Quiz 3

antithesis

, a statement that asserts the opposite position.

Criteria for Evidence

1. Your evidence should be relevant.It should support your thesis and be pertinent to your argument. As you present evidence, be careful not to concentrate so much on a single example that you lose sight of the broader position you are supporting. 2. Your evidence should be representative. It should represent the full range of opinions about your subject, not just one side. 3. Your evidence should be sufficient. It should include enough facts, opinions, and examples to support your claims.

Toulmin logic

A method of structuring an argument according to the way arguments occur in everyday life. Developed by philosopher Stephen Toulmin, Toulmin logic divides an argument into three parts: the claim, the grounds, and the warrant.

Rogerian argument

A strategy put forth by psychologist Carl Rogers that rejects the adversarial approach that characterizes many arguments. Rather than attacking the opposition, Rogers suggests acknowledging the validity of opposing positions. By finding areas of agreement, a Rogerian argument reduces conflict and increases the chance that the final position will satisfy all parties

Gathering and Documenting Evidence

All the points you make in your essay must be supported. If they are not, your audience will dismiss them as unfounded, irrelevant, or unclear. Sometimes you can support a statement with appeals to emotion, but most of the time you support your argument's points by appealing to reason — by providing evidence: facts and opinions in support of your position. As you gather evidence and assess its effectiveness, keep in mind that evidence in an argumentative essay never proves anything conclusively. If it did, there would be no debate — and hence no point in arguing. The best that evidence can do is convince your audience that an assertion is reasonable and worth considering.

argument from analogy

An analogy explains something unfamiliar by comparing it to something familiar. Although analogies can help explain abstract or unclear ideas, they do not constitute proof. An argument based on an analogy frequently ignores important dissimilarities between the two things being compared. When this occurs, the argument is fallacious.

Ethos

An appeal based on the character reputation of the writer.

Thesis

An essay's main idea; the idea that all the points in the body of the essay support. A thesis may be implied, but it is usually stated explicitly in the form of a thesis statement. In addition to conveying the essay's main idea, the thesis statement may indicate the writer's approach to the subject and the writer's purpose. It may also indicate the pattern of development that will structure the essay.

Pathos

Appeal to emotion

Choosing a Topic

First, you should be well informed about your topic. In addition, you should choose an issue narrow enough to be treated in the space available to you or be willing to confine your discussion to one aspect of a broad issue. It is also important to consider what you expect your argument to achieve. If your topic is so far-reaching that you cannot identify what point you want to make, or if your position is overly idealistic or unreasonable, your essay will suffer.

Appeal to Doubtful Authority

Often people will attempt to strengthen an argument with references to experts or famous people. These appeals have merit when the person referred to is an expert in the area being discussed. They do not have merit, however, when the individuals cited have no expertise on the issue.

Jumping to a Conclusion

Sometimes called a hasty or sweeping generalization, this fallacy occurs when a conclusion is reached on the basis of too little evidence.

Refutation

The attempt to counter an opposing argument by revealing its weaknesses. Three of the most common weaknesses are logical flaws in the argument, inadequate evidence, and irrelevance. Refutation greatly strengthens an argument by showing that the writer is aware of the complexity of the issue and has considered opposing viewpoints.

Using Deductive Arguments

The basic form of a deductive argument is a syllogism. A syllogism consists of a major premise, which is a general statement; a minor premise, which is a related but more specific statement; and a conclusion, which is drawn from those premises. Consider the following example. Major premise: All Olympic runners are fast. Minor premise: Jesse Owens was an Olympic runner. Conclusion: Therefore, Jesse Owens was fast.

Documentation

The formal way of giving credit to the sources a writer borrows words or ideas from. Documentation allows readers to evaluate a writer's sources and to consult them if they wish. Essays written for literature and writing classes use the documentation style recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA).

Persuasion

The method a writer uses to move an audience to adopt a belief or follow a course of action. To persuade an audience, a writer relies on the various appeals — to the emotions, to reason, or to ethics. Persuasion is different from argumentation, which appeals primarily to reason.

Begging the Question

This fallacy assumes that a statement is true when it actually requires proof. It requires readers to agree that certain points are self-evident when in fact they are not.

Non Sequitur (It Does Not Follow).

This fallacy occurs when a statement does not logically follow from a previous statement.

Red Herring

This fallacy occurs when the focus of an argument is shifted to divert the audience from the actual issue.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (After This, Therefore Because of This).

This fallacy, known as post hoc reasoning, assumes that because two events occur close together in time, the first must be the cause of the second.

Using Inductive Arguments

Unlike deduction, induction has no distinctive form, and its conclusions are less definitive than those of syllogisms. Still, much inductive thinking (and writing based on that thinking) tends to follow a particular process. First, you decide on a question to be answered or, especially in the sciences, a tentative answer to such a question, called a hypothesis. Then, you gather the evidence that is relevant to the question and that may be important to finding the answer. Finally, you move from your evidence to your conclusion by making an inference — a statement about the unknown based on the known — that answers the question and takes the evidence into account.

Coordinating conjunctions

Using Coordinating Conjunctions A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses (simple sentences) connected by a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions join two independent clauses that express ideas of equal importance, and they also indicate how those ideas are related. and (indicates addition) but, yet (indicate contrast or contradiction) or (indicates alternatives) nor (indicates an elimination of alternatives) so, for (indicate a cause-and-effect connection)

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLAUSES

Using Subordinating Conjunctions A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause (simple sentence) and one or more dependent clauses. (A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.) Subordinating conjunctions link dependent and independent clauses that express ideas of unequal importance, and they also indicate how those ideas are related. after, before, since, until, when, whenever, while Time as, because, since, so that Cause or effect even if, if, unless Condition although, even though, though

Argumentation

a logical way of asserting the soundness of a debatable position, belief, or conclusion. Argumentation takes a stand — supported by evidence — and urges people to share the writer's perspective and insights. Argumentation can be used to convince other people to accept (or at least acknowledge the validity of) your position; to defend your position, even if you cannot convince others to agree; or to question or refute a position you believe to be misguided, untrue, dangerous, or evil (without necessarily offering an alternative).

Fallacies

a mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound argument

Useful Transitions for Argumentation

all in all as a result finally in short first, second, third for example for instance for these reasons however in addition in brief in conclusion in other words in summary nevertheless on the one hand . . . on the other hand still therefore thus yet

Logos

appeal to logic and reason

Refutation

is essential to making the strongest case possible. You can refute opposing arguments by showing that they are unsound, unfair, or inaccurate.

Opinions

judgments or beliefs that are not substantiated by proof

Facts

statements that people generally agree are true and that can be verified independently ; information used as evidence or as part of a report or news article;

credibility

the quality of being convincing or believable