Readings w/ Notes

Average annual growth rate of shrimp production in Bangladesh is... (Ahmed et al., 2017)

5.38%

Where is the largest continuous mangrove forest in the world? Name? (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Along the mouth of the Bay of Bengal between Bangladesh (60%) and India (40%) The Sundarbans

'Moderate weak sustainability' (Dresner, 2008)

Conserves/protects 'critical natural capital' - aka services provided by natural assets for which there are no substitutes (resources w/ no human-made substitutes)

Sustainable growth as an oxymoron

Daly (1993) criticized the notion of 'sustainable growth' as 'thought-stopping' and oxymoronic in a world in which ecosystems are finite. At some point, economic growth with ever more use of resources and production of waste is unsustainable (think IKEA?)

What's the source of the graph? What are the units for it?

Modified from McLeod et al., 2011 g C m^-2 yr^-1

"Blue carbon is not currently covered by the UNFCCC and therefore not included in a carbon market"

Murray et al., 2011

Strong Sustainability (Hopwood et al., 2005)

Points out that human-made capital cannot replace a multitude of processes vital to human existence such as the ozone layer, photosynthesis or the water cycle (Rees, 1998; Roseland, 1998)

Most promising climate policy mechanism for Blue Carbon (according to Ullman et al., 2013)

Regulated cap-and-trade schemes

Subnational cap-and-trade schemes (Ullman et al., 2013)

Several of these exist or are in development

National cap-and-trade schemes (Ullman et al., 2013)

The next-largest potential cap-and-trade scheme Such a scheme could provide a significant impetus to Blue Carbon within that country or even in other countries if the scheme allows the importation of foreign offsets. So far this does not exist.

Mangrove restoration as climate change mitigation? (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Would increase blue carbon sequestration

Why are blue carbon ecosystems important? (IUCN)

"Coastal ecosystems need to be conserved and restored as globally significant carbon sinks. Despite their small extent relative to other ecosystems, they sequester and store globally significant amounts of carbon in their soil. The ongoing destruction and loss of these systems contributes to additional human-induced greenhouse gases. Alongside tropical forests and peatlands, coastal ecosystems demonstrate how nature can be used to enhance climate change mitigation strategies and therefore offer opportunities for countries to achieve their emissions reduction targets and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. Additionally, these coastal ecosystems provide numerous benefits and services that are essential for climate change adaptation, including coastal protection and food security for many communities globally. Dedicated conservation efforts can ensure that coastal ecosystems continue to play their role as long-term carbon sinks, by helping to ensure that no new emissions arise from their loss and degradation, whilst stimulating new carbon sequestration through the restoration of previously carbon-rich coastal habitats."

can blue carbon be stored above or below ground for a longer period of time? (Blue Carbon Initiative)

"Similar to the carbon stored in terrestrial ecosystems, blue carbon is sequestered in living plant biomass for relatively short time scales (years to decades)." "Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, carbon sequestered in coastal soils can be extensive and remain trapped for very long periods of time (centuries to millennia) resulting in very large carbon stocks"

Problems with SD's vague definition (according to Hopwood Paper)

"The looseness of the concept and its theoretical underpinnings have enabled the use of the phrases 'sustainable development' and 'sustainability' to become de rigueur (custom, fashion?) for politicians and business leaders, but as the Workshop on Urban Sustainability of the US National Science Foundation (2000, p. 1) pointed out: - sustainability is 'laden with so many definitions that it risks plunging into meaninglessness, at best, and - becoming a catchphrase for demagogy, at worst." "[It] is used to justify and legitimate a myriad of policies and practices ranging from communal agrarian utopianism to large-scale capital-intensive market development'." "Brundtland's ambiguity allows business and governments to be in favour of sustainability without any fundamental challenge to their present course, using Brundtland's support for rapid growth to justify the phrase 'sustainable growth'"

Wetlands' survival of the ever faster rates of sea-level rise depends principally on: (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013)

- Sediment availability - Biotic responses to environmental change - The opportunity for wetlands to migrate inland - Environmental attitudes that influence land use, all of which are heavily determined by human socio-economic systems. ALL HEAVILY DETERMINED BY HUMAN SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

The emissions from _________ ha of mangrove forest converted to shrimp pond are equivalent to the emissions of about _________ ha of tropical evergreen forest conversion and _________ ha of tropical dry forest conversion (Ahmed et al., 2017)

1 ha of mangrove 5 ha of tropical evergreen forest 11.5 ha of tropical dry forest

How much mangrove deforestation was because of shrimp farming? (Ahmed et al., 2017)

1.4 million ha 38% of total deforestation caused by aquaculture

Bangladesh quick facts (Ahmed et al., 2017)

2.06 million tons in 2014-2015 Ranked 6th globally in aquaculture One of the most suitable countries in the world for coastal aquaculture because of its favorable biophysical resources and agro-climatic conditions The coastal aquaculture sector is dominated by tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) farming. Ranked 9th in mangrove area, covering 3% of the world's mangrove forests

"voluntary market" (Ullman et al., 2013)

A different market-based funding mechanism (dif than cap-and-trade) Caters to individuals, companies or governments who seek to buy carbon credits to voluntarily offset their own greenhouse-gas emissions although many of the participants in the voluntary market are buying credits in anticipation of future compliance markets. The benefit of this market is that it exists today, providing an opportunity for Blue Carbon projects to be funded now rather than waiting for regulated schemes to take effect. The principal disadvantage of the voluntary market is that it generally mobilizes much smaller amounts of funding than regulated markets Consequently, the voluntary market is likelier to facilitate Blue Carbon demonstration projects than it is to make a significant impact on the rate at which coastal ecosystems are being destroyed globally.

Trawling (Murray et al., 2011)

A method of fishing, Has been identified as one of the most important direct causes of habitat destruction of P. oceanica meadows in the Mediterranean (Claudet and Fraschetti 2010). Involves dragging large fishing nets, weighted down by an otter board, through shallow water. Repeated passes can destroy seagrass shoots and rhizomes (Gonzalez-Correa et al. 2005). Moreover, it re-suspends sediment, thereby increasing water turbidity and reducing the amount of light reaching the seagrass, which is extremely sensitive to deterioration of water clarity

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) (Ahmed et al., 2017)

A process of growing different species of finfish and shellfish with seaweeds from different trophic levels in an integrated farm for increasing productivity and profitability through efficient recycling and reuse of nutrients. The translocation of shrimp culture from mangroves to open-water IMTA could reduce blue carbon emissions, which in turn sequester and store blue carbon through the restoration of mangroves Open-water IMTA in coastal Bangladesh can help to restore mangroves through plantation, regeneration, and avoiding deforestation. Seaweed cultivation in IMTA could also help to sequester blue carbon through photosynthesis

Reform (Hopwood et al., 2005)

Accept that there are mounting problems, but do not consider that a collapse in ecological or social systems is likely or that fundamental change is necessary - Believe root of the problem lies in imbalances and a lack of knowledge and information (not in the nature of present society) They generally accept that large shifts in policy and lifestyle, many very profound, will be needed at some point. - However it is assumed that these can be achieved over time within the present social and economic structures. The key is to persuade governments and international organizations, mainly by reasoned argument, to introduce the needed major reforms. Largely dominated by academics and mainstream NGO experts A common theme is the benefits that technology can bring to protecting the environment. - Widespread support for a dramatic increase in energy efficiency and change in energy use from fossil fuels to renewable sources - Focus on technology, good science and information, modifications to the market and reform of government. The mainstream environmental groups such as Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, WWF and Sierra Club are largely in the reform group and increasingly have moved from grass roots activism and mass protest to political lobbying and working with business and government Reform now is better than nothing

Economic value of mangroves in Bangladesh (Ahmed et al., 2017)

According to Barbier, the total annual value of mangrove ecosystem services is US$10,158-12,392 per ha in Thailand. At this rate, the annual economic value of mangroves in Bangladesh is over US $4.43 billion Overall, mangrove ecosystem services have an important role in coastal economies of Bangladesh, supporting human wellbeing, including livelihoods, income, and food supply When mangroves are cleared for shrimp ponds, land values decrease by approximately US$10,000 per hectare At this rate, the annual economic value of mangrove loss to shrimp culture in Bangladesh is over US$100 million. It is, therefore, more valuable and economically profitable to conserve mangroves than shrimp culture

World Bank

Bangladesh will be one of the most affected countries by global warming. - Rising sea levels, among other things, threaten food production, livelihoods, and infrastructure. It is a "potential impact hotspot," threatened by: - extreme river floods - more intense tropical cyclones - rising sea levels - very high temperatures Cyclone Sidr (2007) exposed 3.45 mil households to inundation (bc the land, especially close to Bay of Bengal is very near sea level and full of rivers, the area is prone to and very vulnerable to flooding)

Why is widespread wetland drowning infrequent given the amount of sea level rise that has occurred in history? (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013)

Because of the fascinating interactions between plants and soil that allow wetlands to actively engineer their position within the intertidal zone in ways that enhance ecosystem persistence Plants set up feedback loops above and below ground - Collectively, these feedbacks allow tidal marshes to survive accelerating rates of sea-level rise

Biomass (Hawken, 2018)

Bridge solution from status quo to desired state can produce electricity on demand (why necessary) can aid shift away from fossil fuels and buy time for effective grid systems in near term can prevent carbon stocks in atmosphere from rising - however, under the right conditions over years, biomass would become like oil, gas, etc. IF it uses appropriate feed stocks, can be renewable? - if use woody crops (shrub willow, poplar, eucalyptus, etc.), can be more sustainable because when cut low to the ground, can grow back (for around 20 years) proponents in the US claim that they'd use (dead?) branches, etc. for biomass - found that they log though when biomass relies on (logging, killing, etc.) trees, it is not a sustainable solution How biomass feed stacks are approached matters enormously!! - sourcing biomass feed stock from invasive species could be a good way of using biomass energy biomass, carefully regulated/managed is a good bridge to a cleaner energy future, not the destination - while it can be carbon neutral, it's very easy for it not to be (using wind, solar, etc. is far less complicated)

How may sea-level induced losses of existing wetlands be offset? (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013)

By transgression IF anthropogenic (human-made) barriers are minimal Although very rapid rates of sea-level rise may drown some marshes regardless of indirect human impacts, numerical models predict that many wetlands will survive in places in which dams and embankments do not restrict sediment transport

The Sundarbans (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Contains diverse and rich natural resources Has long been recognized for its wide range of biodiversity as it provides feeding, breeding, and nursery grounds for many ecologically and commercially important species - The biodiversity includes about 334 plant species, 260 bird species, 210 fish species, 59 reptile species, 49 mammal species, and 8 amphibian species - Habitat for the largest population (400-450) of the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), and many rare and endangered species, including the Ganges river dolphin and estuarine crocodile - Also famous for its sundari tree Provides a wide range of ecosystem goods and services, including: - Climate regulation, - Coastal protection, - Fisheries, - Fuel, - Medicine, - Nutrient cycling, - Shelter, - Timber, and - Tourism The livelihoods of over 3.5 million people are directly or indirectly dependent on the Sundarbans in Bangladesh Can capture about 56 million tons of carbon, worth at least US$1.87 billion in the international market.

Blue carbon emissions due to conversion of mangroves to shrimp farms (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Cutting down mangroves to shrimp farms releases significant amounts of blue carbon and depletes storage facilities. When mangroves are converted to shrimp ponds, the large stores of blue carbon in the soils and biomass of mangrove ecosystems are exposed and released as CO2 into the atmosphere.

Destruction of mangroves for shrimp farming (Ahmed et al., 2017)

During the 1980s and 1990s, the rapid growth of shrimp farming caused widespread destruction of mangroves in a number of countries, including Bangladesh - Over 3.6 million ha of global mangrove forests were lost between 1980 and 2005 due to agriculture, aquaculture, over- exploitation, pollution, tourism, and urbanization However, mangroves are the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics and blue carbon emissions have been seriously augmented due to devastating effects on mangroves Preventing mangrove loss and conserving mangrove forests can help to reduce blue carbon emissions for climate change mitigation

Global annual blue carbon emissions and amount derived from mangrove losses (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Globally, the blue carbon emission rate is 58.7 million tons annually, - of which 33.5 million tons (57%) derives from mangrove losses

Blue carbon sequestration rate and amount sequestered by mangroves (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Globally, the blue carbon sequestration rate is about 53 million tons annually, - of which 16 million tons (30%) is by mangroves

Shrimp farming's effect on Bangladesh (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Has diversified livelihood opportunities for the coastal poor, with over two million people involved in shrimp farming, marketing, processing, and exporting Currently one of the most important sectors of the national economy. - The sector has become a multimillion dollar industry in Bangladesh due to huge demand for shrimp in global markets, particularly the European Union (EU) and the United States of America (USA) Shrimp production plays an important role in export earnings, food production, diversifying livelihoods, and income for farming households and associated groups Overall, shrimp production has significantly improved socioeconomic condi- tions of farming households. - Most farmers willingly switched from rice to shrimp culture because of the higher income Environmental consequences were ignored due to the broader economic benefits, with shrimp referred to as "white gold" in Bangladesh, because of its high export value.

Hypothetical issue with status quo approach (Hopwood et al., 2005)

If the status quo vision of world development were true and at some future date the poor of the world had the same living standards as those of the USA or Europe, could the world cope? - The USA with 290 million people has over 210 million motor vehicles, while the world today has 6000 million people and 520 million vehicles. - If the entire world were at the same level as the USA there would be 4400 million vehicles. - Is there enough petroleum to run them or could the world's atmosphere cope with the carbon dioxide and pollution releases?

Causes of seagrass habitat destruction (Murray et al., 2011)

Impacts directly related to human activities include: - eutrophication (caused by water pollution and results in increased concentrations of certain nutrients like phosphorous and can result in a lack of oxygen) from nutrient pollution, - alteration of coastal sediment balance, and - mechanical perturbations (for example, dredging, trawling, and anchoring). Impacts that are indirectly related to human activity include: - rising sea temperature (climatic change) and - the introduction of invasive species (maritime traffic and aquaculture).

What will drive wetland stability in the future?? (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013)

Interactions between rapid sea-level rise and human impacts

Benefits mangroves provide to coastal communities (Ahmed et al., 2017)

Mangroves are significant for resilience to climatic effects on shrimp cultivation. - Mangrove forests protect shrimp farms from tidal surges by providing an active barrier to cyclones and reduce wave energy In areas adjacent to shrimp farms, nutrient outflow can be mitigated by mangroves due to maintaining surrounding water quality by filtering minerals, nutrients, pollutants, and sediments Mangroves protect groundwater salinity, which prevents the entry of saltwater to inland areas - Increased soil and water salinity has already affected food production

Is sea-level rise the major cause of historical and contemporary coastal wetland loss? (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013)

NO Direct human modification: - Conversion of wetlands into other land uses claimed about 25-50% of world's coastal wetlands during the twentieth century alone - Still an ongoing phenomenon despite decades of investment in research, policy, education, laws, and treaties aimed at understanding and conserving these resource-rich ecosystems - The history of coastal wetland degradation tracks human population growth, industrialization and development - The historical loss of coastal wetlands has been dominated by the direct conversion of wetlands to agriculture and aquaculture, rather than by climate change.

Is blue carbon covered by the UNFCC? What are the implications of that? (Murray et al., 2011)

Not currently covered by the UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change) Therefore not included in a carbon market - countries not required to account for it - means they do not financially benefit from blue carbon emission reductions or restoration - economic incentives are tilted in favor of converting blue carbon habitats to alternative uses (aquaculture, agriculture, real estate development, etc.)

'Moderate strong sustainability' (Dresner, 2008)

Only allows natural capital to be deplete when it is compensated for in another way. - ex: oil can be taken out of ground if the revenue is used for the development of solar energy tech St A sort of falls in between these two with their various projects because certain projects acknowledge the value of natural resources (tray free dining halls to conserve water) and try to conserve them to the best of their ability while others just try to find ways to make their use of resources more efficient/less wasteful (SMART building initiative and trying to update electricity systems, etc.)

Only takes _____m of mangrove forest to reduce wave height by ____%? According to who?

Only takes 100m of mangroves to reduce wave height by 66% (IUCN)

Uses of blue carbon habitats (IUCN)

Protect coastlines from the increasing impacts of c.c. by absorbing incoming wave energy, providing storm surge protection, + preventing erosion In some cases, coastal wetlands have proven to be more cost-effective than hard infrastructure eg seawalls + levees - require less maintenance + may keep pace w sea level rise Protection also has other co-benefits eg spawning grounds for commercial fish, water purification, + local livelihoods

Status Quo (Hopwood et al., 2005)

Recognize the need for change but see neither the environment nor society as facing insuperable problems. Adjustments can be made without any fundamental changes to society, means of decision making or power relations. - This is the dominant view of governments and business and supporters of the status quo are most likely to work within the corridors of power talking with decision makers in government and business. Development is identified with growth and economic growth is seen as part of the solution. - Argue that business is the driver towards sustainability. - Increased information, changing values, improved management techniques and new technology all operating through the market are the best means to achieve sustainable development. Supporters are reluctant to use laws and regulations (more focused on putting sustainability on the individual, etc.) - Support the reduced role of government? - Instead, consumer power, informed about sustainability issues and based on lifestyle choices, will combine with 'green' capitalists who practice 'corporate citizenship' and ethical business to achieve sustainable development Most supporters of the status quo have a weak commitment to environmental sustainability, although for some such as Solow (1974) it is barely needed at all, as technology can replace nature. At present the status quo view dominates policy, but their policies are an inade- quate answer to the needs of sustainable development; it is argued that they have used the phrases of sustainable development to continue with and justify business as usual (Kothari, 1990). Embracing the status quo is not a viable option for society if we are to move towards sustainable livelihood for all, now and in the future, within an abundant and diverse environment. The future is likely to be dominated by choices between more radical views.

REDD+ (Ullman et al., 2013)

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation A policy initiative whose purpose is to create economic incentives to reduce forest destruction and degradation and associated carbon emissions. REDD+ carbon credits would allow funding from industrialized countries to compensate reductions in deforestation, conservation of standing forests and rehabilitation of degraded forests in developing countries. Because most mangroves are considered forests and therefore would be eligible for REDD+ treatment, the protection or restora- tion of mangroves should generate REDD+ offsets, though the soil- carbon component of mangrove offsets would have to be further developed. That said, it seems less likely that REDD+ would ever cover intertidal marshes and seagrasses because it is focused on forests.

Transformation (Hopwood et al., 2005)

See mounting problems in the environment and/or society as rooted in fundamen- tal features of society today and how humans interrelate and relate with the environment. Reform is not enough See the fundamental problems as rooted in our present society, which is based on the exploitation of most people and the environment by a small minority of people. Transformation may not be immediately feasible

Weak Sustainability (Hopwood et al., 2005)

Sees natural and manufactured capital as interchangeable with technology able to fill human produced gaps in the natural world (Daly and Cobb, 1989) such as a lack of resources or damage to the environment. Solow put the case most strongly, stating that by substituting other factors for natural resources 'the world can, in effect, get along without natural resources, so exhaustion is just an event, not a catastrophe' (1974, p. 11).

The spectrum between the 3 views on the nature of changes (Hopwood et al., 2005)

Some of the reformers edge towards the transformation group Other reformers lean much more towards the status quo. Ex: The Brundtland report is generally reformist in broad tone but leans towards the status quo in proposed details.

REDD+ (Ahmed et al., 2017)

The REDD+ program would restore mangroves, which in turn increases options for adaptation to climate change ? The REDD+ approach is suitable for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions by economic support for preventing mangrove deforestation and degradation

Regulated cap-and-trade schemes (description --> according to who?)

Ullman et al., 2013 Aims to control greenhouse gases by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in emissions. Under such a scheme, a central authority sets a limit, or cap, on the amount of a greenhouse gas that can be emitted - The cap is allocated or sold to entities in the form of credits which represent the right to emit a specific volume of the gas. - The emitting entities are required to hold a number of credits equivalent to their actual emissions, and the total amount of existing credits cannot exceed the cap. Entities may then trade credits among themselves if they need to increase their emissions or have been able to reduce emissions. Therefore entities that buy credits are paying to emit greenhouse gases, while entities that sell credits are rewarded for reducing emissions. In addition, certain uncapped entities are permitted to create and then sell credits if they reduce their emissions. - Credits issued by such uncapped entities are known as offsets.

Haughton (1999)'s 5 principles

Usefully summarized the ideas of sustainable development in five principles based on equity: - Futurity - inter-generational equity - Social justice - intra-generational equity - Trans- frontier responsibility - geographical equity - Procedural equity - people treated openly and fairly - Inter-species equity - importance of biodiversity. These principles help give clarity to the ideas of sustainable development, link human equity to the environment, challenge the more bland and meaningless interpretations and provide a useful basis for evaluation of the different trends of sustainable development.

'Weak sustainability' (according to Dresner, 2008)

allows human-made capital to substitute for natural capital - can be refined further (to 'very weak' or 'moderate weak')

Likeliest role of Blue Carbon in most major potential cap-and-trade schemes is... (Ullman et al., 2013)

as an offset

What does Haughton and Hunter, 1994 suggest about weak sustainability?

it has become a new set of words to justify maintaining current patterns and processes of economic growth