Public Speaking Final: Chapters 10,14,17,18, and 20

steps in reflective thinking process

1. Define: Before your group can select a course of action, you must know exactly what problem you will address. 2. Analyze The Problem: After your group has defined the problem, analyze its nature. 3. Establish Criteria For Solving The Problem: Decide what factors will be most important when weighing possible solutions to your problem. 4. Generate Possible Solutions: Create a list of potential solutions to the problem. 5. Select The Best Solution: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each based on the criteria you've defined.

guidelines for using aids during speech

1. Make sure everyone can see/hear aids 2. Control audience interactions with aids: only show aids when needed, turn off when not. 3. Maintain eye contact 4. Remember purpose of your aids

ethos

A credible speaker is seen as knowledgeable, honest, and genuinely interested in doing the right thing for their audience. Ethos can help you win over an audience's trust and persuade them to embrace your viewpoint. Competence (Practical Wisdom): Knowledge and experience in a subject. Trustworthiness (Virtue): Exhibiting honesty and fairness. Goodwill: Wanting what's best for your audience rather than what would benefit themselves. Speakers Who Demonstrate Goodwill: Understand listener's needs and feelings, empathize with the audience's view, and respond quickly to others' communication.

reflective thinking process

A five step strategy for group decision making.

5 parts of introduction

AGD, proposition statement, topic relevance for audience, establish credibility, and preview main points.

self oriented roles

Accomplish little for the group and are motivated by the selfish ends of individual group members; 4 different roles. Blockers: Stop the group from moving towards its goal. Withdrawers: Refuse to make any contribution or to participate in the discussion. Dominators: Monopolize group interactions by interrupting others, arguing for the sake of it, and insisting on having the last word. Distracters: Opposite of harmonizers; send the group in irrelevant directions with off topic comments or extraneous conversation.

parts of a prop statement

Agent of action The word "should" The desired outcome

proposition statement

Agent of action: who is supposed to act (government, some other entity, the audience); what are they capable of doing? The word "should": Action word that gives your proposition focus; words like "might" or "could" are not definitive, tell the audience what you want. The desired outcome: Portion should come from your specific purpose statement; what your audience will do after your speech. EX: The state of Missouri should give tax incentives to companies who use solar renewable energy sources.

peripheral route

Audience members don't actively process your message (low elaboration). Easily influenced by cues that are peripheral to the message's content. Such cues include: the likeability or attractiveness of the speaker, flashy presentation aids, or aspects of the speaker's delivery. These peripheral factors allow receivers to take an easier path to agreement or disagreement without considering the speaker's arguments. Effects of peripheral route more likely to fade quickly. Trying to convince an audience with peripheral factors is unethical (ex: commercials with celebrities); relies on fallacious appeals instead of rational ones. Unethical because speaker failed to help audience make a rational decision. Message Elaboration: How much a person has to think about a particular argument in a persuasive message.

how you can evoke emotion

By using pathos and putting a human face on your problem. Experts have referred to human emotions as the "primary motivating system of all activity". Humans have the capacity to experience a wide range of emotions and each of these feelings can be used to enhance pathos in a speech. If you express the key points of your message with words that relate to the values, needs, and aspirations of your audience, your ideas are more likely to resonate. Effective word choice: when a speaker's language connects with the values/passions of audience, the persuasive effectiveness of a message is enhanced.

org patterns for fact claims

Causal Pattern: Many fact claims argue that one thing causes another. Categorical Pattern: Sometimes each main point in your speech will reflect a different reason that you believe your fact claim is true.

guidelines for preparing aids

Consider the forum: Forum: a setting where a speaker delivers a speech. Consider the audience: Analysis of audience should drive your aid selection. Demographics (listener's age, gender, race) can easily predetermine how audience members respond to a particular aid. Prior exposure (extent to which an audience has already heard a speaker's message) to certain elements of your speech may positively or negatively influence how audience responds to those elements. Make sure aids support your points Keep aids simple and clear: keep aids simple; works best when audience can quickly grasp what you're trying to communicate. Test size of visual aid, create contrast, test legibility of aids, and test volume and clarity of aids. Rehearse with aids

task oriented roles

Contribute to a group's ability to accomplish its goals through enhancing member's participation and the free flow of information within the group; 8 different roles. Initiators: Suggest the group's goals and offer new ideas. Information Providers: Offer facts relevant to the issue under discussion. Information Gatherers: Ask other members to share facts they know or seek needed information from other sources. Collaborators: Add supporting facts, examples, or ideas to a point that someone has already made. Clarifiers: Attempt to make the meaning of another member's statement more precise. Evaluators: Offer their own judgements about the ideas put forward during a discussion. Synthesizers: Identify emerging agreements/disagreements among the group as a whole. Recorders: Take notes, track major decisions, and plans made by the group.

org patterns for value claims

Criteria-Application Pattern: Has 2 main points; one establishes standards for the value judgement you're making and the other applies those standards to the subject of your thesis. Comparison Pattern: When you want to claim that two situations are similar or different. Categorical Pattern: In some persuasive speeches, you may decide that it isn't necessary how each main point supports the value judgement you're making because your audience already understands each points' relevance.

central route

Denotes a high level of elaboration: a mental process that involves actively processing a speaker's argument. Audience members reflect on the message and consider it in the light of their preexisting ideas about the issue. Central route listeners are more likely to develop a positive attitude when the speaker's argument is strong. If you argue well enough, they are more likely to agree with you. When audience member's seriously evaluate the content of a persuasive message, they form attitudes that are longer lasting and less likely to change in response to future counterarguments. Also more likely to take action based on those attitudes.

toulmin model

Describes parts of an argument. To show that a claim is probably true, you need to provide supporting data that offers a good reason for accepting the claim. To do this, you might quote an expert, present a demonstration, or provide examples to illustrate the claim. If your audience accepts the link between the supporting materials and your claim, there is a good chance they will agree with your point. 1. Claim: Part of the argument to be defended; general conclusion of the argument. 2. Data: Evidence or reasons that support the claim; comes after claim. 3. Warrant: Links data with the claim; implied rather than stated; Enthymeme: Argument with an unstated assumption that is supplied by audience (ex: you should quit smoking...smoking is bad for your health).

selecting leader

Designated Leader: A person who is chosen by an authority figure to help a group move quickly forward with its mission. Implied Leader: A person who has preexisting authority or skills that make them likely to be recognized as a leader by a group, even if leadership hasn't been formally assigned. Emergent Leader: A person who comes to be recognized as a leader by a group's members over time. Usually assumes the role because they have the most time to commit, they demonstrated exceptional competence, and takes initiative to start leading.

strategies for effective leadership

Difficult for any group to function without an effective leader. The leader need not have total control, but they must help group members reach a decision and achieve goals together. Leading Meetings: conduct meetings in ways that enable members to work together productively, contribute their ideas, and make well informed decisions. Address Procedural Needs Model The Behavior You Expect: Avoid interrupting and dismissing others. Resist any urge to dominate discussions. Make group members feel they can interact comfortably with you. Facilitate Discussions: Ensure all group members have an opportunity to participate; bring group members into the discussion. Important to contribute new ideas, but let other members speak first; if you make your position known early, members may hesitate to contradict you. Keep Members On Task Help Members Avoid Groupthink: Groupthink: Member's tendency to accept ideas and information uncritically because of strong feelings of loyalty and single mindedness. It erodes the lively and open exchange of ideas necessary for informed decisions. It can also eliminate independent, critical thinking and replace it with groupthink. Facilitate Decisions: Helps members come to a decision; never use your power to manipulate the group. Help Organize The Group's Presentation: Don't need to make all the decisions yourself, but you do need to coordinate the decisions on these topics. Managing Conflict: Refer to ideas by topic, not by person. Resolve conflicts quickly. Focus on tasks, not disagreements. Manage disruptive emotions. Seek to create a diverse group atmosphere (heterogeneity and homogeneity).

pathos

Emotional appeals; help put a human face on a problem you're addressing; when you stir your listener's feelings, you enhance your persuasive power. Strengthen your persuasive power by evoking your audience's emotions, not to manipulate listeners, but to move them in an ethical and responsible manner to take the action or belief you're proposing. Fear Appeal: Argument that arouses fears in the minds of the audience members. Loaded Language Fallacy: Emotionally charged words convey a meaning that cannot be supported by the facts presented by the speaker.

differences between fact value and policy claims

Fact Claim: asserts something is true or false (ex: did NASA land a man on the moon). Many people can reach agreement on fact claims when presented with enough evidence. Value Claim: Attaches judgement to a subject; the relative merits of a position (ex: good/bad). Audience member's ideas of right and wrong may be deeply held and may stem from religious/philosophical reasons and thus be difficult to change. Select a value claim that your audience is at least open to considering. Policy Claim: Advocates action should be taken by an organization, institution, or members of the audience; advocates for change of a law, plan, or policy.

losing ethos

Getting facts wrong. Mispronouncing words. Failing to acknowledge potential conflicts of interest. Stretching to find common ground with audience.

maintence oriented roles

Help sustain and strengthen efficient and effective interpersonal relations in a group; 5 different roles. Harmonizers: Decrease tension in the group. Encouragers: Inspire other group members by complimenting their ideas and work. Compromisers: Attempt to find common ground between adversaries within the group and offer solutions that may be palatable to both sides. Gatekeepers: Facilitate the exchange of information among group members. Norm Facilitators: Reinforce healthy group norms and discourages unproductive ones.

ensure ethical use of strategies

Help your audience make an informed decision: don't manipulate them into agreeing with you. Present solid, truthful claims that support your proposition statement. Avoid arguments based on faulty reasoning. Include all key facts you know would help your audience carefully weigh what you're proposing. Research your facts: you have an ethical duty to research your topic so that you can be sure the facts you present are accurate. If you're research reveals a fact that is supported by a consensus of credible sources, you can confidently use that fact in your speech. If you find the jury is still out on a claim you wish to make, don't present that point as an established fact, instead, acknowledge that the point is still being debated; then, use a two-sided argument to show why you believe the support for your side outweighs the support for the other side. If you find that few credible sources support your claim and most disagree, don't include the point in your speech; research other arguments for your position instead. Note any biases: Some communicators stand to benefit personally if they succeed in persuading their audience. Audience members will feel cheated if such potential conflicts of interests are not disclosed because such facts are relevant to their decision of whether to believe a speaker. Therefore, practice full disclosure with your audience: acknowledge any vested interest you may have in your topic. Audience will likely respect you if you're honest enough to reveal such biases. Attribute research properly: Include citations every time you present ideas from other sources. Make sure quotations and paraphrases are accurate and represent the original author's point of view.

why pathos is important in persuasive

Helps put a human face on your problem and it evokes strong emotions that will cause your audience to be persuaded by and remember your speech.

Purpose of conclusion

Helps sum up the message you developed in your speech and leave a memorable impression.

using evidence logos

Identify your sources and their qualifications. Give listeners new evidence. Provide Precise Evidence: Specific dates, places, and other facts. Look for compelling evidence. Characterize evidence accurately.

importance of showing how audience benefits

If they think they will benefit from your speech, they will listen and remember your message more. If they listen closer and show a high level of elaboration, they will likely remember your speech and can be persuaded.

panel discussions

Members engage in discourse with one another, observed by the audience. Group members sit at a table and speak as if conversing with one another while the audience watches and listens. Panel members primary role is to speak; audience's primary role is to listen. Usually requires a moderator who introduces each panelist and facilitates the discussion. Moderator's role is similar to a leader in a group discussion. They monitor the time, ask questions that keep the discussion moving, and ensures each panelist has an opportunity to participate. They also may participate in the discussion; shouldn't dominate. Panel participants should contribute without monopolizing. Important to participate if you have special expertise about the point being made. Be tactful and professional when disagreeing with another member's point.

elaboration likelihood model

Model shows two ways that audience members may evaluate a persuasive speaker's message: Central and Peripheral

org patterns for policy claims

Monroe's Motivated Sequence: Follows the stages of thinking that people often go through when solving a problem or considering new ideas. A motivated sequence aims to establish: 1. Attention: Creating a willingness to listen to your message. 2. Need: Identifying a need relevant to your audience. 3. Satisfaction: Showing how your proposal will fulfill the need you identified. 4. Visualization: Helping listeners form a mental picture of your proposal. 5. Action: Clarifying what you want your audience to do. Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern: 1st main point describes a problem that needs to be addressed, 2nd main point explains the cause of the problem, and the 3rd main point presents a solution to minimize the problem. Especially helpful if you're asking the audience to support a policy change by an organization. Because your ultimate goal is new behavior on the part of the organization, the problem cause solution pattern builds to the action you're advocating.

strategies for effective group membership

Prepare For Group Meetings: Think about the topics under consideration; keep track of any commitments you made and be sure to fulfill them. Treat Other Members Courteously: Arrive at meeting on time and turn off cellphone; treat others with respect. Listen Interactively: Inattention between group members can cause tension in a group. As other members share their ideas and comments, try to understand their viewpoints and show that you're listening. Ask for clarification and make sure you understand a point before challenging it. Participate, Don't Dominate: When you have a relevant point to make, share your ideas and avoid monopolizing the discussion. By participating authentically, be guided by honesty, not popularity, when considering problems and solutions. Fulfill Your Commitments: For a group to acheive its goals, its vital that members accept responsibility for performing certain tasks; both individually and required assignments. When group members make commitments the rest of the group relies on them to fulfill these commitments. Use Technology To Your Advantage

differences between fact value and policy propositions

Proposition of Fact: Uncover truth based on facts available; facts and data determine truth. Bad Example: You should recognize Christopher Columbus isn't as great as everyone thinks he is. Good Example: You should recognize that Leif Erickson was the first European to step foot in the Americas. Proposition of Value: Issue of good/bad or right/wrong; changing a belief/value held. Bad Example: Everyone should value justice. Good Example: US citizens should value the rule of law above all things. Proposition of Policy: Rules, regulations, and laws. Bad Example: US should end war in Afghanistan. Good Example: US government should immediately withdraw troops from Afghanistan.

using reasoning logos

Reasoning: Line of thought that connects facts you present and the conclusions you draw from those facts. Persuasive speakers typically use Inductive Reasoning: Generalizing from facts/examples and then making a claim based on that generalization. Example Reasoning: Present specific instances to support a general claim. Representative Example: An instance typical of the class it represents. Comparison Reasoning: Argues that two instances are similar and that what you know is true for one instance is likely true for the other one. Causal Reasoning: Argue that one event caused another.

building ethos

Share qualifications to speak on the topic. Present strong evidence from reputable sources. Highlight common ground with the audience. Choose words carefully. Show respect for conflicting opinions. Practice speech until delivery is fluent.

clincher

Something that leaves your audience with a lasting impression of your speech.

persuasive speechs influence audince

Strengthen audience commitment: if audience already agrees with your perspective, you may try to strengthen their commitment. Weaken audience commitment: if audience members disagree with your perspective, you may attempt to weaken their commitment to their viewpoint. Promote audience action: you may also seek to persuade your audience to take a specific action.

why should speakers use presentation aids?

Studies show that aids enhance learning for both inexperienced and experienced audience members. Presentation aid: Anything beyond your spoken words that you employ to help your audience understand and remember your message. Includes: any materials you might use to support and convey the point and subpoints in your speech. 1. Can make your speech more interesting 2. Can simplify a complex topic: Presentation aids can help you simplify your message so that your listeners can better understand you. 3. Can help your audience remember your speech: Many individuals find visual information much easier to recall than spoken information. Aids can help ensure that you leave a lasting impression on your listeners.

parts of conclusion

Summary of points: a brief reveiw of your main points; goal is to remind audience of main points. Clincher

Types of visual aids

The Speaker: If the topic calls for an explanation of an action. Assistants: Help reinforce points from your speech or demonstrate something. Objects Visual Images: Save time and improve clarity by presenting a simple visual representation rather than describing something. Maps: Visual representation of geography. Photographs: Provide an exact depiction. Diagram: Explain how something works/describing its parts. Graphs: Visual representations among different numbers, measurements, or quantities. Useful when presenting a great deal of statistical evidence. Text Based Visuals: Presenting text graphically can help your audience organize and understand information. Audio: Enhance presentation; make abstract concepts easier to understand. Video: Useful whenever showing the subject in act/motion; would enhance the audience's understanding more than a still or verbal description.

nature of persuasion

The goal is to influence audience member's beliefs, attitudes, or actions and to advocate fact, value, or policy claims.

criteria for selecting good persuasive topic

The topic should be controversial; ensures there is more than one side to the issue and the audience could be persuaded. Topics like abortion, gay marriage, etc. are good topics, but represent salient beliefs; not enough time to change someone's beliefs. New arguments: look for controversial topics with new arguments that the audience might not have heard of previously. Topics like diet and exercise aren't controversial because we all know we should eat properly and exercise. Consider your audience: a topic about lowering the legal drinking age isn't controversial.

thesis

Thesis: a single sentence that captures the overall message you want to convey in your speech. Captures the bottom line/ultimate message that all the points in your speech support. Express intentions and be consistent with your specific purpose.

logos

When you use trustworthy facts to back your claim and clearly show how those facts have led you to those claims. Evidence: Information gathered from credible sources that help a speaker support claims. To Strengthen Logos: Need to show that the conclusions you've drawn from the evidence makes sense; if not you're using fallacious reasoning. Fallacious Reasoning: Presenting a weak link between a claim and its supporting materials.

ethical issues in persuasive speaking

You may be able to persuade your audience even if you don't establish a sound connection between your point and the emotion you're evoking, but your appeal will not be logical or ethical. The use of logical fallacies. Speaker failing to make a logical connection between their points. Using emotional appeals to manipulate the audience. Fear appeals premised on facts that are untrue. Compelling word choice can turn into manipulation, exaggeration, or untruth (loaded language fallacy).

Establish credibility

explain how you have gained knowledge about your topic. In 1 or 2 sentences, emphasize your most relevant credentials.

5 purposes of a good introduction

gains your audience's attention, signals your thesis, shows the relevance of the topic for your audience, establishes your credibility, and previews you main points.

Preview main points

include sign posts to help audience grasp the structure of your speech.

Gain audience's attention

tell a story/anecdote, offer a provocative statement, build suspense, let listeners know you're one of them, use humor, ask a rhetorical question, or provide a quote.

Show relevance of topic

to accomplish this goal, provide 1 sentence or a short paragraph that indicates why the audience should take interest in your topic.

Signal your thesis

your thesis should clearly convey your topic and purpose in delivering the presentation, further preparing the audience to listen. It should also be specific and include a sign post that makes it clear your attention getter is finished and you are now revealing your topic.