Public Speaking Final

• Small group• Group dynamics-

- a limited number of people gathered for a specific purpose- the ways in which member relate to one another and view their functions.

Transactional Model of communication-

-The person with an idea to express is the source, and their ideas they are going got convey to the audience is the message. -The source encoded a message, meaning that he or she chooses verbal or non-verbal symbols to express their idea. Then the source communicates the encoded message through the channel, which is the medium of delivery. -The audience or receivers, try to make sense of the message by decoding, in which they process the source's verbal and nonverbal symbols to form their own perception of the messages meaning. -Noise, also called interference, could impede the communication of messages. -In transactional model, the participants in a public speaking exchange seek to create shared meaning- a common understanding with little confusion and few misinterpretations.

• What are the guidelines for effectively leading meetings?

1. Address procedural needs 2. Model the behavior you expect 3. Facilitate discussion 4. Keep members on task 5. Help members avoid groupthink a. Groupthink- members tendency to accept ideas and information uncritically because of strong feelings of loyalty within the group. 6. facilitate decisions 7. help organize the groups presentation

• Why should speakers use audiovisual aids?

1. Audiovisual aids- anything that the members of your audience can see or hear that helps them understand and remember your presentation. a. Listeners are more likely to grasp spoken facts and concepts if presenters also provide visual and other non-verbal cues. b. Adding interest, simplifying a complex topic, helping your audience remember your speech.

• Know the guidelines for choosing respectful and unbiased language.

1. Avoid Biased language- word choice that suggests prejudice or preconceptions about other people. 2. Avoid negative stereotypes- are critical generalizations about characteristics that members of a group can't change. 3. Use gender-neutral References: gender-neutral terms- words that do not suggest a specific gender. 4. Make appropriate references to ethnic groups 5. Steer clear of unnecessary references to ethnicity, gender, sexuality, or religion

• Understand how to create a bibliography.

1. Bibliography- a list of the sources you cited in your speech. a. Full citations, in either mla or apa format.

• Understand the three aspects of audience analysis that merit special consideration when choosing audiovisual aids.

1. Consider the Forum- where the speech is held. 2. Demographics: 3. Prior exposure- may provide positive or negative influence your audience's response to those aids.

• What are the six ways you can maximize your audience's listening?

1. Defeated listening- audience feels that your presentation is too difficult to follow. 2. Superficial listening- if audience members act as if they are listening but are actually distracted by external elements. 3. 1.Anticipate ineffective listening: • Consider your audience's attention and energy levels. • Assess your audience's knowledge and abilities. • Watch for argumentative listeners. Acknowledge their viewpoints. 4. 2.tailor your delivery: • Pay attention to factors that affect your audience's ability to listen: voice, volume, rate, etc. 5. 3. Use audio visual aids strategically • Can capture attention encouraging them to listen, put it away when it is no longer needed. 6. 4.front- and back-load your main message: • Listeners tend to pay most attention just after the beginning and near the end.

• Know the differences between denotative and connotative meaning.

1. Denotative meaning- the exact, literal dictionary definition, of a word. 2. Connotative meanings- associations that come to mind when people hear or read the word.

• Understand the three types of leaders and how to select a leader.

1. Designated leader- selected by an external authority. 2. Implied leader- someone with preexisting authority or skills particularly well suited to the task at hand. 3. Emergent leader- one who comes to be recognized as a leader by the groups members

• Know and understand the two steps of effective listening.

1. Effective listening is made up of processing- actively thinking about what you have heard and observed. 2. And retaining- remembering what you have heard

• Understand the elements of credibility and how to build and maintain your credibility.

1. Ethos-credibility- speaker has far more persuasive power than one without. 2. Competence- (knowledgable and experienced)refers to practical wisdom and trustworthiness (honest and fair)instead of the word virtue 3. Goodwill- wanting what is best for their listeners rather than what would most benefit themselves. a. Understand listeners needs and feelings b. Empathize with their audiences views c. Respond quickly to other communication 4. Building your credibility: a. With introduction: outline your education and experience b. Through word choice: shows you understand your listeners c. Strong evidence, organization, and delivery. 5. Avoid losing credibility a. Don't say anything that lacks competence, trustworthiness, or goodwill.

• Know the six types of supporting materials.

1. Examples- are samples or instances that support or illustrate a general claim. a. Brief examples- quick bullet points (p.229) b. Extended examples- provide details about the instance being used, giving your audience a deeper and richer picture of your point. 2. Definition: a. Dictionary definition- provides the meaning of a term as presented in a dictionary. b. Expert definition- comes from a person who is a credible source of information on your topic. c. Etymological definition- explains the linguistic origin of the term. (appropriate when the origin is interesting or will help the audience understand the term.) d. Functional definition- explains how something is used of what it does. 3. Testimony- consists of information provided by other people. a. Expert testimony- consists of statements made by credible sources who have professional or other in-depth knowledge of a topic. b. Lay testimony- consists of statements made by persons with no special expertise in the subject they are discussing. 4. Statistics- are information presented in numerical form. (rates of things) a. Limit number of stats; use visual aids to explain your stats; establish context (explain what the stats imply for your audience) 5. Narratives- are the anecdotes (brief stories) of somewhat longer accounts that can be used to support your main points. (good attention getter, humans by nature love a good story.) 6. Analogies- are a comparison based on similarities between two phenomena, one that's familiar to the audience and one that is less familiar.

• Know how to construct a speaking outline. What elements must it contain?

1. Extemporaneous delivery- speaking from limited notes rather than reading word-for-word, or for memory. 2. Use 5 by 7 note cards. 3. Condensed version of your working outline. 4. Include: main points, subpoints and sub-subpoints, evidence, difficult words, transitions, delivery notes a. Delivery reminders (writing slow down where u tend to speed up)

• Know and understand the most effective organizational patterns for fact, value, and policy claims.

1. Fact claims: casual pattern, comparison pattern, categorical pattern 2. Value claims: criteria-application pattern, categorical pattern 3. Policy claims: motivated sequence pattern- aims to establish five main points. Also problem-cause-solution patter, comparative advantage fromat

• How can you frame your argument based on audience disposition (attitude towards your speech)?

1. Frame around the type of audiences hostile, sympathetic, neutral 2. Audience members have a latitude of acceptance- the range of positions on a given issue that are acceptable to them. 3. They also have a set of positions that are unacceptable, which is their latitude of rejection. 4. Boomerang effect- pushing your listeners to oppose your idea even more vigorously than they already do.

• Be familiar with the five purposes of a good introduction and how to accomplish each.

1. Gain your audience's attention: a. Attention-getter- material intended to capture the audience's interest at the start of a speech. b. Tell a story or anecdote c. Offer a striking or provocative statement: interesting fact that is new, ironic, or counter intuitive. d. Build suspense: ex. "what will be one of the biggest problems in the future." e. Let listeners know you're one of them: highlight similar interests f. Use humor g. Ask a rhetorical question: rhetorical question- one that your want listeners to answer in their heads. h. Provide a quote 2. Signals the topic and purpose of your speech a. Signal your thesis: 3. Conveys the importance of the topic for your audience a. Show your audience "what's in it for them" 4. Establishes your credibility: answers why they should listen to you 5. Previews the main points of your speech a. Preview- a brief statement of the main points you will be developing in the body of your speech.

• Understand the four important ethical considerations for persuasive speakers.

1. Help your audience make an informed decision 2. Research your facts 3. Note any biases 4. Attribute your research properly

• Why is it important to choose respectful and unbiased language?

1. Helps you deliver more effective presentation because audience remains open to your ideas and view you as fair.

• Know the three steps to becoming a better listener (interactive listening)?

1. Interactive listening- you filter out distractions, focus on what the other person of people have said, and communicate that you've paid attention. 2. Filter out distractions: • There are both external and internal distractions • External is like street noise, flashy visual aid; internal distractions are often referred to as internal noise- any thoughts that make it hard for you to concentrate. • Filtering out distractions means focusing on the speaker and the message while avoiding other elements that could draw your attention. • As a speaker filtering out distractions during presentations means focusing on reactions or questions from your audience rather than looking ahead to your next point. 3. Focus on the speaker: • Keep your mind on the speaker and what they are saying, not on what you may be about to hear next or what you're going to say next. 4. Show that your are listening: • Use a combination of nonverbal and verbal cues. • Nonverbal: alert posture, smile, or nod • Verbal: ask a thoughtful question, applaud appropriately • As a speaker paraphrase questions asked by audience members to show that you understand and to allow them to correct any misinterpretation.

• Know the three sections of a working outline and what to include in each.

1. Introduction: a. Attention-getter b. Topic or thesis c. Connection with the audience d. Your credibility e. preview 2. The body: a. Outline the body first b. Body- of your outline represents the meat of your presentation. c. Check for subordination: subordination d. Include full information for citations, quotations, and other evidence: evidence- the author, his or her qualifications, source of pub or web site, and the date of pub. e. Insert transitions: transitions- words, phrases, or sentences that indicate you are moving from one part of your speech to another. 3. Conclusion- ends speech on a strong note. a. Summary of your main points b. clincher

• Know why listening is important in public speaking

1. It has a powerful impact on the quality of your speech and your ability to connect with your audience. 2. How you listen as an audience member can strongly affect your ability to absorb information.

• Understand the differences between hearing and listening.

1. Listening: means actively paying attention to what you're hearing, processing the message to decide on its meaning, and remembering what you've heard and understood. 2. Hearing: means merely receiving messages in a passive way.

• Know how to use reasoning and evidence and how to avoid logical fallacies.

1. Logos- (reasoning and evidence)presenting trustworthy facts to back your claims and clearly show how those facts have led you to those claims. 2. Evidence- proof of your claim 3. Fallacious reasoning- twisting or distorting facts in your favor. 4. Using evidence: a. Identify your sources and their qualifications b. Give listeners new evidence c. Provide precise evidence d. Look for compelling evidence e. Characterize your evidence accurately 5. Using reasoning 1. Inductive reasoning- generalizing from facts, instances, or examples and then making a claim based on that generalization. 2. Example reasoning- present specific instances to support a general claim. 3. Representative examples- examples that are typical of the class they represent. 4. Comparison reasoning- you argue that 2 instances are similar, so that what you know is true for one instance is likely to be true for the other. 5. Causal reasoning- you argue that one event has cause another a. Post hoc fallacy- assumption that just because one event followed another, the first event cause the second. b. Watch out for reversed causality- speakers miss the fact that the effect is actually the cause. 6. Sign reasoning- you claim that a fact is true because indirect indicators are consistent with that fact.

• What are the four steps in selecting your main points?

1. Main points- the few ideas that are most important for your listeners to remember. 2. Supporting points- materials designed to prove or substantiate your main points. 3. Consider your purpose: make sure that every main point relates to the specific purpose of the speech. 4. Take your audience into account: which points are most interesting to the audience, and provide the most useful information. 5. Select an appropriate number of main points: usually between 2 to 5

• Know the four guidelines for using audiovisual aids during your speech.

1. Make sure everyone can see and hear your aids 2. Control audience interaction with your aids 3. Maintain eye contact 4. Remember the purpose of your aids

• Know the eight guidelines for preparing audiovisual aids.

1. Make sure your aids support your point 2. Consider your audience 3. Test the size of visual aids 4. Test the legibility of visual aids 5. Test the volume and clarity of audio aids 6. Create contrast 7. Keep you aids simple 8. Practice using your aids 9. Be prepared to speak without aids

• Know the differences between oral and written language.

1. Oral language is more adaptive. a. Able to read the audience and adapt to the situation 2. Oral language tends to be less formal. a. Writers can go over their words and make changes. Using precise word choice and follow syntax and grammar rules. b. Effective oral language is often simpler and less precise than written. 3. Oral language incorporates repetition. a. Writers try to avoid being redundant, but in speaking repetition can be effective because listeners cannot go back and revisit your points.

• Understand how to use pathos effectively.

1. Pathos- emotional appeal. (your burger had a face) 2. Fear appeal- an argument that arouses fear in the minds of audience members. Can be a powerful form of pathos.

• Know the three distinguishing characteristics of persuasive speeches.

1. Persuasive speech- you attempt to influence your audience member's beliefs, attitudes, or actions. a. Persuasive speeches attempt to influence audience members b. Utilize strategic discourse • Strategic discourse- the process of selecting arguments that will best achieve your rhetorical purpose in an ethical manner. c. Advocate fact, value, or policy claims • Fact claims- assert that something is true or false • Value claims- attach a judgment (good, bad, moral, immoral) to a subject. • Policy claims- advocate action by organizations, institutions, or members of your audience.

• Be familiar with the six tips for participating in a small group.

1. Prepare for group meetings 2. Treat other members courteously 3. Listen interactively 4. Participate don't dominate 5. Participate authentically 6. Fulfill your commitments

• Be familiar with the three guidelines for incorporating persuasive strategies.

1. Relate main and supporting points to your audience 2. Appealing to your audience's needs a. Needs- objects they desire and feelings that must be satisfied 3. Connecting to your listeners' values a. Values- are "core conceptions" of what is desirable for our own life and for society. 4. Demonstrating how your audience benefits 5. Acknowledging listener's reservations a. Two-sided argument- acknowledge and argument against your thesis and then use evidence and reasoning to refute that argument. 6. Focus on peripheral beliefs a. Core beliefs- viewpoints that people have held closely, often for many years. b. Peripheral beliefs- beliefs that audience members have not held quite so closely or for as long.

• Be familiar with the five suggestions for expressing your ideas effectively.

1. Repetition: grabs attentions and leaves memory in audience heads, use sparingly. 2. Hypothetical examples- imagined examples or scenarios that you invite your audience to think about. 3. Personal anecdotes (brief stories): builds credibility and assures audience you are not judging them. 4. Vivid language- grabs the attention of your audience with words and phrases that appeal to all the senses. a. Imagery- mental impressions for the audience. 5. Similes and metaphors a. Similes- make explicit comparisons and contain words such as like or as. b. Metaphors- make implicit comparisons. Suggest connections between objects that are not alike.

• Be familiar with the eight organizational patterns and the reasons for using each.

1. Spatial pattern- the main points represent important aspects of your topic that can be thought of as adjacent to one another in location or geography. a. Useful in speeches that can be broken down into specific parts. 2. Temporal pattern- you present the information in chronological order. a. Useful in speeches about historical events, helps audience keep track of what you're saying. 3. Causal pattern- helps your audience understand the link between particular events and their outcomes. 4. Comparison pattern- organizes the speech around major similarities and differences between two events, objects, or situations. a. Helps your audience learn about a new subject by comparing it to a subject they already know. 5. Problem-cause-solution pattern- use this if you want to ask your audience to take specific action or support a particular policy on an issue. 6. Criteria-application pattern- proposes standards for making a judgment about a topic and then applies those standards to the topic. a. Allows for two main points the first establishes the criteria the second is the application of those criteria to your speech topic. 7. Narrative pattern- you organize your speech as a story, using characters and a plot to convey your message. 8. Categorical pattern- each main point emphasizes one of the most important aspects of your topic that your want the audience to understand.

• Be familiar with the five guidelines for listening when you are in the audience.

1. Speech critique- written or oral feedback offered after a presentation. 2. Take notes: you'll be able to access your thoughts when it comes time to offer your critique 3. Identify main points: 4. Consider the speech's objectives: constructive criticism feedback a speaker can use to improve his or her skills. 5. Support your feedback with examples: use specific examples 6. Be ethical:

• Know the principles for organizing your supporting materials

1. Subordination- means creating a hierarchy of points and their supporting materials in your speech. 2. Subpoints- supporting materials to the main points. 3. Sub-subpoints- materials that support subpoints. 4. Coordination- each point is coordinate with another.

• Why should you use supporting materials in your speech?

1. Supporting materials- are the different types of information that you use to develop and support your main points. 2. They are the building blocks to a successful speech. 3. Helps your listeners better understand your message, capture their interest, and convince them that you've done your research and are informed about your topic. Also they breathe life into your topic.

• Know the three types of group presentations and the reasons for using each.

1. Symposium- several or all group members speak to the audience 2. Panel discussion- members engage in discourse with each other, observed by the audience; and a presentation by one member representing the group. a. Moderator- introduces the panelists (the other groups members) and facilitates the discussion.

• Know the three types of member roles.

1. Task-oriented roles: contribute to the group's ability to accomplish its goals. 2. Maintenance-oriented roles: sustain relationships 3. Self-oriented roles

• Be familiar with the types of organizing words and sentences and the appropriate ways to use each.

1. Transitions- a sentence that indicates you are moving from one part of your speech to the next. 2. Signposts- words or phrases within sentences that help your audience understand your speech's structure. a. Inform audience about the direction and organization of a presentation. 3. Internal preview- a short list of the ideas that will follow. 4. Internal summary- a quick review of what you just said about that main point.

• Understand the four ways you can make your message as clear as possible.

1. Understandable language: consists of words your listeners recognize. Analyze listeners demographics to see what language would be most effective. a. Jargon- specialized or technical words or phrases familiar to people in a specific field or group. (be careful in using; include technical terms, abbreviations, acronyms, sland) • If you can say something in plain language, do so • If you do use jargon, explain it 2. Concrete words- specific and suggest exactly what you mean a. Abstract words- are general and can be confusing and ambiguous for your audience. 3. Proper use of words: incorrect word choice makes listeners confused and could undermine your credibility. 4. Concise language: listeners only hear you once so make sure each of your sentences expresses one thought. a. Concise: that is, use the fewest words necessary to express an idea. b. Verbal clutter- term used for unnecessary words in a presentation, extraneous words that make it hard for the audience to follow your message.

• What are the six causes of ineffective listening?

1. Unprocessed note taking- taking word for word notes without thinking about what they're writing down. • You don't process what you hear. Leads to trouble retaining info 2. People who engage in nonlistening- simply don't pay attention to what they're hearing. • Likely to happen if you are more focused on your own thoughts on the subject than what the speaker has to say. Prevents processing and retaining 3. Interruptive listening- one person consistently interrupts another. • Such as blurting out questions before the speaker is ready for them. Speaker can also be an interruptive listener by not recognizing audience members with hands up cut off their question mid sentence and finish the question for her. 4. Agenda driven listening- public speakers who focus solely on the mechanics of their presentation. • Could damage cred 5. Argumentative listening- people who have a conflict with individuals they are listening to. • Listen only to as much as they need to fuel their own arguments. Can affect speakers to they feel personally attacked by audience members during Q n A's so they cant respond in a thoughtful way damaging cred. 6. Nervous listening- people who feel compelled to talk through silences because they're uncomfortable with a lapse in the conversation. • Makes it difficult for people to respond, and for yourself to gather and interpret information.

• Understand the five guidelines for using supporting materials.

1. Use a variety of supporting materials: a. Using the same supporting material over and over again reduces effectiveness. 2. Appeal to different learning styles: a. People are active, reflective, and visual learners appeal to all. 3. Avoid long lists 4. Consider your audience 5. Respect the available time: make sure your materials fit in your time

• Why is language and word choice important?

1. Words can inform, inspire, and uplift others. 2. Word choice reflects you as a speaker; your words and phrases convey your ethos to your listeners

• Be familiar with the two types of outlines and the situations in which each are appropriate.

1. Working outline- contains all of the points in your speech written in full sentences or detailed phrases. Very specific. Useful for first organizing your thoughts and rehearsing your speech. 2. Speaking outline- (extemporaneous delivery) is preferred while you're presenting to an audience.

• Understand the purpose of a good conclusion and the three steps of a good conclusion (in order).

1. Your conclusion serves another purpose: it helps you sum up the message you developed in the body and leave a memorable impression in your audience's minds. 2. Transition: 3. Summarize main points: a. Summary- a brief review of your main points. 4. Finish with a clincher: a. Clincher- something that leaves a lasting impression of your speech in your listener's minds. b. Tie your clincher to the intro c. End with a striking sentence or phrase d. Conclude with an emotional message e. End with a story or anecdote

• Know the five steps for effectively managing conflicts.

1. managing conflict 2. Refer to ideas by topic not person 3. Resolve conflicts quickly 4. Focus on tasks, not disagreements 5. Manage disruptive emotions.

• Be familiar with the seven types of audiovisual aids and the reasons for using each.

1. the speaker 2. assistants: if you serving as an audiovisual aid yourself would complicate things ask someone else to help with demonstrations. 3. Objects 4. Printed materials: maps, charts, graphs, drawing, and photographs a. Map- a visual representation of geography and can contain as much or as little information as you wish. b. Chart- any graphic representation that summarizes information and ideas (verbal, pie, and flowcharts) c. Verbal chart- uses words arranged in a certain format to explain ideas, concepts, or general information. d. Pie chart- resembles a sliced pie and can help you clarify how proportions and percentages relate to one another. e. Flowchart- demonstrates the direction of information, processes, and ideas. f. Graph- helps your audience visualize and understand the relationship between different numbers, measurements, or quantities. • Line graph- use lines plotted on a pair of axes to show relationships between two elements. • Bar graph- consist of parallel bars of varying height or length that compare several pieces of information. g. Drawings and photographs provide a visual description of what is in your speech. Pictures provide an exact depiction. Drawings enable you to emphasize and de-emphasize certain details about your topic. 5. Videos and DVDs 6. Digital visual aids a. Digital projector- shows your presentation on a blank wall. 7. Technological and audio aids: mp3 iPods

• Know and understand the five steps in the reflective-thinking process.

Reflective-thinking process has 5 steps 1. Define the problem: need to know before you can take action 2. Analyze the problem: what are the primary aspects of the problem, which are most important to focus on? 3. Establish criteria for solutions: what factors are most important when weighing possible solutions to the problem your group will be addressing. 4. Generate possible solutions: 5. Select the best solutions

7. Avoid logical fallacies

a. Ad populum fallacy ( bandwagon fallacy)- if you assume that a statement is true because many people believe it is. b. Straw person fallacy- replacing your opponents real claim with a weaker claim you can more easily rebut. c. Slippery slope fallacy- arguing against a policy because you assume that it will lead to some second policy that is undesirable. d. False dilemma fallacy- claiming that there are only two possible choices to address a problem. e. Appeal to tradition fallacy- arguing that an idea or policy is good because people have accepted or followed it for a long time.