Public Speaking Exam #3

Volume (Types of vocalic)

- Volume refers to the loudness or softness of a speaker's voice. As mentioned, public speakers need to speak loudly enough to be heard by everyone in the audience

Connotative meaning

-Connotative meaning is the idea suggested by or associated with a word. examples; the word "blue" can evoke many other ideas: State of depression (feeling blue) Indication of winning (a blue ribbon) Side during the Civil War (blues vs. grays) Sudden event (out of the blue)

Appropriate for the speaker ( Appropriate language)

-One of the first questions to ask yourself is whether the language you plan on using in a speech fits with your own speaking pattern. Not all language choices are appropriate for all speakers. The language you select should be suitable for you, not someone else.

Principles to know regarding presentation aid to keep in mind.

-One principle to keep in mind is to use only as many presentation aids as necessary to present your message or to fulfill your classroom assignment. -Another important consideration is technology. Keep your presentation aids within the limits of the working technology available to you. Whether or not your classroom technology works on the day of your speech, you will still have to present. -More important than the method of delivery is the audience's ability to see and understand the presentation aid. it must not distract from the message. -Another thing to remember is that presentation aids do not "speak for themselves." When you display a visual aid, you should explain what it shows, pointing out and naming the most important features.

How to construct speaking note cards?

-Plan on using just five cards, written on one side only. -Your cards should include key words and phrases, not full sentences. The words and phrases should be arranged in order so that you can stay organized and avoid forgetting important points. -You should be able to read something on your card by glancing, not peering at it. - The "trick" to selecting the words to write on your cards is to identify the keywords that will trigger a recall sequence. -Notes are a normal part of giving a presentation. You do not need to conceal them from the audience; in fact, trying to hide and use your notes at the same time tends to be very awkward and distracting.

Deductive reasoning (Type of reasoning)

-is when you begin with a generalization and then add a more specific statement and then draw a specific conclusion. Crime is increasing everywhere. There has been an increasing crime in the state, in the local community, and even on our campus.

Denotative meaning

-it is the specific meaning associated with a word. We sometimes refer to denotative meanings as dictionary definitions.

Rate (type of vocalic)

-it is the speed at which a person speaks. To keep your speech delivery interesting, your rate should vary. If you are speaking extemporaneously, your rate will naturally fluctuate. If you're reading, your delivery is less likely to vary.

Imagery

-it is the use of language to represent objects, actions, or ideas. The goal of imagery is to help an audience member create a mental picture of what a speaker is saying

Rhythm

-refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech. Whether someone is striking a drum with a stick or standing in front of a group speaking, rhythm is an important aspect of human communication.

Repetition

-the audience members need to hear the core of the message repeated consistently. Repetition as a linguistic device is designed to help audiences become familiar with a short piece of the speech as they hear it over and over again.

Goals of Persuasive Speaking

1. To replace a current belief. 2. To create a new belief. 3. To intensify or reinforce a current belief. 4. To change behavior.

Charts (types of aid)

A chart is commonly defined as a graphical representation of data (often numerical) or a sketch representing an ordered process. Whether you create your charts or do research to find charts that already exist, it is important for them to exactly match the specific purpose in your speech. Charts are also useful when you are trying to explain a process that involves several steps.

Fallacy

A fallacy is not a false belief. Rather, fallacies are mistakes in the process of reasoning your way to a conclusion.

Using Lecterns ( context that affect delivery)

A lectern is a small raised surface, usually with a slanted top, where a speaker can place notes during a speech. While a lectern adds a measure of formality to the speaking situation, it allows speakers the freedom to do two things: to come out from behind the lectern to establish more immediate contact with the audience and to use both hands for gestures.

Adding Variety and Interest (function presentation aid)

A third function of presentation aids is simply to make your speech more interesting. While it is true that a good speech and a well-rehearsed delivery will already include variety in several aspects of the presentation, in many cases, a speech can be made even more interesting by the use of well-chosen presentation aids. For example, you may have prepared a very good speech to inform a group of gardeners about several new varieties of roses suitable for growing in your local area. Although your listeners will undoubtedly understand and remember your message very well without any presentation aids, wouldn't your speech have greater impact if you accompanied your remarks with a picture of each rose?

Bandwagon (common fallacy)

Assuming that because it is popular it is therefore good...Example: Parents pay taxes for education so they have the right to decide what shoule be taught. So if these parents believe Creationism should be taught along side evolution then that's what the school system should teach

Ad Hominem (common fallacy)

Attacking the person rather than discussing the issue....Example: You can't trust the information from the Sierra Club about the environmental damages being done by large corporations because those people are tree-hugging liberals.

Fallacies. (common fallacy)

Errors in reasoning, There are approximately forty known fallacies in formal logic and those listed below are generally the most common ones. A fallacy is not a false belief. Rather, fallacies are mistakes in the process of reasoning your way to a conclusion.

Facial expressions (Physical manipulation)

Faces are amazing things and convey so much information. As speakers, we must be acutely aware of what our face looks like while speaking. There are two extremes you want to avoid: no facial expression and overanimated facial expressions. Body movement also includes gestures. These should be neither overdramatic nor subdued. At one extreme, arm-waving and fist-pounding will distract from your message and reduce your credibility.

what is a good delivery?

Good delivery is a process of presenting a clear, coherent message in an interesting way. Communication scholar Stephen E. Lucas tells us: Good delivery...conveys the speaker's ideas clearly, interestingly, and without distracting the audience.

Improving Audience Understanding (function presentation aid)

Human communication is a complex process that often leads to misunderstandings. If you are like most people, you can easily remember incidents when you misunderstood a message or when someone else misunderstood what you said to them. Misunderstandings happen in public speaking just as they do in everyday conversations.your presentations must be based on careful thought and preparation to maximize the likelihood that your listeners will understand your presentations as you intend them to.

Speaking in a Small or Large Physical Space ( context that affect delivery)

If you are accustomed to being in a classroom of a certain size, you will need to make adjustments when speaking in a smaller or larger space than what you are used to. A large auditorium can be intimidating, especially for speakers who feel shy and "exposed" when facing an audience. However, the maxim that "proper preparation prevents poor performance" is just as true here as anywhere.

Problem-Cause-Solution (Organizational pattern persuasive speech)

In this specific format, you discuss what a problem is, what you believe is causing the problem, and then what the solution should be to correct the problem.

Using a Microphone (context that affect deliver)

Most people today are familiar with microphones that are built into video recorders and other electronic devices, but they may be new at using a microphone to deliver a speech. One overall principle to remember is that a microphone only amplifies, it does not clarify. If you are not enunciating clearly, the microphone will merely enable your audience to hear amplified mumbling.

variety (physical manipulation)

One of the biggest mistakes novice public speakers make is to use the same gesture over and over again during a speech. While you don't want your gestures to look fake, you should be careful to include a variety of different nonverbal components while speaking. You should make sure that your face, body, and words are all working in conjunction with each other to support your message.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence (Organizational pattern persuasive speech)

One of the most commonly cited and discussed organizational patterns for persuasive speeches is Alan H. Monroe's motivated sequence. The purpose of Monroe's motivated sequence is to help speakers "sequence supporting materials and motivational appeals to form a useful organizational pattern for speeches as a whole.

Speaking Outdoors ( context that affect deliver)

Outdoor settings can be charming, but they are prone to distractions. If you're giving a speech in a setting that is picturesquely beautiful, it may be difficult to maintain the audience's attention. If you know this ahead of time, you might plan your speech to focus more on mood than information and perhaps to make reference to the lovely view.

Pitch (type of vocalic)

Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a speaker's voice. Some speakers have deep voices and others have high voices.

Enhancing a Speaker's Credibility (function presentation aid)

Presentation aids alone will not be enough to create a professional image. As we mentioned earlier, impressive presentation aids will not rescue a poor speech. However, even if you give a good speech, you run the risk of appearing unprofessional if your presentation aids are poorly executed. This means that in addition to containing important information, your presentation aids must be clear, clean, uncluttered, organized, and large enough for the audience to see and interpret correctly.

Reasoning

Reasoning is the mental process of drawing a conclusion from clear evidence. An argument is the verbal manifestation of that internal reasoning. Ask yourself: "Can my audience easily draw the same conclusion you are advocating in your speech based on how you have organized your evidence?"

Either-Or (common fallacy)

Showing and suggesting there are only two approaches.....Example: Either we must cut funding for music education in the public schools or raise property taxes to pay for it.

Hasty Generalization (common fallacy)

Showing and suggesting there are only two approaches....Example: My aunt Ellen died in a car wreck because she was trapped by her seatbelt so people shouldn't wear seatbelts or they will die too if they wreck while wearing seatbelts.

Appropriate for the topic ( Appropriate Language)

The fourth and final question about the appropriateness of language involves whether the language is appropriate for your specific topic. if your speech topic is the dual residence model of string theory, it makes sense to expect that you will use more sophisticated language than if your topic was a basic introduction to the physics of, say, sound or light waves.

Comparative Advantages (Organizational pattern persuasive speech)

The goal of this speech is to compare items side-by-side and show why one of them is more advantageous than the other. For example, let's say that you're giving a speech on which e-book reader is better

Appropriate for the context ( Appropriate Language)

The next question about appropriateness is whether the language you will use is suitable or fitting for the context itself. The language you may employ if you're addressing a student assembly in a high school auditorium will differ from the language you would use at a business meeting in a hotel ballroom. Recall that the speaking context includes the occasion, the time of day, the mood of the audience, and other factors in addition to the physical location.

Appropriate for the Audience ( Appropriate language)

The second aspect of appropriateness asks whether the language you are choosing is appropriate for your specific audience. Let's say that you're an engineering student. If you're giving a presentation in an engineering class, you can use language that other engineering students will know. On the other hand, if you use that engineering vocabulary in a public speaking class, many audience members will not understand you.

Aiding Retention and Recall (Function presentation aid)

The second function that presentation aids can serve is to increase the audience's chances of remembering your speech. A 1996 article by the US Department of Labor summarized research on how people learn and remember. The authors found that "83% of human learning occurs visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses—11% through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through touch."For this reason, exposure to a visual image can serve as a memory aid to your listeners

Needs (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)

The speaker establishes that there is a specific need or problem. In Monroe's conceptualization of need, he talks about four specific parts of the need: statement, illustration, ramification, and pointing. First, a speaker needs to give a clear and concise statement of the problem.Second, the speaker needs to provide one or more examples to illustrate the need. Next, a speaker needs to provide some kind of evidence (e.g., statistics, examples, testimony) that shows the ramifications or consequences of the problem.Lastly, a speaker needs to point to the audience and show exactly how the problem relates to them personally.

Body Movement (physical manipulation)

Unless you are stuck behind a podium because of the need to use a nonmovable microphone, you should never stand in one place during a speech. However, movement during a speech should also not resemble pacing.

Red Herring (common fallacy)

Using irrelevant facts or arguments to divert attention from the actual argument....Example: Admittedly providing health care for poor children should be a priority of the government but with the cost of the war being so high we should not pass this legislation.

Why to construct speaking note cards?

Using notes adds to your credibility as a speaker. If you depend on a full manuscript to get through your delivery, your listeners might believe you don't know the content of your speech. -Second, the temptation to read the entire speech directly from a manuscript, even if you're only carrying it as a safety net, is nearly overwhelming. -Third, well-prepared cards are more gracefully handled than sheets of paper, and they don't rattle if your hands tremble from nervousness. -Finally, cards look better than sheets of paper. Five carefully prepared cards, together with practice, will help you more than you might think.

vocal variety (type of vocalic)

Vocal variety has to do with changes in the vocalics we have just discussed: volume, pitch, rate, and pauses. No one wants to hear the same volume, pitch, rate, or use of pauses over and over again in a speech.

People and animals (type of aid)

We can often use ourselves or other people to adequately demonstrate an idea during our speeches.When giving a speech on a topic relating to animals, it is often tempting to bring an animal to serve as your presentation aid. While this can sometimes add a very engaging dimension to the speech, it carries some serious risks that you need to consider.Speakers can often use their own bodies to demonstrate facets of a speech

Parallelism

When listing items in a sequence, audiences will respond more strongly when those ideas are presented in a grammatically parallel fashion. "Give me liberty or I'd rather die." "Give me liberty or give me death." Technically, you're saying the same thing in both, but the second one has better rhythm, and this rhythm comes from the parallel construction of "give me." The lack of parallelism in the first example makes the sentence sound disjointed and ineffective.

Appeal to Misplaced Authority (common fallacy)

When someone popular, but no necessarily an expert, urges the acceptance of an idea or product. Example: Tiger Woods says he drives a Pontiac so it must be a good car to buy.

Self- presentation (physical manipulation)

When you present your speech, you are also presenting yourself. Self-presentation, sometimes also referred to as poise or stage presence, is determined by how you look, how you stand, how you walk to the lectern, and how you use your voice and gestures. Your self-presentation can either enhance your message or detract from it

Posture (Types of physical manipulation)

When you stand up straight, you communicate to your audience, without saying a word, that you hold a position of power and take your position seriously. If however, you are slouching, hunched over, or leaning on something, you could be perceived as ill prepared, anxious, lacking in credibility, or not serious about your responsibilities as a speaker.

Video or Audio Recordings (type of aid)

Whether it is a short video from a website such as YouTube or Vimeo, a segment from a song, or a piece of a podcast, a well-chosen video or audio recording may be a good choice to enhance your speech. Avoid choosing clips that are too long for the overall length of the speech.Don't fail to practice with the audio or video equipment prior to speaking.Don't fail to cue the clip to the appropriate place prior to beginning your speech.

Dress (physical manipulation)

While there are no clear-cut guidelines for how you should dress for every speech you'll give, dress is still a very important part of how others will perceive you (again, it's all about the first impression). If you want to be taken seriously, you must present yourself seriously

Antithesis

a figure of speech in which an opposition or contrast of ideas is expressed by parallelism of words that are the opposites of, or strongly contrasted with, each other, such as "hatred stirs up strife, but love covers all sins" - is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Examples: Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. -Man proposes, God disposes. -Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing. -Speech is silver, but silence is gold. -Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit. -Money is the root of all evils: poverty is the fruit of all goodness. -You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart.

policy claim— (type of persuasive speeches)

a statement about the nature of a problem and the solution that should be implemented. Policy claims are probably the most common form of persuasive speaking because we live in a society surrounded by problems and people who have ideas about how to fix these problems. Let's look at a few examples of possible policy claims: The United States should stop capital punishment. The United States should become independent from the use of foreign oil.

Definitional claims (Type of persuasive speeches)

are claims over the denotation or classification of what something is. In essence, we are trying to argue for what something is or what something is not.X is (or is not) a Y because it has (or does not have) features A, B, or C.

Sequential fallacy (common fallacy)

faulty causal connection. Example: Online learning will make professors and classrooms obsolete because once we have this and information is available to everyone with a computer we won't need to continue the traditional means of education.

Action (Monroe's motivated sequence)

in which a speaker asks an audience to approve the speaker's proposal. For understanding purposes, we break action into two distinct parts: audience action and approval. Audience action refers to direct physical behaviors a speaker wants from an audience (e.g., flossing their teeth twice a day, signing a petition, wearing seat belts)

Attention (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)

in which a speaker attempts to get the audience's attention. To gain an audience's attention, we recommend that you think through three specific parts of the attention step. First, you need to have a strong attention-getting device. Second, you need to make sure you introduce your topic clearly. If your audience doesn't know what your topic is quickly, they are more likely to stop listening. Lastly, you need to explain to your audience why they should care about your topic.

Visualization (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)

in which you ask the audience to visualize a future where the need has been met or the problem solved. In essence, the visualization stage is where a speaker can show the audience why accepting a specific attitude, value, belief, or behavior can positively affect the future. When helping people to picture the future, the more concrete your visualization is, the easier it will be for your audience to see the possible future and be persuaded by it

Graphs (type of aid)

is a pictorial representation of the relationships of quantitative data using dots, lines, bars, pie slices, and the like. Graphs show the variation in one variable in comparison with that of one or more other variables. A line graph is designed to show trends over time.ar graphs are useful for showing the differences between quantities. They can be used for population demographics, fuel costs, math ability in different grades, and many other kinds of data.

Eye contact ( elements of delivery)

is a speaker's ability to have visual contact with everyone in the audience. Your audience should feel that you're speaking to them, not simply uttering main and supporting points.

Conversational style

is a speaker's ability to sound expressive and to be perceived by the audience as natural. It's a style that approaches the way you normally express yourself in a much smaller group than your classroom audience. This means that you want to avoid having your presentation come across as didactic or overly exaggerated.

Analogical reasoning (type of reasoning)

is also known as reasoning by comparison. For example, since marijuana has been legalized in several states, crime and usage has not increased. Therefore, other states should consider legalizing marijuana as well.

Extemporaneous speaking ( method of delivering)

is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a conversational manner using brief notes. By using notes rather than a full manuscript, the extemporaneous speaker can establish and maintain eye contact with the audience and assess how well they are understanding the speech as it progresses.

Impromptu Speaking (method of delivering)

is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation. Impromptu speeches often occur when someone is asked to "say a few words" or give a toast on a special occasion. Self-introductions in group settings are examples of impromptu speaking.

Memorized Speaking (method of delivering)

is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory. Actors, of course, recite from memory whenever they perform from a script in a stage play, television program, or movie scene. When it comes to speeches, memorization can be useful when the message needs to be exact and the speaker doesn't want to be confined by notes.

Representations (type of aid)

is the word used to classify a group of aids designed to represent real processes or objects. Often, speakers want to visually demonstrate something that they cannot physically bring with them to the speech.Maps are extremely useful if the information is clear and limited.

Inductive reasoning (type of reasoning)

is when you begin with specifics and then draw a general conclusion about them. For example, this campus has experienced 10 cases of petty crime in the past month. The local community has experienced similar crimes recently and, in fact, crime has been increasing throughout the state. Therefore, crime must be increasing everywhere.

Concreteness

it helps our audiences see specific realities or actual instances instead of abstract theories and ideas. The goal of concreteness is to help you, as a speaker, show your audience something instead of just telling them.

Assonance

it is similar to alliteration, but instead of relying on consonants, assonance gets its rhythm from repeating the same vowel sounds with different consonants in the stressed syllables. - rhymes like "free as a breeze," "mad as a hatter," and "no pain, no gain" are examples of assonance, speakers should be wary of relying on assonance because when it is overused it can quickly turn into bad poetry.

Value Claims (type of persuasive speeches)

or a claim where the speaker is advocating a judgment claim about something (e.g., it's good or bad, it's right or wrong, it's beautiful or ugly, moral or immoral). Dating people on the Internet is an immoral form of dating. SUVs are gas guzzling monstrosities. It's unfair for pregnant women to have special parking spaces at malls, shopping centers, and stores.

Pronunciation (type of vocalic)

pronunciation, or the conventional patterns of speech used to form a word. Word pronunciation is important for two reasons: first, mispronouncing a word your audience is familiar with will harm your credibility as a speaker; and second, mispronouncing a word they are unfamiliar with can confuse and even misinform them.

Objects or Models (type of aid)

refer to anything you could hold up and talk about during your speech. If you're talking about the importance of not using plastic water bottles, you might hold up a plastic water bottle and a stainless steel water bottle as examples.If you're giving a speech on heart murmurs, you may be able to show how heart murmurs work by holding up a model of the human heart.

ethos (character, trustworthiness and competence) (Aristotles's types of appeals)

refers to appeals to credibility. Audiences need to having a clear and immediate understanding of why the speaker is qualified to speak on a given subject.Have you done extensive research on the subject? The manner in which you dress, your nonverbal behavior, the tone of your voice and your discussion of credible evidence in the speech will help to reveal that you are a person that is ethical, trustworthy and empathetic.

pathos (emotions) (Aristotles's types of appeals)

refers to appeals to emotions. Regardless of how many credible sources you cite or how logical your argument, most audiences will only be persuaded if you appeal to their emotions in some manner. Demonstrating pathos not necessarily you being overly emotional in the speech, but rather how your speech appeals to the emotions of the audience.

logos (logic and reasoning) (Aristotle's types of appeals)

refers to appeals to sound reasoning and logic. Audiences are more likely to find the arguments in your persuasive speech convincing if your ideas are arranged in a consistent and systematic structure that easily reveals how the main points and subpoints are supported by evidence. Reasoning is the mental process of drawing a conclusion from clear evidence.

Straw Man (common fallacy)

refuting a weak argument. Example: Prisoners aren't allowed to evaluate prison guards and mentally ill patients aren't allowed to evaluate their doctors so students shouldn't be allowed to evaluate their professors.

Alliteration

repeating two or more words in a series that begin with the same consonant. There are two basic types of alliteration: -. Immediate juxtaposition occurs when the consonants clearly follow one after the other—as we see in the Harry Potter example. -Nonimmediate juxtaposition occurs when the consonants are repeated in nonadjacent words (e.g., "It is the poison that we must purge from our politics, the wall that we must tear down before the hour grows too late").Obama, B. (2008, January 20).

Satisfaction (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)

satisfaction step, the speaker sets out to satisfy the need or solve the problem. Within this step, Monroe (1935) proposed a five-step plan for satisfying a need: Statement Explanation Theoretical demonstration Reference to practical experience Meeting objections

Factual claims (type of persuasive speeches)

set out to argue the truth or falsity of an assertion. Some factual claims are simple to answer: Barack Obama is the first African American President; the tallest man in the world, Robert Wadlow, was eight feet and eleven inches tall; Facebook wasn't profitable until 2009. All these factual claims are well documented by evidence and can be easily supported with a little research.

Simile

simile is a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared. Both aspects being compared within a simile are able to remain separate within the comparison. examples: -The thunderous applause was like a party among the gods, or Love is like a battlefield.

Audience Size (context that affect deliver)

small audience is an opportunity for a more intimate, minimally formal tone. If your audience has only eight to twelve people, you can generate greater audience contact. Make use of all the preparation you have done.

Slippery Slope (common fallacy)

the assumption that the first step will lead to unavoidable subsequent steps. Example: We can't legalize marijuana for medical purposes because if doctors prescribe this to dying people for pain and appetite then they will soon prescribe it not only for people who can't eat or are in pain but also to people who just claim to be in pain so they can smoke pot legally.

Genetic Fallacy (common fallacy)

the belief that because an idea has been beleived for a long period of time it must therefore be good, valid or correct. Example: The Bible says marriage is for the purpose of procreation and since only a man and a woman can have children, same sex couples should not be allowed to marry.

Manuscript speaking ( method of delivering)

the word-for-word iteration of a written message. In a manuscript speech, the speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page except when using visual aids.

Pauses (type of vocalic)

they are brief breaks in a speaker's delivery that can show emphasis and enhance the clarity of a message. In terms of timing, the effective use of pauses is one of the most important skills to develop.

Non Seqitur (common fallacy)

your reason is not relevant to your claim. Example: The internet will make government obselete because once we can be in contact with everyone else, national borders will disappear and politicians won't be needed.