMITATIONS: -Requires a trained therapist. -Time- and money-intensive. -Requires patient commitment and motivation. -Researcher bias. -Participant bias. -Participant variability. -Meta Analysis Studies.

Altruism

When one person helps another for no reward or even at a cost to oneself.

Bartlett

Year - 1932 AIM: Investigate how memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge. PROCEDURE: -Bartlett asked British participants to hear a story and reproduce it after a short time and then repeatedly over a period of months or years (serial reproduction). -Participants were asked to read "War of the Ghosts," a Native American folk tale. -Asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals: -Serial Reproduction: First participant reproduces it on paper. Paper is read by a second participant who reproduces the reproduction - 6/7 participants -Repeated Reproduction: Same participant reproduces the story 6/7 times from their own previous reproductions. FINDINGS: -Participants changed the story as they tried to remember it - a process called distortion: -Assimilation: The story became more consistent with the participants' own cultural expectation. -Leveling: The story became shorter with each retelling as participants omitted information which was not seen as important. -Sharpening: Participants tended to change the order of the story in order to make sense of it using terms more familiar to the culture of the participants. Details and emotions were also added. EVALUATION: -Story became shorter; "hunting seals" became "fishing," "canoes" became "boats." -The results of the study confirm schema theory (and reconstructive memory), but it was performed in a laboratory and can be criticized for lack of ecological validity. -Participants did not receive standardized instructions and some of the memory distortions may be due to participants' guessing (demand characteristics). -Participants were not explicitly asked for accurate reproductions.

Festinger, Schachter, and Back

Year - 1950 BACKGROUND: -Soldiers coming back from WWII were given the opportunity to go to university for cheap; this led to a huge influx of mature students going to university. -These students were sometimes married or had kids. -MIT started to build residence buildings for all of these people so they could live on campus. Festinger thought he could take advantage of this and look at friendship formation. AIM: Determine if and how proximity correlates with friendship/relationship formation. PROCEDURE: -The study was conducted at the 17 Westgate Apartment buildings. Each floor had 10 apartments, and apartments 1, 7, and 10 had the most traffic in front of their room. -260 married veteran residents were asked to list their friend and who they were closest to. FINDINGS: -2/3 of friends given by the residents lived in the same building. -41% of people living in adjacent rooms listed each other as friends; only 10% of those who lived on opposite ends of a hallway did. -People in apartments 1 and 7 had the most friends in the building. -Friendship levels decreased as residents lived farther from each other and increased as residents lived closer to each other. EVALUATION: -This study supports Proximity Theory. -The study is strong as the sample was large. -The study may not be generalizable. Veterans may be more or less likely to form friends than other people due to their experiences. -The study is not clear as to whether or not some of the veterans knew each other prior to living in the complex. -Friendship is subjective: what one considers to be a friendship, another would not. -There is potential for participant bias.

Hochbaum, Rosenstock, and Kegels

Year - 1952 -HEALTH BELIEF MODEL -A psychological model which attempts to explain and predict health behaviors. -Developed in response to the failure of a free tuberculosis health screening program. Since then, it has been adapted to explore a variety of long- and short-term health behaviors, including sexual risk behaviors and the transmission of HIV/AIDS. -Based on the understanding that a person will take a health-related action (such as using condoms) if that person: -Feels a negative health condition (such as HIV) can be avoided; -Has a positive expectation that by taking a recommended action, they will avoid a negative health condition (such as using condoms will be effective at preventing HIV); and -Believes that they can successfully take a recommended health action (such as they can use condoms comfortably and with confidence). -The HBM was originally spelled out in terms of four constructs representing the perceived threat and net benefits: -Perceived Susceptibility: One's opinion of chances of getting a condition. This is gained through defining the population at risk, giving risk levels, and personalizing risk based on a person's features or behavior. -Perceived Severity: One's opinion of how serious a condition and its consequences are. This is gained through specifying the consequences of the risk and the condition. -Perceived Benefits: One's belief in the efficacy of the advised action to reduce risk or seriousness of impact. This is gained through defining the actions to take; giving how, where, and when to take the actions; and clarifying the positive effects to be expected. -Perceived Barriers: One's opinion of the tangible and psychological costs of the advised action. This is gained through identifying and reducing barriers through reassurance, incentives, and assistance. -These concepts were proposed as accounting for people's "readiness to act." -Other terms were added later: -Cues to Action: Strategies to activate "readiness," such as providing how-to information, promoting awareness, and giving reminders. -Self-Efficacy: Confidence in one's ability to take action, gained through providing training and guidance in performing actions. -An example of this in the MPOWER study.

Muzafer Sherif et al.

Year - 1954 (Realistic Conflict Theory developed in 1961) -Done with his wife Carolyn. AIM: -Study informal groups and observe the natural and spontaneous development of group organization, attitudes (primarily prejudice) and group norms. -Test Realistic Conflict Theory, which states that groups interacting with one another will generate attitudes towards each other. -Groups that are positively independent (working towards common goals) will have good intergroup relations. -Groups that are negatively independent (in competition, namely for scarce resources) will create conflict and ethnocentric attitudes. PROCEDURE: -22 boys aged 11-12 who were white, Protestant, and from middle-class homes were chosen. -Researchers organized a summer camp in the Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma, and the boys used were ones who were signed up for it. The boys didn't know that they were taking part in an experiment. -For the first few days, the boys were housed in the same house and, over time, chose friends. -After a few days, the boys were separated into two groups (the Eagles and the Rattlers). Friends were also split during this. -Each group participated in a range of challenging activities, and through this intragroup structures were formed (such as placement of certain members as "leaders", division of tasks, development of its own culture (inside jokes, secrets, etc.), and maintenance of social control through ridiculing boys who couldn't perform a task well and making threats or excluding members). -A wired game of target practice showed that the boys of a group consistently overestimated the accuracy of highly-regarded boys and underestimated the accuracy of lowly-regarded boys. -Introduction of intergroup conflicts through games showed that the groups displayed hostility towards each other, eventually culminating in fights and setting fire to the other group's flag. -After a while, the conflicts were resolved through staged opportunities for giving the groups common goals, such as their truck breaking down. FINDINGS: -When asked to self-report who their friends were out of everyone at the camp during the competition phase, around 93% selected exclusively from their own in-group. -Groups became more hostile when at odds. -Groups became less hostile when working together. EVALUATION: -High degree of ecological validity. It's even more valid in that potential prejudices were removed by only accepting boys who were white (no racism), Protestant (no religious intoleration), and from middle-class homes (no classism). -Because of its nature as a field experiment, variables during the camp couldn't be controlled. -There was a lack of standardization present in determining "tension" or "hostility" between groups. -The boys were deceived, and there was a potential for mental or physical harm during the camp. -Debriefing is not mentioned and may not have taken place.

Festinger

Year - 1956 AIM: Determine how the members of the UFO cult the Seekers would react when they realized a certain apocalyptic event did not happen. In a broader sense, the aim was to determine the degree to which each member was convinced of the truth of the belief system. -The theory was that the more of a commitment that a member made to the group, the less likely they would be to change their behavior, even in spite of a major disappointment. PROCEDURE: -The Seekers believed a great flood was imminent and that spacemen would rescue the true believers. Their leader, "Marian Keech" (AKA Dorothy Martin), supposedly received messages through automatic writing, and the members of the cult left their jobs and families and gave away money and possessions to prepare for the arrival of the flying saucer. -Keech claimed she received messages from the planet Clarion and that the world would end on December 21, 1954. -Festinger and his team carries out a covert participant observation. They were able to enter the group by pretending from the beginning that they were true believers, and through telling a story of an old Mexican woman they had picked up on the side of the road, who told of the flood and then disappeared. -Data was recorded through transcribing phone calls recorded by the cult, as well as discussing and writing down observations covertly, through things such as going to the bathroom or taking walks. FINDINGS: -At 12:10am on December 21, the group was visibly shocked that no spacemen had arrived, and at 12:45am, Keech claimed to have received a message from the God of the Earth: "The little group, sitting all night long, had spread so much light that God had saved the world from destruction," and the flood had been called off. -By the afternoon of the 21st, the members of the cult had engaged in spreading the message to as many people as they could. -The members of the cult had rationalized the situation in a way that maintained their sense of self-esteem. -Festinger created the theory of cognitive dissonance, which posits that when members of the cult realized they had sacrificed so much but that their predictions were wrong, they became extremely anxious, and in order to alleviate this anxiety, they justified their behavior. EVALUATION: -The researchers' story to enter the cult reaffirmed the beliefs held by members. -The researchers used deception through the study, and, though pseudonyms were used, because of its nature as a cult, members could be determined easily from given information. -Data collection could have been skewed by researcher fatigue and memory distortion. -All discussion of the strength of the members' belief in the cult is based on what is publicly stated and observed in behavior. This belief is not standardized.

Scoville and Milner

Year - 1957 (and onwards) BACKGROUND: -Henry Molaison was born in Connecticut in 1926, and he fell of his bike at age 7, injuring his head. -Epileptic attacks began when HM was 10, and by age 27 he was so incapacitated by his seizures that he could not lead a normal life and anti-convulsant medication did not help him. AIM: Cure HM of his epileptic seizures. PROCEDURE: -Scoville removed 8 cm of brain tissue from the anterior two-thirds of the hippocampus, and believed he "probably destroyed .... the uncus and amygdala" as well. -Once the extent of the memory loss was realised, Scoville and Milner wrote about this, along with the results from this type of surgery on nine other patients. -As a case study, most of the testing was done through observation of HM's daily life. He was also interviewed and tested in numerous fashions. -An MRI scan was performed in 1992 and 2003, analyzing the damage. FINDINGS: -HM could not acquire new episodic or semantic knowledge, but could still handle spatial processing, working memory, and procedural memories. -HM got anterograde amnesia. -HM also suffered some retrograde amnesia, but could remember things from his childhood. -HM's intelligence was unaffected. -The MRI scans suggested that damage to the hippocampus and white matter were the most important factors in HM's amnesia. -Since HM was able to retain some memories of events that happened long before his surgery, it indicates that the medial temporal region of the brain is not the site of permanent storage but rather plays a role in the organization and permanent storage of memories elsewhere in the brain. EVALUATION: -The high doses of anti-epileptic drug HM was taking before, and the lower doses after the surgery, may have resulted in some memory loss. -No known memory tests were conducted on HM before the surgery, and the initial memory loss was largely reported by his mother, with whom he lived. -However, similar studies have generated similar results, suggesting that generalization may be possible.

Fritz Heider

Year - 1958 -Attribution theory -ATTRIBUTION is defined as how people interpret and explain casual relationships in the social world. -Deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal judgment. -States that people are naïve psychologists who try to explain observable behaviors in an attempt to understand and control the world around them. -Attribution is automatic, so it is difficult for people to overcome this process. -People tend to form cause-and-effect relationships, even when there are none. -DISPOSITIONAL ATTRIBUTION: -Assigns the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic of a person, rather than to outside forces. -For example, one might attribute the behavior of a person to their personality, motives or beliefs. -SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTION: -Assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a person's control rather than to some internal characteristic. -When one tries to explain their own behavior, they tend to make external attributions, such as situational or environment features. ERRORS AND BIAS IN ATTRIBUTION: -Actor-Observer Effect: People's attributions change depending on whether they are the performing/involved in the situation or observing it happen to someone else. -Fundamental Attribution Error: People overestimate the role of dispositional factors in an individual's behavior and underestimate the situational factors. (An example of this is the assumption that homeless people are homeless because they are lazy.) -Self-Serving Bias: When people take credit for their successes attributing them to dispositional factors, and dissociate themselves from their failures, attributing them to situational factors. (For example, people might associate a win in a game to their success in executing the game plan, while associating a loss in a game with the officials.) -As is stated in cognitive dissonance theory, when there is an inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors, something must change to eliminate this inconsistency.

Festinger & Carlsmith

Year - 1959 AIM: Determine if making people perform a dull task would create cognitive dissonance through forced compliance behavior. PROCEDURE: -71 male students were told to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). -After, about half of the participants were paid $1 and the rest were paid $20 to tell a waiting participant (a confederate) that the tasks were really interesting. -After this, all subjects were asked to rate how much they liked the boring task. -Behaviorist/reinforcement theory would suggest that the participants who were paid $20 would like the task more because they would associate the payment with the task. -Cognitive dissonance theory would predict that whose who were paid $1 would feel the most dissonance since they had to carry out a boring task and lie to an experimenter, all for only $1. This would create dissonance between the belief that they were not stupid or evil, and the action or carrying out a boring task and lying for only a dollar. Therefore, dissonance theory would suggest that those in the $1 group would be more motivated to resolve their dissonance by reconceptualizing/rationalizing their actions and believing that the boring task was, in fact, fun. FINDINGS: -The participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie. EVALUATION: -This experiment supports cognitive dissonance theory. -The experiment was done in a laboratory and is not a common task, so the results aren't necessarily ecologically valid. -There is a possibility of participant bias in that participants could have lied about their rating to meet the researchers' (perceived) intended answer.

Wason

Year - 1960 AIM: Determine if people are biased towards confirming preexisting beliefs. PROCEDURE: -Asked people to identify a rule that applies to a series of numbers -Wason made up a rule and offered the numbers 2, 4, and 6 -To come up with the rule, participants were asked to come up with other sets to test their assumptions about the rule -For every three numbers proposed, Wason would say whether or not the set satisfied the rule -The rule was simply increasing numbers FINDINGS: -Most participants formed a hypothesis that the rule was a sequence of even numbers, then tried to confirm the hypothesis with similar sets (6 - 8 - 10). They then felt sure of the hypothesis and stopped. This is as opposed to trying to DISPROVE the hypothesis. EVALUATION: -Lack of control -No written record

Bandura, Ross and Ross

Year - 1961 AIM: Demonstrate that learning can occur through observation of role models. PROCEDURE: -36 boys and 36 girls ages 3-6 divided into groups -Group 1: Exposed to adult models who beat up a Bobo doll -Group 2: Exposed to adult models who displayed no aggression. -Group 3: No model provided. -The children were placed into a room with a Bobo doll after 10 minutes of watching the model, and they were observed. FINDINGS: -Children who observed the aggressive model showed more aggression physically and verbally -Boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression -Girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression EVALUATION: -Consent cannot be obtained from toddlers. -Some toddlers may have already been aggressive for unknown reasons. -Low ecological validity -Oversimplification of the learning process -Children who were unfamiliar with the doll were 5 times more likely to imitate aggressive behavior

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe

Year - 1967 AIM: Determine to what extent stress contributes to illness. PROCEDURE: -More than 5,000 medical patients were surveyed and and asked to say whether they had experience any of a series of 43 life events (such as a divorce, death of a spouse, or jail term) in the previous two years. FINDINGS: -Developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) -The SRRS measures stress in Life Changing Units (LCUs), which were variable dependent on the event. The more events the patient added up, the higher the score. The higher the score, and the larger the weight of each event, the more likely the patient was to become ill. -This can be used as a way to gauge one's stress, look at how long it can take to readjust and accommodate a stressor, and gauge the possibility of developing stress-related illnesses. -If a person has less the 150 life change units they have a 30% chance of suffering from stress. -150 - 299 life change units equates to a 50% chance of suffering from stress. -Over 300 life units means a person has an 80% chance of developing a stress related illness.

Atkinson and Shiffin

Year - 1968 -Multi-Store Memory Model -The five senses are taken into the sensory memory store. If attention is given to the memory, it can move to the STM store, and, through rehearsal and transferrance those memories can then be transferred to the LTM store. Retrieval can bring a memory back from the LTM store. -Sensory Memory Store --Capacity: Very small --Duration: 1-5 seconds --Forgetting occurs due to decay or displacement -STM Store --Capacity: 7 +/- 2 chunks of information --Duration: 20-30 seconds -LTM Store --Capacity: Indefinite --Duration: Years to a lifetime --Forgetting occurs due to retrieval failure EVALUATION: -Focuses on structure more than process. -States that transferrance is only done through rehearsal. -Suggests memory is one-way. -LTM isn't necessarily a unitary store. -The unitary view of STM is too simplistic. (-Supported by Glanzer and Cunitz, but not supported by Craik and Tulving) -Supported by serial-position effect, which is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst.

Latane and Darley (Study 1)

Year - 1968 -Suggested a cognitive decision model. They argued that helping requires the bystander to: -Notice the situation: If one is in a hurry to get somewhere then they might not even be aware of what is going on. -Interpret the situation as an emergency: For example, people screaming or asking for help which could also be interpreted as a family quarrel which is none of one's business. -Accept some personal responsibility for helping even though others are present. -Consider how to help: One may be unsure of what to do or doubt their skills. -Decide how to help: One may observe how other people react and decide not to intervene. AIM: Investigate the number of witnesses in an emergency influences people's helping in an emergency situation. PROCEDURE: -72 students (59 female and 13 male) were recruited. -Each participant was given headphones and a microphone and stayed alone in a room, talking to other students through the intercom. According to the researchers, this was done to protect everyone's anonymity. The theme of the conversation was college life problems, worries and the like. -After this, the participants were divided into three groups: -Group 1: Thought they were talking one on one with the other person -Group 2: Thought they were talking with two other people -Group 3: Thought they were talking in a group of five people -In a certain point of the conversation, a person in the intercom (confederate) started acting as if he was having a seizure and asked for help. FINDINGS: -When participants thought they were the only ones who could help, 85% of them left the room and asked for assistance. -When participants thought there was another bystander with them, that number dropped to 64%. -In the situation with four bystanders, only 31% of participants searched for help. EVALUATION: -This suggests that diffusion of responsibility is a factor in bystanderism. -Ecological validity is a concern due to the artificiality of the experimental situation. -There are ethical concerns in that participants were deceived and exposed to an anxiety-provoking situation. -Participants may have assumed the nature of the experiment and not reacted because of such.

Latane & Darley (Study 2)

Year - 1968 AIM: Evaluate bystanderism in cases where one's own life is in danger. PROCEDURE: -College students were recruited under the pretense of "filling out a questionnaire." -Participants were divided into two groups: -Participants filling out the questionnaire alone in a room. -Participants filling out the questionnaire with many confederates in the room who were also filling out the questionnaire. -A few minutes after the participants started the task, a black smoke started to creep out from the room's air conditioner and got thicker and thicker until the room was filled with smoke. -In the second group, the confederates were instructed to ignore the smoke. FINDINGS: -Of the participants who were alone, 75% quickly left the room and reported the smoke to the researchers. -Of those who were in the room with the unshaken confederates, only 10% left the room and searched for help. -Those in the room with the confederates who sought help only did so after more than twice the time of the participants alone in a room. EVALUATION: -This suggests that social influence is a factor in bystanderism. -Ecological validity is a concern due to the artificiality of the experimental situation. -There are ethical concerns in that participants were deceived and exposed to an anxiety-provoking situation. -Participants may have assumed the nature of the experiment and not reacted because of such.

Jane Elliott

Year - 1968 (and onwards) AIM: Emphasize the effects of discrimination and group bias on personal traits and self-esteem. PROCEDURE: -The participants were blue- and brown-eyed students in a third grade class. -Field experiment -The class was divided into two groups based on eye color. -Elliot told the students that being blue-eyed meant one was smarter, quicker, and more successful, while brown eyes meant one was lazy, untruthful, and stupid. -Blue-eyed children were given privileges such as more favorable treatment, sitting at the front of the room, extra playtime, etc. -A few days later, the roles were reversed. FINDINGS: -Blue-eyed students showed a change of behavior when they were the favored group - They became bossy, arrogant, and smarter, and showed discriminatory behavior towards brown-eyed students. -Brown-eyed students became more timid, submissive, and performed worse academically. -After a few days, the brown-eyed students showed signs of depression and frustration. -The results were reversed when the roles were reversed. EVALUATION: -Lacks generalizability in that it's only valid to third grade students, and ecological validity in that the task was unrealistic. -High chances for mental harm - Depression, frustration, stigmatization, etc.

Latane & Darley (Theory)

Year - 1970 -BYSTANDERISM -The presence of other people or just the perception that other people are witnessing the event will decrease the likelihood that an individual will intervene in an emergency due to such psychological processes as: -Diffusion of Responsibility: When one is the only person who can deal with an emergency situation, one has 100% of the responsibility to do so. with more witnesses, each individual's share of the responsibility drops and this reduces the psychological costs of not intervening. -Pluralistic Ignorance / Social Influence: It may be that in an ambiguous social situation, one looks to the actions of others for guidance (social influence). This inaction breeds more inaction, in that if one sees others not doing anything, one may feel that it is not necessary to do something. -Audience Inhibition: One may be afraid of appearing to overreact or of making some kind of social blunder. This forms part of a person's judgment about whether intervention is necessary or appropriate.

Rahe

Year - 1970 AIM: Investigate whether scores on the Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) were correlated with the subsequent onset of illness. PROCEDURE: -2,500 male American sailors were given the SRRS to assess how many life events they had experienced in the previous 6 months. The total score on the SRRS was recorded for each participant. -Over the following six-month tour of duty, detailed records were kept of each sailor's health status. The recorded number of Life Change Units were correlated with the sailors' illness scores. FINDINGS: -There was a positive correlation between Life Change scores and illness scores. Although the positive correlation was small, it did indicate that there was a statistically significant correlation between Life Change Units and health. As Life Change Units increased, so did the frequency of illness. -As the correlation was not perfect, life events cannot be the only factor in contributing to illness. EVALUATION: -The SRRS does not take individual differences into consideration. The scale assumes that all people are affected the same way by different stressors. -Stress-related illnesses may also be caused by a predisposition to stress as well as other natural causes. -The scale does not take into account "daily hassles," such as losing one's keys.

Tajfel et al.

Year - 1971 AIM: Investigate factors that lead to in-group favoritism. PROCEDURE: -3 groups with 16 boys per group -Shown 12 slides of 6 paintings by Klee and 6 by Kandinsky (No signatures) -Randomly allocated into two groups seemingly based on preferences -Rewards allocation task - Asked to award points to two other boys (one from each group) at a time -Participant chose the score for one boy, and the other boy would get the score tied to it -Allocation to two boys in own group, other group, or one from each -Maximum joint profit, maximum in-group profit, maximum difference FINDINGS: -The boys typically awarded more points to members of their in-group (maximum difference) even though they ended up with less money in the end than they could have gotten EVALUATION: -The boys may have acted differently than they would have had they actually been given money

Rosenzweig, Bennett and Diamond

Year - 1972 AIM: Investigate the effects of stimulating and impoverished environments on the brain growth on rats PROCEDURE: -Behavior and environmental manipulation study -16 experiments -Three male rats chosen from each of 12 litters and randomly assigned to one of three groups: -Standard (adequate space, food, water, several rats together) -Impoverished (small space, isolation, adequate food and water) -Enriched (Large cage, variety of toys, interaction with 6-8 other rats) -The rats lived in these environments for various periods of time (4 - 10 weeks) -Following the experiment, the rats were humanely killed, autopsies were conducted, and the brains were weighed. FINDINGS: -The cerebral cortex was heavier and thicker in the enriched rats. -No difference in neuron count, but the neurons of the enriched rats were larger and the synapses were 50% larger than those of the impoverished rats EVALUATION: -Animals were kept in a poor environment and killed -The criticism that the changes could be due to increased handling rather than enriched environment was tested in further experiments wherein the impoverished rats were handled as much as that other two groups. The results were similar to those from the original experiment. Also, at times the rats in the enriched environments were not handled, but still retained the increased brain growth. -The criticism that the results may not be able to be generalized to humans may be countered by a number of later studies.

Altman and Taylor

Year - 1973 -SOCIAL PENETRATION THEORY -As relationships develop, communication moves from relatively shallow, non-intimate levels to deeper, more personal levels. -Closeness occurs through a gradual process of self-disclosure, and it then develops if the participants proceed in a gradual and orderly fashion from superficial to intimate levels of exchange. -Oftentimes, this theory is called the Onion Theory or Metaphor because people move through the various layers of oneself as they disclose information. -Layer 1: Orientation Stage - Simple and casual conversation following social norms or appropriateness. (Most outer layer). -Layer 2: Exploratory Affective Stage - Expressing one's thoughts and feelings toward moderate topics. Mutual belief that partners won't fully express their thoughts and views. -Layer 3: Affective Stage - Conversation about personal and private matters specifically related to emotions. -Layer 4: Stable Stage - Disclosure is now open and comfortable. People can predict how the other person will react to other information. (Most inner layer). -Based on the concepts of breadth and depth. -Breadth: the array or variety of topics which have been included and discussed. -Depth: The extent to which meanings and feelings of a particular topic are discussed. -De-Penetration Stage: If both sides aren't self-disclosing and feeling validated, the respective sides will draw and the relationship will likely break down. The cost of self-disclosure outweighs the benefits. EVALUATION: -There are types of conversation which may be difficult to operationalize into a stage. -The layers themselves are difficult to operationalize, as some people are more comfortable with given topics than others, or may consider intimate topics rather shallow (or vice versa). -This model provides an easy-to-understand possibility for how relationships develop. There are studies to back this up.

Darley and Batson

Year - 1973 AIM: Investigate the possibility of a link between personality traits and the likelihood of helping others in an emergency. PROCEDURE: -The researchers had three hypotheses: -People thinking religious, "helping" thoughts would still be no more likely than others to offer assistance. -People in a hurry will be less likely to offer aid than others. -People who are religious for what it will gain them will be less likely than those who value religion for itself or are searching for meaning in life to help in an emergency. -The researchers recruited seminary students for a study on religious education. -The participants completed a personality questionnaire about their religion (to help evaluate the third hypothesis). -The participants began experimental procedures in one building and were told to go to another building to continue. On their way to the second building they encountered a man slumped in an alleyway (whose condition -- hurt or possibly drunk -- was unknown). -The amount of urgency the subjects were told before being sent off also varied. In one condition the subject was told they were late for the new task, while in the other condition the subjects were told they had a few minutes but should head over anyway. -One task was to prepare a talk about seminary jobs, while the other was to prepare a talk about the parable of the Good Samaritan. -In an alleyway the participants passed a man slumped in a doorway, who moaned and coughed twice as they passed by. A scale was set up to determine how much the participants helped: -0: They failed to notice the victim. -1: They perceived a need to help but did not offer aid. -2: They did not stop but helped indirectly (such as through telling the aide on arrival). -3: They stopped and asked if the victim needed help. -4: After stopping, they insisted on taking the victim inside and then left him. -5: They refused to leave the victim, or insisted on taking him somewhere. -After arriving at the second research site, the subjects gave their talks and then answered helping behavior questionnaires. FINDINGS: -The amount of "hurriedness" induced in the subject had a major effect on helping behavior, but the task variable (what the talk would be about) did not. -In all, 40% of the people offered help to the victim. -In low hurry situations, 63% helped. -In medium hurry situations, 45% helped. -In high hurry situations, 10% helped. -There was no correlation between "religious type" and helping behavior. However, those who saw "religion as a quest" were less likely to offer substantial help than those who scored low on this statement. Later analysis, though, revealed that this may not be caused by real religious differences. -Some people stepped over the victim on their way to the next building. -Many subjects who did not stop appeared aroused and anxious when the subject arrived at the second site. EVALUATION: - -

Baddeley and Hitch

Year - 1974 -Working Memory Model -Instead of all information going into one single store in the STM, there are different systems for different types of information. -The CENTRAL EXECUTIVE drives the whole system and allocates data to the slave systems: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving. -The VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form, and is used for navigation. -The PHONOLOGICAL LOOP deals with spoken and written material. It can be used to remember things such as a phone number. It consists of the phonological store and the articulatory control process. -The PHONOLOGICAL STORE is linked to speech perception, and holds information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. -The ARTICULATORY PROCESS is linked to speech production and is used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store. -The EPISODIC BUFFER integrates the other slave systems with a sense of time, so things occur in a sequence. EVALUATION: -More sophisticated and allows for a wider range of phenomena. -Doesn't overemphasize the role of rehearsal. -Doesn't take into account structures besides the STM. -Difficult to do experiments on the model as a whole. -There are multiple possible explanations for experimental results that may support the model. -Supported by Conrad and Hull.

Loftus and Palmer (Experiment 2)

Year - 1974 AIM: Investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect estimation of speed. PROCEDURE: -150 participants were divided into groups of varying sizes -Shown a 1-minute film of a multiple-car accident lasting about 4 seconds. -Participants were given a questionnaire: -50 participants were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other, 50 were asked when they hit, and 50 weren't asked -A second questionnaire after a week asked if they saw any broken glass FINDINGS: -Leading question - Mean speed - Broken glass? -Smashed ------------ 10.46 mph ------ 16 yes -Hit ------------------- 8.00 mph ------- 7 yes -None ------------------- NA ---------- 6 yes EVALUATION: -Not ecologically valid, as the simulation is not real and the participant isn't in the car crash -Students not representative of the general population -Students may have experienced similar car crashed, bringing back repressed memories.

Loftus and Palmer (Experiment 1)

Year - 1974 AIM: Investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect estimation of speed. PROCEDURE: -5 groups of 7 students -Seven films of traffic accidents were shown, and the films ranged from 5 to 30 seconds. -After the film, the participants were asked to give an account of what they had seen. They were then given a questionnaire about the video. One of the questions asked how fast the cars were going when they hit, with the verbs changed between participants (such as "smashed" or "contacted") FINDINGS: -Smashed: 40.8 mph -Collided: 39.3 mph -Bumped: 38.1 mph -Hit: 34.0 mph -Contacted: 31.8 mph EVALUATION: -Not ecologically valid, as the simulation is not real and the participant isn't in the car crash -Students not representative of the general population -Students may have experienced similar car crashed, bringing back repressed memories.

Whiting and Whiting

Year - 1975 AIM: Determine the impact (if any) of cultural differences in child-rearing practices on prosocial behavior. PROCEDURE: -Systematic naturalistic observation of cultural differences in child-rearing practices and the consequence of such on prosocial behavior. -The researchers observed children between the ages of 3 and 11 years in six different countries (Kenya, the Philippines, Japan, India, Mexico, and the USA) during their daily interactions with other people. FINDINGS: -Children from Mexico and the Philippines generally acted more pro-socially than those from Japan, India, and the USA. -The most prosocial children were from the most traditional society, in rural Kenya. The most egoistic children came from the most complex modern society, the USA. -In the most prosocial cultures people tended to live together in extended families, the female role was important, and women's contribution to the family's economy was greater. In these cultures women delegated more responsibility to their children. In cultures such as the USA where children were paid to do household chores or don't participate at all, the same degree of prosocial behavior was not observed. EVALUATION: -The results suggest that the degree of modernization influences prosocial behavior. This was attributed to different child-rearing patterns and cultural dimensions such as individualism and collectivism. -According to the researchers the study also shows how different aspects of socioeconomic organization of a culture can promote or inhibit children's opportunities to acquire specific social behaviors. The findings also emphasize the importance of everyday practices in the promotion of concern for others. - - -

George Engel

Year - 1977 -Biopsychosocial Model of health and well-being. -Created in reaction to the biomedical model, which stated that health is the result of biological processes of the body. -States that people's health depends on a number of determinants including biological, psychological, and societal factors. (Further categories were added later on, such as spiritual factors.) EVALUATION: -Proven a convincing and successful model of explaining health and well-being. -The model is very holistic and inclusive in diverse perspectives. -The model provides a broader home that allows for at least some basic reconciliation between the two dominant conceptions psychiatrists have of mental illness: -The biological psychiatry view that mental disorders arises from faulty biology, and -The psychodynamic view that emphasizes the psychological dimensions of maladaptive patterns of thinking, feeling and acting and relating. -Boundaries between different determinants are unclear. -The model potentially justifies a morass of "anything goes" in medicine and health.

Brown and Kulik

Year - 1977 AIM: To investigate whether dramatic or personally significant events can cause flashbulb memories. PROCEDURE: Used retrospective questionnaires to access the memories of 40 black and 40 white American male participants with regards to the circumstances in which they learned of public events. If they could remember the event (JFK or MLK Jr. assassinations, etc.), they were asked to write about what they recalled. -Questions were based on how much of an impact the event had on the participant's life. -Participants were asked if they had flashbulb memories of personal events. FINDINGS: -Positive correlation between consequentiality of an event and flashbulb memory. -Participants said they had very clear memories of where they were, what they were doing, and how they felt. Participants recalled the JFK incident most vividly. -73/80 participants said they had flashbulb memories associated with a personal shock EVALUATION: -Potential mental harm from bringing back repressed memories -High possibility of demand characteristics.

Tajfel and Turner (Theory)

Year - 1979 -SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY -Framework for analyzing intergroup relationships. -Part of one's self-concept based on the knowledge of membership in social groups in combination with value and emotional significance attached to that membership. -Assumes that people strive to improve their self-image through trying to enhance their self-esteem based on either person identity or various social identities. -Step 1 (Social Categorization): The process by which we identify which groups we do and don't belong to. The groups one belongs to are called "in-groups" while those one does not belong to are called "out-groups." -Step 2 (Social Identification): Identify with the group and then adopt the identity of that group. Emotional attachment and self-esteem become attached to group membership. -Step 3 (Social Comparison): Justify group membership by positively comparing the in-group to an out-group on some valued dimension and favoring the traits of the in-group while seeking out negative aspects of the out-group.

Hofstede

Year - 1980 -Culture is defined as "the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others." -Six Cultural Dimensions: -Power/Distance: Degree of inequality that exists and is accepted among people with power and those without. In other words, how close people are to power. A high PD score means the power is unequal, while a low PD score means the power is shared. -Individualism: Degree to which people think about themselves as members of a larger group or as independent individuals. A high IDV score means the people of the culture think about themselves as individuals, while a low IDV score means they think about themselves as part of a larger group. -Masculinity: Degree to which a culture places value on traditional values and roles. A high MAS score means the culture is very traditional, while a low MAS score means the culture has a less rigid view of traditional roles. -Uncertainty Avoidance Index: Degree to which members of a culture feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. A high UAI score means the society is uncomfortable with uncertainty, while a low UAI score means the society is comfortable with it. -Long Term Orientation (added later): Degree to which people are concerned about the long term as opposed to the short term. A high LTO score means the people value the long term over the short term, while a low LTO score means the opposite. -Indulgence (added later): Degree to which people are allowed relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. A high IND score means this gratification is given, while a low IND score means this gratification is suppressed. EVALUATION: -There is an ecological fallacy in that two members of two cultures are not necessarily different and a member of a culture does not necessarily reflect it.

Meichenbaum

Year - 1980s -Stress inoculation training -Originally developed as a clinical treatment program to teach clients to cope with physical pain, anger, and phobic reactions. -Cognitive approach to treatment of stress with the aim of changing thought processes to combat the effects of stress. -Consists of three phases: -Initial Conceptualization: The therapist educates the patient about the general nature of stress, and explains important concepts such as appraisal and cognitive distortion that play a key role in shaping stress reactions. The idea that people often and quite inadvertently make their stress worse through the unconscious operation of bad coping habits is conveyed. Finally, the therapist works to develop a clear understanding of the nature of the stressors the patient is facing. The idea that stressors are creative opportunities and puzzles to be solved rather than mere obstacles is conveyed, and patients are helped to differentiate between aspects of their stressors and their stress-induced reactions that are changeable and aspects that cannot change, so that coping efforts can be adjusted accordingly. -Skill Acquisition and Rehearsal: Skills for coping (such as relaxation, self-regulation, and communication) which are specifically tailored for the patient's unique needs are offered and rehearsed. -Application and Follow-Through: A variety of simulation methods are used to help apply learned skills. These may include repetition of coping methods, visualization exercises, modeling, and roleplaying. EVALUATION: -Addresses the root cause of the problem - why the client is stressed - rather than just removing the symptoms of stress. -Does not have any undesirable side effects that might be encountered with drug treatments. -Requires a lot of time and money, whereas drugs work immediately. SIT could take weeks and months to follow the three stages and change a client's behavior.

Bouchard and McGue

Year - 1981 AIM: Determine the relationship of IQs between relatives. PROCEDURE: -A meta-analysis was conducted. -111 studies of intelligence correlations between siblings were reviewed. FINDINGS: -There is a positive correlation between kinship and IQ. -54% of IQ is genetically inherited. EVALUATION: -By synthesizing multiple studies, a weighted average could be gained, which is more precise and accurate. -The study was large and therefore generalizable. -Siblings may have been raised in the same environment, meaning it is difficult to differentiate between influence of genetics and environment.

Kanner et al

Year - 1981 AIM: Investigate whether it is daily hassles, rather than major life events that are the most stressful. PROCEDURE: -A 117-item hassles scale and a 135-uplifts scale to examine the relationship between hassles and health were created. -An opportunity sample of 100 American participants, including 52 women and 48 men, all white, well-educated and middle class, was taken. -The participants were asked to circle the events on both scales that they had experienced the previous month and rate each according to severity (for the hassles) and frequency (for the uplifts). -Daily hassles included crime, losing things, and physical appearance, while daily uplifts included good weather, job promotions, and getting enough sleep. FINDINGS: -The hassles scale tended to be a more accurate predictor of stress related problems, such as anxiety and depression, than the SRRS. -Uplifts had a positive effect on the stress levels of women, but not men. EVALUATION: -This study overlooks people's natural predispositions to stress. -The study is strong because it allows participants to rate the severity and frequency of hassles and uplifts, respectively. This prevents the study from assuming that all participants deal with stressors in the same fashion.

Toi and Batson

Year - 1982 AIM: Determine the effect of emotion on helping. PROCEDURE: -Participants were asked to help a girl named Carol who couldn't attend lectures. She had lost her legs and needed help with lecture notes. -Participants listened to an audio recording of Carol. -Two independent variables were tracked: -Empathy Level: Participants were either asked to imagine how Carol is feeling (high empathy) or asked to be objective and not concerned with how Carol felt (low empathy). -Cost Conditions: Either Carol would be in the class, and it would be embarrassing to deny her the lecture notes (high cost); or Carol would not be in the class, and it would not be as embarrassing to deny the lecture notes (low cost). FINDINGS: -The high empathy groups were equally likely to help in either condition. -The low empathy group was more likely to help Carol in the high cost condition. EVALUATION: - -

Kashima & Triandis

Year - 1986 AIM: Investigate the use of the Self-Serving Bias in Western and Eastern countries. PROCEDURE: -This was a laboratory experiment with an independent measures design and a single-blind technique. -An opportunity sample was collected of 34 Japanese graduate students and 202 American undergraduate students. -The participants were shown and asked to remember the details of fifteen slides pertaining to life in Iran, Israel, and Greece. -Participants were given a 5-minute recognition test based on the aforementioned slides. -Participants were shown 5 slides pertaining to life in India. -Participants were given a 3-minute recognition test based on the aforementioned slides. -Participants were randomly assigned to either a success or failure group. -Participants in the success group were told they scored 12/15 on the recognition tests while those in the failure group were told they scored 5/15 on the recognition tests. -Participants were given an attribution questionnaire pertaining to their performance on the recognition tests. FINDINGS: -American students tended to attribute their successes to ability or internal factors (demonstrating the use of self-serving bias). -Japanese students tended to attribute their failures to lack of ability or internal factors (demonstrating the use of modesty bias). -Both American and Japanese students responded similarly when given obvious situational information. EVALUATION: -There may be a confounding variable in group size, as the group of American group was about five times larger than the Japanese group. -The responses may be caused by Social Desirability Bias, as the participants gave answers they thought would be more acceptable. -The sample was only American, Japanese, and within a particular age group, so generalizability is called into question. -As the study was a laboratory experiment, there is strict control over variables and evidence of a cause-and-effect nature of the experiment. However, the environment was artificial.

Bauman et al.

Year - 1990 AIM: Study the relationship between smoking behavior in a parent and their child's exposure to cigarettes. PROCEDURE: -A survey of American 12-14-year-olds was conducted. FINDINGS: -80% of the sample whose parents didn't smoke had never tried a cigarette. -50% of the sample whose parents smoked had at least tried smoking. EVALUATION: -Studies in the UK achieved similar results. -Possibility for demand characteristics or lying. -Because the participants were not adults, it may be argued that they could not give informed consent.

Bouchard et al.

Year - 1990 (Minnesota Twin Study) AIM: Investigate the likelihood of the heritability of intelligence. PROCEDURE: -Cross-cultural, longitudinal study starting in 1979. -100 self-selected sets of twins (or triplets) reared apart were asked to complete about 50 hours of testing and interviews. -Mean age: 41 years old (at the beginning of the study) -Scores on these interviews and tests of identical twins reared apart were compared to those of identical twins raised together. FINDINGS: -About 70% of intelligence can be from genetic inheritance, while 30% may be from other factors. -Same person tested twice: 87% concordance -Identical twins reared together: 86% concordance -Identical twins reared apart: 76% concordance -Fraternal twins reared together: 55% concordance -Biological siblings reared together: 47% concordance -Ultimately, the correlation between IQ scores of the adopted twins and the biologically unrelated family members diminished to 0 by adulthood (no relationship). EVALUATION: -Factors other than genes could have been influencing the perceived rate of heritability. -It was acknowledged by the researcher that genes would likely have an indirect rather than a direct influence on heritability. -There was no adequate control to establish the frequency of contact between the twins prior to the study. -The findings from the sample make it difficult to generalize findings. -The experiment assumes that twins reared together experienced the same environment (Equal Environment Assumption). -The study is cross-cultural, so it is generalizable to other cultures. -Other studies completed elsewhere in the world indicated similar findings about heritability.

Batson

Year - 1991 -EMPATHY-ALTRUISM HYPOTHESIS -Explains helping behaviors as resulting from feelings of empathy and compassion toward others, which arouse an altruistic motivation directed toward the ultimate goal of improving another person's welfare. -There are two kinds of emotions at play in viewing suffering: -Personal Distress: Feelings of anxiety and fear related to egotistic helping. -Empathetic Concern: Feelings of sympathy, compassion, empathy, and tenderness related to true altruism. -States that those feeling high levels of empathy for a person in need will be more likely to help than will those feeling less empathy. -While a number of studies support the hypothesis, a number of egoistic alternative explanations have been proposed to explain these findings. For example, those feeling high levels of empathy may feel more distress and, consequently, may be more likely to help because they are egoistically motivated to reduce their own distress. Another possibility is that those feeling high levels of empathy are more likely to help because they are more egoistically motivated to avoid feeling bad about themselves or looking bad in the eyes of others should they fail to help. Similarly, those feeling high levels of empathy may be more likely to help because they are more egoistically motivated to feel good about themselves or to look good in the eyes of others should they help. -

Rusbult et al. (Theory)

Year - 1991 -INVESTMENT MODEL OF COMMUNICATION PROCESSES -One of the most influential theoretical frameworks in the area of close relationships. -Explains how committed partners maintain and promote their relationships by adapting personals motives in order to get along with partners. -There are four ways one responds to a negative behavior in a close relationship: -Exit: When one actively destroys the relationship. This is when one moves out, actively abuses a partner, gets a divorce, threatens to leave, or screams at their partner. -Voice: When one actively and constructively attempts to improve conditions. This is when one discusses problems, seeks help from a friend, suggests solutions, or changes their own behavior. -Loyalty: When one passively but optimistically waits for conditions to improve. This is when one supports their partner in spite of it all and hopes/prays for improvement. -Neglect: When one passively allows the relationship to deteriorate. This is when one ignores their partner or spends less time with them, avoids discussing problems, treats the partner poorly, criticizes the partner for things unrelated to the problem, or does nothing to improve the relationship. -Couples in distress, couples in danger of ending their relationship, exhibit more negative problem-solving strategies, spend less time together, demonstrate negative nonverbal behaviors, and express more hostility, criticism, and rejection. -Accommodation is when one adopts constructive approaches to negative behavior. -There are several determinants as to whether one is more likely to accommodate or use destructive behavior. -Those who truly appreciate their relationship and enjoy greater rewards and fewer costs are happier in their relationships. They tend to use more constructive strategies. -People who have strong feelings of commitment - because they have invested a lot, have poor alternatives, or have strong cultural reasons for needing to be in a relationship - feel more induced to act in a way to promote the longevity of the relationship, and tend to use constructive strategies. -People who are less empathetic and don't understand how the partner feels about a problem are more likely to use destructive strategies. -People who are cognitively rigid and unable to see an issue from another person's point of view tend to use more destructive strategies. -Past experience in relationships only plays a role in one's accommodation patterns. -Attachment styles may also play a role.

Dahlgren and Whitehead

Year - 1991 -Policy Rainbow -Health and well-being of individuals and populations across all age groups is influenced by a range of factors both within and outside the individual's control. -Individuals are placed at the centre, and surrounding them are the various layers of influences on health, such as individual lifestyle factors, community influences, living and working conditions, and more general social conditions. -Fixed core non-modifiable factors: Age, sex, genetics, etc. ... -The potentially modifiable factors are represented as a series of layers of influence. EVALUATION: -The model has been useful in providing a framework for raising questions about the size of the contribution of each of the layers to health, the feasibility of changing specific factors and the complementary action that would be required to influence linked factors in other layers.

Rusbult et al. (Study)

Year - 1991 AIM: Determine if and how one's level of commitment affected their patterns of accommodation. PROCEDURE: -Participants consisted of 144 American undergraduates (71 men and 73 women). -All participants were taking an introductory psychology course. -The average age was 19.49 years and the sample was predominantly Caucasian. -All participants had experiences in close relationships and 93% reported that they were currently or previously in a close dating relationship. -The participants read essays describing situations in which one person behaved inconsiderately toward the protagonist of a story. Participants were asked to place themselves in the position of the protagonist and answered questions about their probable reactions. -There were 20 different essays, each of which manipulated the level of interdependence between Person X and the protagonist. The four levels of interdependence were operationalized as follows: -Acquaintance condition. -Casual dates: The two have been out on a few dates. Nothing serious. -Regular Dates: The two have been dating for several months and may be getting serious. -Seriously involved: The two are engaged or married. -Participants were given three of the essays and asked to answer 12 questions concerning their likelihood of responding in a strategy of exit, voice, loyalty, or neglect. For example, "I'd be a good sport, smile, and just live with it" (Loyalty). The participants indicated their likelihood of responding in a certain fashion on a 0-8 scale with 0 being "not likely at all" and 8 being "extremely likely." FINDINGS: -As the level of interdependence increased, so did the likelihood of constructive accommodation. -Women were more likely to accommodate than men. EVALUATION: -Because the situations are given through stories (hypothetical), participant reactions may be skewed due to: -Exaggerating the story in one's mind. -Being unable to connect with the character. -Poorly predicting their own behavior. -Participants may have guessed the purpose of the study or stereotyped the characters and responded accordingly. -The study is not naturalistic and therefore may have low validity. -the sample is not representative of the larger population (only 20(ish)-year-old undergraduate psychology students) and does not represent people with long-term, committed relationships.

McMasters and Lee

Year - 1991 AIM: Examine the knowledge and beliefs about smoking of smokers, nonsmokers, and ex-smokers in relation to the cognitive dissonance theory. PROCEDURE: -186 Australian respondents (self-identified smokers, nonsmokers, and ex-smokers) completed a questionnaire which assessed their smoking habits, concerns regarding their smoking habits, knowledge of the effects of smoking, beliefs about smoking, and estimates of the risk of lung cancer with regards to themselves and the average Australian smoker. FINDINGS: -Smokers estimated their risk of contracting lung cancer as greater than the risk non- or ex-smokers estimated for themselves, but less than they estimated the risk for the average Australian smoker to be. -No differences were found in the factual knowledge about the effects of smoking, but smokers endorsed significantly more rationalizations and distortions. EVALUATION: -The study supports the concept of cognitive dissonance. However, little evidence was found that the participants were making rationalizations because of anxiety, and therefore the theory is not fully supported (though it isn't rejected either). -There is a possibility for demand characteristics because of the study's nature as a questionnaire.

Martinez and Kesner

Year - 1991 AIM: To investigate the role of acetylcholine in memory formation. PROCEDURE: -Invasive manipulation study -Rats were trained to go through a maze and get to the end, where they were given food. -Rats were divided into three groups: -Group 1: Received an injection with scopolamine, which blocks acetylcholine receptor sites. -Group 2: Received an injection with physostigmine, which blocks the production of cholinesterase (which cleans up acetylcholine from the synapses). -Group 3: Did not receive an injection. -The rats were then placed back in the maze. FINDINGS: -Group 1 had problems finding their way through the maze and made more mistakes. -Group 2 ran quickly through the maze and made few mistakes. The group was quicker than the control group. EVALUATION: -Because it is a laboratory experiment, a cause-and-effect relationship can be assumed between acetylcholine levels and memory. -The neurobiology of memory is very complex and therefore the results may be an oversimplification of the memory-storing and retrieval process. -To what extent the results gained could be generalized to humans is questionable. This study also assumes that memory processes are the same for all animals. -Animals are under significant stress in lab conditions, creating an issue with ecological validity.

French and Richards

Year - 1993 AIM: To investigate the influence of schema on memory retrieval. PROCEDURE: -Three conditions: -Group 1: Participants were shown a clock with Roman numerals and asked to draw from memory. -Group 2: The same as group 1, but the participants were told beforehand they would have to draw the clock from memory. -Group 3: The clock was in full view of the participants and the participants just had to draw it. -The clock shown used IIII instead of the conventional IV. FINDINGS: -In the first two conditions, the participants used "IV," whereas in the third condition the participants used "IIII." EVALUATION: -The study is strong because it featured strict control over variables to determine a cause-and-effect relationship. -Lacks ecological validity in that the environment was artificial and the task didn't reflect a daily activity.

Loftus and Pickrell

Year - 1995 AIM: Determine if false memories can be implanted in people's minds. PROCEDURE: -Participants: 3 males and 21 females ranging from 18 to 53, recruited by the University of Washington -Participants brought a relative with them who knew about their childhood experiences. -Participants thought they were participating in a study of the kinds of things one may be able to remember from their childhood. -Interviews were conducted with the relatives, and three events that happened to the participants between 4 and 6 were gathered. -Participants were mailed a booklet containing a brief description of four events that supposedly occurred while the participants were with a close relative. The false event was always getting lost - this was always the third event: -Lost in a mall or large department store for an extended time, crying, aided by an elderly woman, reunited with family. -Participants wrote about what they remembered about each individual event, if anything -Following completion of the booklet, two interviews were conducted - About two weeks after the booklet and two weeks after that -Researcher read a retrieval clue and the participant verbally described as much of the memory as they could, then rated the clarity of the memory from 1-10 FINDINGS: -68% of true events were remembered (49/72) -25% of participants remembered the false event to some extent. EVALUATION: -Participants may have experienced something similar, which could have been repressed (mental harm) -Not all variables were controlled.

Dabbs et al.

Year - 1995 AIM: Determine if testosterone is related to the types of violent crimes males commit. PROCEDURE: -Volunteer sample of 692 male prisoners from Georgia. The mean age was 19.8 years. -A third of the sample was Caucasian and two-thirds were African American. -Testosterone was measured through the saliva of the prisoners. -The criminal records of the prisoners were looked at for violent and nonviolent crimes. FINDINGS: -Testosterone levels seemed to predict violent crimes like homicide and rape. -Inmates who committed violent crimes (involving sex and violence) had higher testosterone levels than those who had committed property crimes (burglary and theft). -Inmates who violated more rules in prison (especially through overt confrontation) also had higher testosterone levels. EVALUATION: -As a field study, this proves correlation but not causation. -Violence is subjective and there is no evidence of operationalization. -Sampling bias: the study does not generalize to women. -The study does not mention environmental effects, such as upbringing. -The study has the advantage of a huge sample size. -There is a confounding variable in motivation for committing crimes: senseless violence or acts of vengeance. Testosterone levels may differ between the two.

McGaugh & Cahill (1995)

Year - 1995 AIM: Study the role of the amygdala and emotion on the creation of memory. PROCEDURE: -Participants were divided into two groups: -Group 1: Saw a 12-slide story about a mother and son who visited the father at the hospital and saw the staff in a disaster preparation drill. -Group 2: Saw a 12-slide story about a boy who was involved in a car accident and who had to get his feet reattached. -Participants came back after 2 weeks to recall specific details from stories in a recognition task that consisted of series of questions with three options each. -A follow-up study was conducted where some participants in the second group were injected with the beta-blocked propanolol, which interferes with the release of the adrenaline to prevent the activation of the amygdala. FINDINGS: -The first experiment found that the participants in the second group recalled more details than those in the first group. -The follow-up experiment found that participants in the second group did no better than those in the first group. (-These results led the researchers to the conclusion that the amygdala plays a key role in the creation of memories linked to emotional arousal. This conclusion was then applied to treatment of PTSD patients.) EVALUATION: -There is a potential for mental harm in that the slides could have provoked repressed memories of something similar occurring to the participants.

Truth Campaign

Year - 1998 AIM: Prevent teenage smoking by changing the attitudes of teenagers and encouraging them to form groups to spread the message in the community. PROCEDURE: -Rather than spreading facts about smoking, the campaign focused on teens confronting the tobacco industry and accusing them of manipulating young people to encourage them to smoke. -Created a teen-focused nonsmoking counter tobacco brand called TRUTH. -Teen-focused campaign implemented in which teens talk to other teens in their own voice. This is to avoid the feeling that they are being talked down to. -Highlighted the actions of the tobacco industry marketing cigarettes including its failure to be truthful about the addictiveness and adverse health effects. FINDINGS: -The Florida Youth Tobacco Survey found that the number of middle and high school teenagers defined as "current smokers" went down by 19.4% and 8%, respectively. -Resulted in more than 590 million "impressions" (the number of times a person is reached by 1 or more messages) in the first year. Confirmed awareness of the media campaign (ability to describe a media message) among youth aged 12 to 17 years reached 92% in May 1999. EVALUATION: -Similar studies in other states returned similar results, suggesting causation.

Newcomer et al.

Year - 1999 AIM: Determine if cortisol affects cognitive functions such as learning and memory. PROCEDURE: -A self-selected sample (recruited through advertisement) of 51 normal and healthy people aged 18-30 was used. It was a randomized, controlled, double-blind experiment running for four days. All participants gave informed consent. -Participants were separated into three groups: -Group 1: High level of cortisol in ingested tablet (160 mg) per day for four days -Group 2: Low level of cortisol in ingested tablet (40 mg) per day for four days -Group 3: Placebo tablet for four days -Participants were told to listen to and recall parts of a prose paragraph. This tested verbal declarative memory. FINDINGS: -Those who received the highest dosage showed the worst performance (-Performance returned to normal after the participants stopped taking the tablets) EVALUATION: -Potential for physical harm from tablets given. -Levels of cortisol decreased after the participants stopped taking the tablets.

Reed et al.

Year - 1999(?) AIM: Determine the effects of positive and negative appraisals on the quality of life and life expectancy of HIV-positive males. PROCEDURE: -Sample of 72 HIV-positive males from 18-50 with a mean age of 32. -"72 [gay] men were selected who had been HIV-positive and asymptomatic from study entry (approximately 3 years). Participants were followed for an additional 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 years after psychosocial assessment, with symptom status assessed every 6 months." -Longitudinal study -Through interviews and questionnaires, various aspects of being HIV-positive were assessed, such as psychosocial aspects (emotional response to the progression of the disease, attitudes about the risk of AIDS), behavioral practices (use of medication or drugs, sexual activity), and depression. FINDINGS: -HIV-positive men who had more pessimistic expectations developed HIV-related symptoms quicker and died of AIDS sooner. EVALUATION: -There is a possibility of the presence of demand characteristics. ...

Maguire et al.

Year - 2000 AIM: Examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brains of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation. PROCEDURE: -Structural MRI scans were obtained for 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers; all had been driving for more than 1.5 years, and 50 healthy right-handed males who did not drive taxis for comparison. -The mean age was the same for the two groups. FINDINGS: -Increased grey matter was found in the brains of taxi drivers compared with controls in two brain regions, the right and left hippocampi. The increased volume was found in the posterior hippocampus. -A correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in the right posterior hippocampus. EVALUATION: -The possibility that the hippocampus volume was what caused the navigational ability (rather than vice versa) was tested directly by examining a correlation between hippocampal volume and the amount of time spent as a taxi driver. Right posterior hippocampal volume positively correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and therefore suggests that changes in hippocampal volume are acquired rather than inherent. -The sample didn't include women or left-handed people, and therefore the results can't be generalized.

Savic et al.

Year - 2001 AIM: Determine if human pheromones exist, and, if they do, how they affect the brain. PROCEDURE: -Researchers exposed participants (24 men and women) to the smell of two chemicals, almost identical to the hormones testosterone and estrogen -As participants smelled the chemicals, their brains were scanned using a PET machine FINDINGS: -The hypothalamus activated for men only when they smelled the female hormone, and vice versa. (The hypothalamus is linked to sexual behavior, and is not normally activated by ordinary smells). -In a later study, Savic found that homosexual men were tested, and their hypothalami were activated only when they smelled the male hormone. EVALUATION: -There are many alternative explanations to pheromones. Smell-activated memories and associated emotions may be the real cause of the results. -The experiment was well-controlled. -The number of participants was decidedly small, which is not enough participants to definitively prove anything.

Charlton et al.

Year - 2002 AIM: Investigate whether children in St. Helena would exhibit more aggressive behavior after the introduction of television to the island in 1995. PROCEDURE: -Natural experiment. -Television was introduced to St. Helena Island in 1995. -The level of aggression on the television matched what children in the UK were exposed to. -Children (aged three to eight years) were observed before and after the introduction of television through cameras set up in the playgrounds of two primary schools on the island. -Interviews with teachers, parents, and some of the older children were conducted. FINDINGS: -After 5 years, aggressive and antisocial behavior in children did not increase. -Good behavior evident prior to the introduction of TV were maintained. -The study suggests that without the correct and complete SLT process, Social Learning cannot be achieved. EVALUATION: -Parents and teachers said that antisocial behavior was not accepted on the island and that there was a high degree of social control in the community. This suggests that the behavior may have been maintained in spite of the televisions due to the strict control. -The study is high in ecological ability. -This study brings the results of Bandura, Ross and Ross into question. -Aggression levels are difficult to measure precisely. -There is a question of ethics as the children were watched by hidden cameras.

Winzelberg et al.

Year - 2003 AIM: Determine the effectiveness of web-based social support groups on stress reduction. PROCEDURE: -72 women supposedly diagnosed with breast cancer were recruited through PSAs by radios, newspapers, and flyers. -The participants completed online baseline tests which measured stress and personal well-being. -36 of the participants were allocated to an intermediate intervention group, "Bosom Buddies," while the other 36 were allocated to a Wait List Control group that received no social support. -Bosom Buddies was a 12-week semistructured web-based support group that introduced a new topic related to breast cancer every week. -Intervention group participants were encouraged to express openly and honestly their thoughts and emotions, receive and offer support, and learn new ways to cope with cancer. FINDINGS: -Members of Bosom Buddies logged on on average three times a week and posted on average three messages a week. -Members of Bosom Buddies showed reduced scores of depression, perceived stress, and cancer-related traumas. -The Wait List Control Group showed little to no change. EVALUATION: -Deception was used on the Wait List Control group in that they were told they would be able to enter the Bosom Buddies group in time. -There was potential for mental harm for participants in the Wait List Control group. -The confirmation of the cancer diagnoses were not confirmed by reviews of the medical records.

Dilger Et. Al.

Year - 2003 AIM: Investigate blood oxygen level-dependent brain activation in arachnophobic and non-arachnophobic people. PROCEDURE: -A sample of ten female arachnophobic participants and ten non-arachnophobic female participants were taken. The average age of the former was 25 while the latter was 21.3. -The arachnophobic participants were diagnosed as such prior to the experiment if they obtained high scores on an SPQ (Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire) and met the criteria of the diagnostic and statistic manual of mental disorders for arachnophobia. -While being scanned by an fMRI machine, the participants were exposed to a series of images that were phobia-relevant, potentially fear relevant, and neutral. Examples of each are spiders, snakes, and mushrooms, respectively. -The 56 images of each category were comparable spatially and in background color. They were all presented in a pseudo-random order via a back projection screen on an overhead mirror for one second each, with a variable inter-stimulus interval of 2.27-10.54 seconds between succeeding stimuli. FINDINGS: -Analysis showed there to be specific activation of the amygdala when phobic subjects were exposed to phobia-related stimuli. -In arachnophobes, the within-group linear contrasts Spider > Mushroom as well as Spider > Snake revealed activation of the left amygdala. -In the controls tests, the same contrasts failed to show any specific amygdala activation. -These results were confirmed by contrasting the same stimulus categories between phobics and controls. EVALUATION: -The participants are all young females, resulting in gender and age bias. -The diagnosis was done by questionnaire, meaning participants could have lied. -The study suggests that the participants were largely diagnosed with arachnophobia based on their SPQ scores. However, the SPQ only suggests that a participant may have schizotypal personality disorders, and should probably not be used as a primary basis for diagnosing participants. -One second may be too short a time to view images.

Curtis et al.

Year - 2004 AIM: Determine if disgust is an adaption that serves to prevent disease. PROCEDURE: -Web-based survey completed by over 77,000 people from 165 countries. -Participants were told to rate 20 photographs for disgust on a scale of 1-5. Some of the photographs depicted a disease-salient stimulus and some matched to be as similar as possible but without disease relevance. -A final question asked with whom the participant would least like to share a toothbrush. FINDINGS: -All seven of the disease-salient images were rated as more disgusting by females than by males. -Disgust decreased steadily with age. -The postman was the most common response to the final question. EVALUATION: -The study was large-scale and cross-cultural, and unlikely responses were excluded. This made the data robust and makes it decently reliable. -Potential for demand characteristics. -75% of the participants were between 16 and 65, with only 10% over 65 years old. This means the age range shown on the graph is misleading. -The sample is skewed toward those who have a computer and those who answer surveys of this kind. -78% of respondents were from Europe, and the majority of those were from the UK, meaning the research wasn't as cross-cultural as it should be.

Odden and Rochat

Year - 2004 AIM: Study the role of observational learning (based on Social Cognitive Theory) in enculturation in Samoa. PROCEDURE: -Observational longitudinal study (lasting 25 months) of 28 children in one Samoan village. -As is the case in Samoan culture, adults have a non-interventionist approach to their children, believing that the children can learn important skills and values on their own. -Observations were made of the children's behavior over the 25 months, and at the end of the study, the children completed a multiple-choice test that tested their knowledge of the values of Samoan society, including the chief system. FINDINGS: -The children were not taught how to fish, but by 12 they had learned to fish capably. -Most children had a basic understanding of the concepts, rites, and rituals of their society, including the chief system, despite not having been explicitly taught them. EVALUATION: -The study only involved participants from one Samoan village, so it is not certain that observational learning plays such a significant role in other cultures -The longitudinal nature of the study allowed researchers to watch children acquire the skills over time. -Due to a lack of standardization, there is a possibility for researcher bias.

Fessler et al.

Year - 2005 AIM: Determine if disgust sensitivity in the first trimester of pregnancy is elevated as predicted. PROCEDURE: -Web-based survey completed by 691 women in different trimesters of pregnancy. -Participants were asked to rate their current level of nausea using a 16-point scale and answered questions to test their disgust sensitivity in 8 different areas (e.g. food, contact with animals, body products, and dead animals; hygiene; contact with toilets). FINDINGS: -Overall, disgust sensitivity related to food and body products in women in the first trimester was higher compared to those in the second and third trimesters. -Disgust was particularly elevated in relation to food, which was exactly what the researchers had predicted. -The results may indicate that nausea and vomiting are evolved behavior because they limit the likelihood that pregnant women will eat dangerous food. EVALUATION: -The data was collected through questionnaires, and self-reports may not be reliable. This is not an effective way of measuring disgust. It would have been more reliable to confront participants with real disgust-eliciting objects. -The effect sizes were not big but significant. The findings are supported by other studies (e.g. Curtis et al. 2004) showing that images that threaten the immune system are judged as more disgusting.

Fischer, Aron, and Brown

Year - 2005 AIM: Determine if love is an emotion or a motivation system (caused by dopamine release) which leads to emotion. PROCEDURE: -Volunteer sample of average-aged people who were "in love". -Semi-structured interviews to determine duration, intensity, and nature of love. -"Passionate Love Scale" was created. -fMRI scans were conducted where the participants were shown a photo of their beloved for 30 seconds, with a 40-second distraction task. This was repeated with a photo of an acquaintance and a 20-second distraction task. -Follow-up interviews were conducted. FINDINGS: -Different parts of the brain were activated when the participants looked at photos of their beloveds versus their acquaintances. For beloveds, the right ventral tegmental area was activated (this area is dopamine-rich). EVALUATION: -What different participants consider being "in love" to be may be different -Not ecologically valid

Chen et al.

Year - 2005 AIM: Investigate the effect of western influence on eastern participants in the area of immediate consumption. PROCEDURE: -Experimental study -147 Singaporean American bicultural participants were selectively chosen. -The participants were separated into two groups: -Group 1: Shown a collage of photos related to Singaporean culture. -Group 2: Shown a collage of photos related to American culture. -All participants performed in an online shopping scenario to purchase a novel, with two purchasing options: -Next-day delivery for an extra fee - Shows STO -Standard delivery (4 business days) - Shows LTO FINDINGS: -More participants who viewed the collage of American culture photos chose to have the book delivered in one day than those who saw the other collage. EVALUATION: -Low ecological validity -Potential for demand characteristics -Because the participants were using another person's money to buy the novel in the simulation, they may have chosen a different delivery option because the money spent doesn't affect them but the delivery time does.

DiFranza et al.

Year - 2006 AIM: Investigate the relationship between attitudes towards smoking and smoking habits. PROCEDURE: -The design was longitudinal and used questionnaires and interviews for data collection. -In Massachusetts, 217 adolescents (with a mean age of 12) answered questionnaires on their smoking history, social environment (such as family and peers) and beliefs and attitudes towards smoking. All participants reported having smoked a cigarette at least once. Furthermore, eleven of the participants were interviewed. Tobacco dependence was assessed based on reported cravings and inability to quit. FINDINGS: -Of the adolescents who recalled a relaxation effect after their first inhale, 67% became dependent as opposed to 29% of those who did not experience such an effect. -Of the participants who experienced the relaxation effect, 91% reported that it was not possible for them to quit smoking even though they wanted to and 60% said they felt they had lost control. EVALUATION: -There is a possibility of demand characteristics as well as potential for cognitive dissonance. ...

Atler & Oppenheimer

Year - 2007 AIM: Investigate how font affects thinking. PROCEDURE: -40 Princeton students completed a Cognitive Reflections Test (CRT). -The test was made up of 3 questions, and measured whether people used fast thinking to answer the question (and got it wrong) or used slower thinking (and got it right). -Half the students were given the CRT in an easy-to-read font, while the other two were given it in a difficult-to-read font. FINDINGS: -Among students given the CRT in an easy font, 10% answered all three questions correctly, whereas among students given the CRT in a difficult font, 65% were fully correct. -The more difficult font caused participants to slow down and engage in more deliberate, effortful System 2 thinking, resulting in answering the question correctly. -When the questions were given in an easier font, participants used quick, unconscious, and automatic System 1 thinking to come up with the obvious though incorrect answer. EVALUATION: -Provides strong evidence for dual processing theory. -Only involved Princeton undergraduate students, a sample which is not representative of the general population. -The CRT was made up of "trick" questions, which rarely come up in everyday life. Therefore, the ecological validity of the study is low.

Markey and Markey

Year - 2007 AIM: Investigate the role of similarity in choosing a romantic partner PROCEDURE: -A self-selected sample of 103 females and 66 male undergraduate students who were single but interested in finding a romantic partner (mean age 19.01) were recruited through advertisements. -Participants were all undergraduate students who were single, but interested in finding a romantic partner. -Participants first completed a questionnaire where they rated their own personality, and then described the personality of their romantic ideal. -Filler questionnaires were also completed to disguise the true purpose of the study in order to reduce demand characteristics. FINDINGS: -All participants wanted a romantic partner similar to themselves. -A follow-up study with a new sample found that romantic couples who experienced high levels of love and harmony were more likely to consist of one individual who was dominant and one who was submissive. This indicates that complementarity on certain personality factors could affect harmony positively. EVALUATION: -Morry believes that we are first attracted to someone, then we see them as more similar. Therefore, there is a concern of bidirectional ambiguity, where it is not known and cannot necessarily be established which variable comes first in a relationship. It is possible that it could be both. This could affect the findings of this study. -Because this study featured a questionnaire, there is potential for participant bias. -The concept of people looking for people who are similar may not apply to all attributes. While someone who is sociable may want a partner who is the same way, there may be attributes that an individual does not want in their partner but that they themselves have. -The sample consisted of young Americans, so it is not possible to generalize to other populations.

Tali Sharot et al.

Year - 2007 AIM: Investigate upon the existence of flashbulb memories. PROCEDURE: -24 witnesses of the 9/11 incident were found from different locations in Manhattan as subjects -Subjects were placed in an fMRI machine -Subjects were asked to recall 9/11 -Subjects were asked to recall their summer holiday (for control purposes) FINDINGS: -People closer to where the event happened had a more in-depth recall of it -The level of detail for the 9/11 incident was higher than that for the summer holiday -The parahippocampal gyrus (responsible for LTM retrieval) was relatively inactive when recalling 9/11 as compared to recalling the summer holiday. -The amygdala was relatively more active when recalling 9/11 EVALUATION: -High possibility of demand characteristics -There is a chance the retrieving the memory of 9/11 caused mental harm. -The amygdala responding could be from depression associated with the memory.

Harris and Fiske

Year - 2007 (a larger replica of a study done by them the year before) AIM: Find the biological correlates of stereotypes and prejudice. PROCEDURE: -18 undergraduates from Princeton University participated in the study. Participants were right-handed and reported no abnormal neurological condition, head trauma or brain lesions. All participants had normal or corrected vision and provided informed consent. The mean age was 20, with 10 women and seven ethnic minorities (four Asian, two Black, and one Hispanic). -Inside the scanner, participants saw the photographs of the social group members in a series of 8 runs of 16 photographs each in a slow event-related design. Participants were prompted with the cue 'Over 35?' or 'Likes Veggie?' for the age and vegetable tasks, respectively, before seeing the line drawing of a vegetable for 1 second followed by a picture of either a NS social group member or SE social group member for 2 seconds. An 11-second fixation cross (colored red if they were doing the age task or green if they were doing the vegetable task) separated each pair of vegetable and social group member. After eight such pairs, a task switch was signaled by a cue, and the participant performed the second task for another 8 pairs. FINDINGS: -The medial prefrontal cortex was active when participants looked at people but not when they looked at objects. -The medial prefrontal cortex was not active when the participants looked at extreme out-groups such as homeless people and drug addicts. However, regions related to disgust (the amygdala and the insula) were activated. EVALUATION: -The results are correlational so it isn't possible to establish cause-and-effect relationships. -The focus of the study is on localized functions in the brain and doesn't take into account the distributed nature of processing in neural networks.

Hartfiel et al.

Year - 2008 AIM: Examined the effectiveness of yoga in enhancing emotional well-being and resilience to stress among university employees. PROCEDURE: -48 employees at a British university were randomly organized into either a yoga or wait-list control group, with 24 participants in each. -The yoga group was offered six weeks of Dru Yoga, comprising one 60-minute class per week. -The wait-list control group received no intervention during the study. -Baseline and end-program measurements of self-reported mood and well-being were self-assessed (with the Profile of Mood States - Bipolar (POMS-Bi) and the Inventory of Positive Psychological Attitudes (IPPA)). FINDINGS: -The six-week yoga intervention resulted in significantly improved POMS-Bi and IPPA scores for the yoga compared to the wait-list control group for seven of eight measures of mood and well-being. -In comparison to the wait-list control group at baseline and the end of the program, the yoga group reported marked improvements in feelings of clear-mindedness, composure, elation, energy, and confidence. -In addition, the yoga group reported increased life purpose and satisfaction, and feelings of greater self-confidence during stressful situations. EVALUATION: -The study cannot be generalized as it occurred only upon British employees of a university. Their stressors may differ from the stressors of other people. -The sample is rather small considering the wide expanse of experiences people can have which might cause stress.

Lueck and Wilson

Year - 2010 AIM: Investigate the factors that can affect acculturation stress. PROCEDURE: -Sample consisting of around 2000 Asian-Americans, half of which were born in Asia and immigrated to America and half of which were born to immigrants, was taken. -A variety of Asian cultures were represented (Chinese, Vietnamese, etc.) -Participants were interviewed about their acculturation experiences. The interviews were semi-structured and the interviewers had a similar cultural background to the participants and could speak their native language. FINDINGS: -70% of participants reported feelings of acculturation stress. -Fully-bilingual participants had the lowest rates of acculturation stress. -Experiences of discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping significantly increased acculturation stress. -Participants who shared similar values with their family had lower accumulation stress. -Participants who were satisfied with their economic opportunities had lower acculturation stress. EVALUATION: -Potential for demand characteristics -Potential for mental harm in that participants sometimes talked about stereotyping and discrimination. -It may be difficult to translate questions reliably from one language to another, and people from different cultures may interpret the questions differently.

Cahill et al.

Year - 2013 Nicotine Replacement Therapy: -Reduces withdrawal feelings by giving one a small controlled amount of nicotine but none of the other dangerous chemicals found in cigarettes. -This small dose of nicotine helps satisfy cravings for nicotine and reduces the urge to smoke. AIM: Determine the effectiveness of Nicotine Replacement Therapy. PROCEDURE: -A meta-analysis was conducted of reviews of different NRT treatments. The reviews were conducted between 2008 and 2012, and analyzed 267 trials, covering over 101,000 smokers. -All the reviews used randomized controlled trials and compared the active treatment with a placebo (and at times other treatments). FINDINGS: -NRT and bupropion helped about 80% more people to quit than a placebo. -Varenicline more than doubled the chances of quitting when compared with the placebo. -Varenicline helped about 50% more people to quit than nicotine patches and "other" NRTs (tablets, sprays, lozenges, and inhalants), and about 70% more people than nicotine gum. -Combining two types of NRT was as effective as using varenicline. EVALUATION: -The study is very reliable in that it is a large-scale meta-analysis.

Ogihara & Ichida (Study 2)

Year - 2014 AIM: ... PROCEDURE: -the sample consisted of thirty-four women who worked for a large insurance company in Japan participated in the study. -In this insurance company, performances, and achievement-oriented goals are explicitly displayed on the wall (e.g., how many contracts each individual secured in the past 1 month); such displays are perceived as competitive. -Participants answered the same questionnaire used in Study 1; all scales had satisfactory internal consistency. FINDINGS: -An individualistic orientation was negatively associated with both SWB and the number of close friends. -Although the number of close friends positively predicted SWB, when the effect of individualistic orientation was controlled, the effect of close friends on SWB became weak. -An individualistic orientation was negatively associated with the number of close friends and SWB even for women working in an individualistic-oriented workplace. -One explanation for the lack of relationships between the number of close friends and SWB might lie in the sample; specifically, for the women working in an individualistic-oriented workplace, the achievement of individualistic goals required in the workplace may be more important to SWB than positive relationships with others. -The result suggested, however, that even in an achievement-oriented environment in Japan, achievement-oriented individuals feel lower SWB and have fewer close friends. Thus, it is indicated that Japanese with individualistic orientations have fewer close friends and feel lower SWB. EVALUATION: ...

Ogihara & Ichida (Study 1)

Year - 2014 AIM: Determine the effect of individualism on individuals' self-worth. PROCEDURE: -114 undergraduate students from Kyoto University in Japan (62 male, 52 female, mean age 19.5) and 62 undergraduate students in Wisconsin (29 male, 33 female, mean age 19.3) were used for the study. -A factor analysis of a revised version of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (which assessed 11 domains of self-worth including academic competence and relationship harmony) was conducted to determine which factors related to individualist and collectivist orientations. From this, 9 of the 11 domains were found to fit at least one of the two. Participants reported the degree to which each statement applied to them on a scale from 1 to 7. -SWB (Subjective Well-Being) was measured using: -The Satisfaction With Life Scale, to measure life satisfaction. This was done on a 7-point scale. -The Interdependent Happiness Scale, to measure individual differences in interdependent happiness gained by maintaining harmony with significant others. This was done on a 7-point scale. -Positive and negative affect scales. Positive affect was measured with 11 items (e.g., happy, satisfied) and negative affect was measured with 15 items (e.g., depressed, sad). This was done on a 5-point scale measuring how frequently each subject experienced these affective states. -A somatic symptoms scale, measuring 11 symptoms including headache and stiff joints. This was done on a 5-point scale measuring how frequently each subject experienced these symptoms. -Number of close friends was measured using sociograms (a graphic representation of social links that a person has. It is a graph drawing that plots the structure of interpersonal relations in a group situation). Participants were asked to draw circles representing themselves and their friends on a paper and to connect related persons with lines within 10 minutes. After this was done, they were asked to identify the friends with whom they feel comfortable. FINDINGS: -The individualistic orientation score was significantly higher for the U.S. participants than for Japanese participants. However, the collectivistic orientation score was not significantly different across cultures -In Japan, an individualistic orientation negatively affected SWB, whereas a collectivistic orientation did not affect SWB. In contrast, in the U.S., a collectivistic orientation negatively affected SWB, and an individualistic orientation did not affect SWB. -In Japan, an individualistic orientation was associated with fewer close friends. Moreover, the number of close friends positively predicted SWB, even after orientation was controlled. Therefore, in Japan the number of close friends mediated the effect of an individualistic orientation on SWB. Such a relationship was not found in the U.S. EVALUATION: ...

Rosser et. al.

Year: 2007 Laparoscopy: A surgical diagnostic procedure used to examine the organs inside the abdomen. It's a low-risk, minimally invasive procedure that requires only small incisions. AIM: Investigate the relationship between video game playing and visuospatial skills. More specifically, determine if there is a link between video game play and laparoscopic surgical skill and suturing. PROCEDURE: -33 residents and attending physicians participating in the Rosser Top Gun Laparoscopic Skills and Suturing Program (shortened to Top Gun). from May 10 to August 24, 2002. -Cross-sectional analysis of the performance of surgical residents and attending physicians participating in the Top Gun. -Three different video game exercises were performed. Video game mastery was assessed by asking the participants to play 3 games for 25 minutes each, and the total score was taken. -Surveys were completed to assess past experience with video games and current levels of play, level of surgical training, number of laparoscopic cases performed, and number of years in medical practice. FINDINGS: -Past video game play in excess of 3 hours a week correlated with 37% fewer errors and 27% faster completion. -Overall Top Gun score was 33% better for video game players and 42% if they played more than 3 hours a week. -Current video game players made 32% fewer errors, performed 24% better, and scored 26% better overall (time and errors) than their nonplaying colleagues. -Regression analysis also indicated that video game skill and past video game experience are significant predictors of demonstrated laparoscopic skills. EVALUATION: -The study is correlational, not causational, and therefore cannot prove that there is a cause-and-effect relationship.

Kaiser

Year: 2008-2009 AIM: Determine the effects of media use on youths, with regards to academics, social life, and emotional life. PROCEDURE: -Nationally representative survey of 2002 3rd-12th grade students, ages 8-18, including a subsample of 702 respondents who volunteered to complete seven-day media use diaries. -Conducted from Oct. 20, 2008 through May 7, 2009. -Includes students from public, private, and parochial (church) schools, as well as an oversample of African American and Hispanic students. -Sample was obtained using a stratified, two stage national probability sample: -Stage 1: Schools were randomly selected. -Stage 2: Grades and classes were randomly selected. -Survey respondents completed anonymous 40-minute, self-administered written questionnaires in the classroom. Trained interviewers were present in each classroom to provide assistance if needed. -Media activities mentioned in the questionnaire include watching television and movies, playing video games, listening to music, using computers, and reading newspapers, magazines, and books. FINDINGS: -Heavy users reported lower grades than moderate or light users. 51% of heavy users got good grades (A's and B's), as compared to 65% of moderate users and 66% of light users. -93% of heavy users stated they have a lot of friends, as opposed to 91% in the other two groups. -84% of heavy users stated they get along well with their parents, as opposed to 90% in the other two groups. -72% of heavy users reported that they have been happy at school this year, as opposed to 81% of moderates and 82% of light users. -60% of heavy users stated they are often bored, as opposed to 53% of moderates and 48% of light users. -33% of heavy users stated they get into trouble a lot, as opposed to 21% of moderates and 22% of light users. -32% of heavy users stated they are often sad or unhappy, as opposed to 23% of moderates and 22% of light users. EVALUATION: -Because the study was conducted by questionnaire, there is a possibility of participant bias.