Public Speaking

Audience Disposition

Factors to consider as far as an audiences' disposition: knowledge, interest, attitude

False Cause Fallacy

Fallacy that occurs after another does not mean that the first is the cause of the second. The closeness in time of the two events may be entirely coincidental. example: When a team from the NFC wins the Super Bowl, economic growth during the next year is stronger than when a team from the AFC wins the Super Bowl. Therefore, if we want economic growth, we should root for a team from the NFC to win this year's Super Bowl.

Problem-Solution

First demonstrate a need for a new policy by showing the extent and seriousness of the problem, then explain your plan for solving the problem.

Demographic Audience Analyses

Focuses on demographical traits: age, gender, race, sexual orientation, cultural background.

Situational Audience Analysis

Focuses on situational factors such as audience size, physical setting, length of presentation, occasion of speech.

Either-Or Fallacy

Forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist. example: The government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor.

Why should you use examples in your speech?

examples clarify ideas, reinforce ideas, personalize ideas, and make speeches vivid.

Analogical Reasoning

A speaker compares two similar cases and infers what is true for the first case is true for the second case. example: If you are good with Microsoft Word, then you'll also be good with Microsoft Powerpoint. If you're good at tennis, you will probably be good at ping pong.

Imagery

A way for speakers to make their ideas come alive. examples are: concrete words, simile and metaphor

Fixed Alternative Questions

After a fixed choice between two or more responses example: yes no not sure

Terminal Credibility

After speech, during Q&A

Fallacy

An error in reasoning. As a speaker you need to avoid fallacies in your speeches.

Peer Testimony

An ordinary person bearing witness to his or her own experiences and beliefs.

Causal Reasoning

Argues to establish a relationship between cause and effect. example: Excess violence in movies, video games, and TV is directly responsible for the rise of violence in society. Because that patch of ice was there, I fell and broke my arm.

Appeal to Novelty Fallacy

Assumes that because something is new, it is therefore superior to something that is older. example: Our church should adopt the 2011 New International Version of the Bible because it is 400 years newer than the King James Version.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

Attention (introduction) Need (make audience feel a need for change) Satisfaction (having an aroused a sense of need, problem step) Visualization (using vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy) Action (once the audience is convince you are ready to call for action)

Initial Credibility

Before spoken, based on past performance. example: She did good on her first two speeches this one is going to be good as well.

Casual

Cause and effects

Antithesis

Contrating ideas using a parallel structure. example: Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.

Derived Credibility

Credibility during speech

What makes a good speech delivery?

Directness, sense of communication, vocal and facial expressiveness

Bandwagon Fallacy

How often do you hear someone say "Its a great idea- everyone agrees with it"? This is an example of the bandwagon fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

Personifications

Imagery that assigns the qualities of a person to something that isn't human (nature, emotions, things) examples: "The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky" "When making my way to my car, it appeared to smile at me mischievously"

Concrete Words

Imagery that calls up mental impressions of sight, sounds, touch, smell and taste. example: We stand on a lonely, windswept point on the northern shore of France. The air is soft, but 40 years ago at this moment, the air was dense with smoke and the cries of men, and the air was filled with the crack of rifle fire and the roar of cannon.

Metaphors

Imagery that is a comparison between things that are essentially different yet have something in common but do not contain like or as. example: America's cities are the windows through which the world looks at American society.

Similes

Imagery that is a comparison between things that are essentially different, yet have something in common. Uses "Like" or "As" example: Walking into my grandparents' home when I was a child was like being wrapped in a giant security blanket.

Rhythm

Is created by the choice and arrangement of words. A lot of time poets seek to exploit the rhythm of language to enhance the impact of their words.

Parallelism

Is the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences. example: Rich and poor, intelligent and ignorant, wise and foolish, virtuous and vicious, man and woman

Reasoning

Logos (use of logic and reasoning) The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.

How do you generate an emotional appeal?

Manipulation of the audiences emotions rather than valid logic. examples: hope: involving family, future pride: family, country, children

Repetition

Means reiterating the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences. example: If not now, when? If not us, who? If not together, how?

Mental Dialogue

Mental give and take between the speaker and the audience during a speech. Audience will respond in their mind throughout the speech, important for speaker to anticipate audiences questions.

Hasty Generatlization Fallacy

Most common fallacy. Occurs when speaker jumps to a conclusion on the basis of too few cases or on the basis of typical cases. example: Throughout American history, military leaders have always made excellent presidents. Look at the examples of George Washington, Andrew Jackson, and Dwight Eisenhower.

Denotative Definition

No opinion, states a fact, what something is.

Egocentric Audience

People tend to be more concerned with their own values, beliefs, and well being, might not give the response expected because of prejudgements.

How is it recommended you practice your speech?

Practice out loud, be aware of the volume, pitch, rate, vocal variety.

Problem-Cause-Solution

Produces a speech with three main points, first identifying the problem, then second analyzing the cause of the problem and lastly presenting a solution to the problem.

Alliteration

Repeating the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words. example: Peace is essential for progress, but progress is no less essential for peace.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

This fallacy assumes that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a second step and so on down the slope to disaster. example: Now that the TSA is allowed to use full body scanners and invasive pat-downs before letting us through security, it's only a matter of time before they strip-search every man, woman, and child who wants to fly on a plane.

Expert Testimony

Someone educated or experienced on the topic.

Statistics

Statistics are often cited in passing to clarify or strengthen a speaker's points. example: According to the Urban Mobility Report from Texas A&M University, Americans collectively spend 4.2 billion hours stuck in traffic each year. All told, traffic congestion results in more than $87 billion in wasted fuel and lost productivity. That number breaks down to about $750 per traveler each year. Clearly, we are wasting far too much time and money on traffic gridlock.

Connotative Definition

Subjective meaning of a word or phrase, based on personal experience or beliefs.

Paraphrase

The act of restating or summarizing rewording a sources idea in ones own words.

Ad Hominem Fallacy

The fallacy of attacking the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute. example: The head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.

Passive Agreement

The goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without asking the audience to take action in support. examples: Persuade audience that school districts shouldn't stock a certain product in the vending machines. Persuade audience that there should be stricter safety standards for amusement parks.

Audience Analysis

The process of keeping the audience in your mind throughout your preparation and presentation.

Red Herring Fallacy

This fallacy introduces an irrelevant issue in order to divert attention from the subject under discussion. example: How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States.

Invalid Analogy Fallacy

This fallacy occurs when the two cases being compared are not essentially alike. example: Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to get them to work, so must employees.

Appeal to Tradition Fallacy

When it is assumed that something old Is automatically better than something new. example: I don't see any reason to abolish the electoral college. It has been around since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, and we should keep it as long as the United States continues to exist.

Refutation

When speaker argues against an opposing argument or viewpoint. example: A defense attorney would refute the prosecutor's statement that his client is guilty by providing evidence or logical statements that refute the claim.

Comparative Advantages

When your audience already agrees the problem exists, you can devote your speech to comparing the advantages and disadvantages of competing solutions.

Citing Sources

Within speech you must state the author, author credibility, source and date.

Language is Powerful

Words carry so much weight, can influence another individual.

Scale Questions

fixed alternative questions example: strongly disagree disagree no opinon agree strongly agree

Open-Ended Questions

maximum leeway in responding questions that allow respondents to answer however they want example: What is your opinion about the insanity plea in U.S. court cases? Under what circumstances do you think the insanity plea is legitimate in a criminal trial?

How to know if an internet document is reliable?

no wikipedia .gov or .edu (domain cannot be bought) credible author

Conclusions

signal ending (in conclusion) summarize motivate or emphasize final call to action memorable ending

Purpose of Public Speaking

to inform, to persuade, to entertain