PYSC 111 chapter 7
enriching encoding (4)
-Elaboration -Visual imagery -Dual-coding theory -Self-referent encoding
Long term memory (LTM)
-While most researchers agree that LTM has an unlimited capacity―that is, our memory store never gets FULL―much debate remains over whether storage is permanent.
Working memory capacity (WMC)
hold and manipulate information in conscious attention and it is believed to be a stable, heritable trait that contributes to intelligence, musical ability, creativity, and other behaviors.
As Kayla was introduced to the seven members of the committee who would be interviewing her for a scholarship, she silently repeated all the names to herself, in order. What was Kayla using, and why?
rehearsal to temporarily store the names in short-term memory
sensory memory
-Sensory memory is brief preservation of information in original sensory form -This type of memory allows the sensation to linger briefly after the sensory stimulation is over; for example, in the visual system, an afterimage. -Auditory/visual - decays after approximately ¼-second -ex. George Sperling (1960): Classic experiment on visual sensory store
human memory
Encoding, storage, and retrieval
divided attention
It appears that both may be at play; sometimes you are paying attention to someone talking with you at a party, and you suddenly hear your name from across the room.
retrieval in memory involves
Retrieval involves recovering information from memory stores
plato and aristotle
compared memory to a block of wax that differed in size and hardness for various individuals―remembering was like stamping an impression into the wax.
relearning
which involves requiring subjects to relearn previously learned information to see how much LESS time or effort it takes them.
recall
which involves requiring subjects to reproduce information on their own without any cues
recognition
which involves requiring subjects to select previously learned material from an array of options
The Repressed Memories Controversy
-Support for recovered memories -Skepticism regarding recovered memories
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
-shows that recall is often guided by partial information about a word―retrieval cues -A failure in retrieval -Retrieval cues
Reinstating the Context of an Event
Context cues: Memories can also be reinstated by context cues. For example, it is easier to recall long-forgotten events if you return after a number of years to a place where you used to live.
STM vs LTM: Phonemic vs. semantic encoding
We used to think that phonemic encoding occurred in STM and semantic (or meaning-based) encoding in LTM. Now we know that both occur for both.
Which memory system has an almost unlimited storage capacity?
long-term memory
retrograde vs anterograde amnesia
r-memory for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia is lost a-memory for events that occur subsequent to the onset of amnesia effects
Which memory process would you be using if you were attempting to remember where you left your keys?
retrieval
Which level of processing should result in the longest lasting memory codes?
semantic
Which type of memory is stored for the shortest period of time?
sensory
Which component is NOT included in Baddeley's model of short-term or working memory?
sensory memory
What types of memory stores are described in the Atkinson-Shiffrin (3-stage) memory model?
sensory, short-term, and long-term stores
Which memory system is most associated with "working memory"?
short term memory
Shayla is able to retain the vocabulary she learned in her first-semester Spanish class after the class has ended. What memory process accounts for the fact that Shayla can hold information in her memory for extended periods of time?
storage
pseudoforgetting
Ineffective encoding occurs when you encode on a more superficial level than you need to; for example, you are distracted when studying and encode what you are reading on a phonemic rather than a semantic level.
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
proposed an Analogy: -information storage in computers information storage in human memory -this approach divides memory into 3 different stores: sensory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
decay theory
proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
Which sequence represents progressively deeper levels of processing?
structural, phonemic, semantic
Taryn was given a list of words as part of a memory test that included "dog, pail, and hate." Later, she recalled these words as "pup, bucket, and dislike." Based on Taryn's errors in recall, how did she encode the original word list?
structurally
clustering
the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
transfer-appropriate processing
theory holds that when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention, retrieval is easier
4 components of working memory
-Baddeley (1986) -Phonological rehearsal loop -Visuospatial sketchpad -Executive control system -Episodic buffer
How Is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? (6)
-Clustering -Conceptual hierarchies -Schemas -Scripts -Semantic networks -Connectionist networks and PDP models
Elaboration (enriching encoding)
-linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding -Thinking of examples: you are studying phobias for your psychology test, and you apply this information to your own fear of spiders. -Self-generated examples seem to work best
selective attention
-selection of input -a term used by many psychologists to describe this paying-attention-to-something process; however, the word "selective" is really redundant. Attention IS selection of inputFiltering: early or late? -Usually, attention is likened to a filter in an information-processing model of memory: the filter screens out most stimuli, while allowing a select few to get by
encoding in memory involves
Encoding involves forming a memory code or putting information into memo
level of processing
-Craik and Lockhart (1972) -Incoming information processed at different levels: -Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes -Encoding levels:Structural = shallow, Phonemic = intermediate, Semantic = deep -According to Craik and Lockhart, whether or not we will be able to remember something depends on how deeply we processed the information.
Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
-Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve -Measures of forgetting -Retention
retrieval failure
-Encoding specificity -Transfer-appropriate processing -Repression -The Repressed Memories Controversy
how to improve everyday memory
-Engage in adequate rehearsal -Distribute practice and minimize interference -Engage in deep processing and transfer-appropriate processing -Organize information -Use verbal mnemonics -Use visual mnemonics
implicit and explicit memory
-Implicit involves incidental, unintentional remembering -Explicit memory involves intentional recall -Many theorists argue that implicit and explicit memory rely on different encoding and retrieval processes, while others argue that they are each handled by independent memory systems (procedural, which is memory for actions, skills, operations and conditioned responses, and declarative, which is memory for factual information).
self-referent encoding (enriching encoding)
-Making information personally meaningful -involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant; that is, information that is personally meaningful is more memorable.
proactive interference
-Proactive: occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information
Prospective vs. retrospective
-Retrospective memory is memory for past events, -prospective memory is remembering to do things in the future
Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory
-Using Cues to Aid Retrieval -The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon -Reinstating the Context of an Event -Memories are reconstructions of the past, which may not be entirely accurate. -Reality Monitoring & Source Monitoring
STM vs. LTM: Decay vs. interference-based forgetting
-We also used to think that decay occurred in STM and interference in LTM, with regard to forgetting. Now, it is unclear what exactly occurs in LTM, it may be both. -Some researchers argue that STM and LTM are the same thing, that STM is just a little part of LTM that is in a state of heightened activation, although the multiple stores view is still dominant.
neural circuity of memory
-appear to depend on localized neural circuits -Reusable pathways in the brain (neurogenesis) that may be specific for specific memories -Long-term potentiation occurs with learning -Long-term potentiation is a long-lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway. -This supports the idea that memory traces consist of specific neural circuits.
biochemistry of memory
-appears to be related to alterations in synaptic transmission at specific sites -Durable changes in synaptic transmission may be the building blocks of memories -Learning causes hormone changes and hormones may modulate activity in a variety of neurotransmitter systems -Protein synthesis: has also been shown to be necessary for memory formation; if you give drugs that interfere with protein synthesis, memory is impaired (at least in chicks and rats).
anatomy of memory
-complex, and many brain structures have been shown to be important in memory -Anterograde amnesia: For subsequent events -Retrograde amnesia: For prior events -Cerebral cortex, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus -Consolidation: is the hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored to long term memory.
visual imagery (enriching encoding)
-creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered -Easier for concrete objects: Juggler versus the word truth
Declarative vs. Nondeclarative (procedural)
-declarative memory system handles explicit memory -nondeclarative/procedural implicit memory. -Declarative memory can be subdivided into memory for personal facts (episodic) and memory for general facts (semantic).
Short-Term Memory (STM)
-has a limited-capacity durability of storage - about 20 seconds without rehearsal -Rehearsal - the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information -Maintenance vs. elaborative rehearsal -Capacity of storage - magical number 7 plus or minus 2 -Chunking - grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit -STM not limited to phonemic encoding -Loss of information not due only to decay -Working memory capacity (WMC)
systems and types of memory
-implicit and explicit -declarative and non declarative -prospective and retrospective
scripts
-is a particular type of schema, organizing what a person knows about common activities; for example, going to a restaurant. -Research shows that people are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas than things that are not. The reverse is also true―people sometimes exhibit better recall if information really clashes with a schema.
why do we forget?
-may be related to encoding, storage, or retrieval processes. -Much forgetting may only look like forgetting; it may have never been inserted into memory in the first place―pseudoforgetting, usually due to lack of attention so that encoding does not occur. -Decay theory -Interference
retention
-the proportion of material retained -Recall -Recognition -Relearning
interference
-theory holds that people forget information because of competition from other material. -Proactive -Retroactive
7 sins of memory
1. Transience 2. Absentmindedness 3. Blocking 4. Misattribution 5. Suggestibility 6. Bias 7. Persistence
Sins of Omission
1. Transience: is the simple weakening of a memory over time. This is what we tend to think of most often when we think about memory failure. 2. Absentmindedness: refers to a memory failure that is often due to a failure to pay attention because we are perhaps preoccupied with other things: losing your keys, misplacing your flash drive. 3. Blocking: is an often temporary problem that occurs when we fail to retrieve an item of information such as someone's name when we meet them. Of course, this is similar to what we have referred to as the tip-of-the-tongue phenomena
sins of commission
4. Misattribution: we assign a memory to the wrong source, such as the example we gave above about this week's exam in psychology, or was it sociology? 5. Suggestibility: our memory is distorted because of, for example, misleading questions 6. Bias: refers to inaccuracy due to the effect of our current knowledge on our reconstruction of the past 7. Persistence: involves unwanted memories or recollections that you cannot forget―memories that haunt you
Two students took a memory test where they had to remember 20 words that were flashed on a screen. Mallory tried to think of rhymes for each word as it appeared on the monitor. Bailey tried to think of ways each word could be used in a sentence. What would you predict based on Craik and Lockhart's levels-ofprocessing theory?
Bailey will have better recall of the words because she used semantic encoding.
Permanent storage?
Flashbulb memories and hypnosis-based memory suggest that LTM is indeed permanent, that the only reason we forget is that we aren't able to access information that is still in LTM (interference theory). Research shows, however, that flashbulb and hypnosis-based memories are not always accurate. Is the information still there, or does it decay over time, and we make up for this by building up decayed memories so that they make sense?
attention
Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus studied forgetting using retention in the late 1800s, by using himself as a subject. He found that retention and forgetting occur over time and plotted his data on the famous forgetting curve depicted on the next slide. Current research suggests that this curve is unusually steep, probably due to the fact that Ebbinghaus was using nonsense syllables that are difficult to encode semantically.
Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory 2 peeps
Plato and Aristotle Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
storage in memory involves
Storage involves maintaining coded information in memory over time
Phonological rehearsal loop:
This component is active when one uses recitation to temporarily hold on to information.
Visuospatial sketchpad:
allows temporary holding and manipulation of visual images (e.g., mentally rearranging the furniture in your bedroom).
conceptual hierarchies
are multilevel classification systems based on common properties among items.
schemas
are organized clusters of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience
Connectionist networks and PDP models
assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks. That is, this model of memory uses as inspiration the way neurons appear to handle information through connections. According to this model, specific memories correspond to specific patterns of activation in these networks
Mark is listening as his roommate lists 14 things that they need to buy for their apartment before the end of the week. Based on George Miller's research into short-term memory capacity, how many items is Mark likely to remember if he doesn't write the items down as he hears them?
between 5 and 9 items
semantic networks
consist of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts. This explains why thinking of butter makes bread easier to remember.
What is the order of the basic memory processes in which information enters our memory system and is used?
encoding, storage, retrieval
Which component of working memory handles the ability of people to "juggle" information in working memory in order to reason and make decisions?
executive control
What type of memories are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events?
flashbulb memories
Executive control system:
handles the limited amount of information juggled at one time as people engage in reasoning and decision making; for example, at work when you weigh pros and cons of something.
Which of the following is a component of most theories of attention?
he concept of attention as a selective filter that screens out most stimuli
dual-coding theory (enriching encoding)
holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic or visual codes, since either can lead to recall
hippocampus role in memory
initial consolidation of memories, which are then stored in diverse and widely distributed areas of the cortex
repression
involves the motivated forgetting of painful or unpleasant memories. Recent years have seen a surge of reports of repressed memories of child sexual abuse. The authenticity of these repressed memories is challenged by empirical studies that show that it is not at all hard to create false memories and that many recovered memories are actually the product of suggestion.
Episodic buffer:
is a temporary, limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information, and that serves as an interface between working and LTM.
Reality monitoring
is a type of source monitoring that involves determining whether memories are based in actual events (external sources) or your imagination (internal sources). For example, thinking you were kidnapped by aliens is a possible error in reality monitoring.
Misinformation effect
is explained in part by the unreliability of source monitoring―the process of making attributions about the origins of memories. People make decisions at the time of retrieval about where their memory is coming from (e.g., did I read that somewhere or think of it on my own?
Cryptomnesia
is inadvertent plagiarism that occurs when you think you came up with it but were really exposed to it earlier
Destination memory
is recalling to whom you told what, and it is seen as more difficult than source monitoring as we are self-focused when giving information and often pay less attention to who we are talking to.
retroactive interference
occurs when new information impairs the retention for previously learned information
the first step in getting info into memory
pay attention to it!!!!!
Xavier was given a list of words as part of a memory test that included "dog, pail, and hate." Later, he recalled these words as "log, whale, and late." Based on Xavier's errors in recall, how did he encode the original word list?
phonemically
encoding specificity
principle holds that the effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code that represents the stored item; the closer a retrieval cue is to the way we encode the info, the better we are able to remember
