Reformation (HIST 115 exam)

What services did magical healing offer?

1. Social services - Healed the sick - Helped women through pregnancy - Concoctions to cure ailments and abortion actually worked --- research into this 2. Told fortunes - Crystal gazing - Believed young children were close to God and could solve crimes by looking into the future

Who was St. Augustine?

A harsh fourth century theologian

What were the Catholic Churches like in different countries?

England - functioned very well as priests were very well educated and more regulated Netherlands - population growing rapidly at the time and the church was not working very well France - Bishops were also princes so secular and monarchy were related

Protestant ethic

More hours worked. Divergent work attitudes of Protestant and Catholics. Fewer referenda on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants. Lower life satisfaction when unemployed. Pro-market attitudes Income differences between Protestants and Catholics. BECKER

What was the Dark Ages?

Period of great instability in Medieval Europe after the fall of Rome 1064 Schism By the 11th century relative stability had emerged in different parts of Europe

How as the Pope at this time?

Pope Leo X 1513 - 1521

What was different about the St. Bartholomew's riot and Saint Médard's riot?

SB was a bigger affair - More explicit sanction from political authority - Elaborate networks of communication at the top level throughout France - Took a more reliable toll in deaths - Protestants did not fight back NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

What ideas were spread to Henry VIII's Church in England?

Salvation should not be about the purchase of indulgences, but should be about an inner personal belief with God

How did Luther manage to convince people that he was influenced by a good spirit and win a larger audience and enduring trust? How did Lutherism manage to become a church rather than a sect?

Five aspects: 1. Luther became an outstanding theologian, preacher, debater, speaker, writer and translater 2. He was in effect an early modern 'media- man', that is to say, someone who knew how to harness the possibilities open up by the relatively new medium of print to his cause 3. Luther identified with several role models: saints (St Martin), prophets (Elias, Daniel), biblical commentators (St Paul, the Apostles) and the Bohemian reformer Jan Hus - relativised the novelty of his teaching, legitamised his actions for many of those who were already critically minded and at least implicitly served to demand similar devotion in his diverse audiences - Adept in commenting on all major contemporary issues, most prominently indulgences and the meaning of the biblical Word, but also many social and economic issues - Offered himself as a role model for those hoping for change - Between 1519 - 21, while a papal commission prepared the case against him and before his meeting with the new Emperor Charles V in Worms, on which many placed their hopes ofr church reforms in German lands, Luther directly addressed those involved in Imperial politics - Presented his cause as a key moment in the battle for German sovereignty against Rome, and he used all the jargon of German liberty and honour which characterised a fervent patriotic rhetoric among noblemen, knights, princes and humanists 4. Luther developed a theological doctrine which integrated elements from different spiritual and intellectual traditions, such as medieval mysticism and Renaissance humanism - by doing so he again appealed to a diversity of audiences - Integrated these elements in such a way that they led to a new, surprising and consoling religious experience for all those who would seek salvation through faith in God's grace alone 5. Luther's bias in Wittenberg - for truth depends on how ideas became true for people at specific places; it has its own social history U RUBLACK

What does ULINKA RUBLACK argue the Reformation needs to be characterised as?

The student reformation - Only the unique local character of the Wittenberg context - Human, institutional and economic resources which could be mobilised there - The forms of teamwork - The psychology which structured the reformers' relationships - The decisiveness of the political and cultural work to disseminate the new truth -- explains how Martin Luther accidentally became a man who changed history

W.G Naphy

'They forbade reference to entire categories of names, such as the names of local saints - e.g. Martin, Claude' Replacing with names such as Abraham

Who was John Calvin?

* 1509 - 1564 * French theologian * Originally trained as a Humanist lawyer * During his time as an exile in Switzerland he wrote his influential 'Institutes of the Christian Religion' * Influenced by renaissance thought and different ways of learning (re-using the bible and seeing what it really said) * Heretic so had to flee France - ended up in Switzerland

C. Scott Dixon IN POPULAR ASTROLOGY AND LUTHERAN PROPAGANDA IN REFORMATION GERMANY

* At the end of the sixteenth century, Lutheran clergymen doubted whether the movement had succeeded in its essential task, that of winning hearts and minds to the new faith - astrology turned to (by the 1580s) * European fascination with the wonder year of 1588 (Johannes Müller) * Sixteenth century was an anxious age * Lutheran authors came up with more and more ingenious methods of calculating and broadcasting the arrival of the end of the world (plague/war/lack of faith) * Lutheran Reformation was as much a campaign to reform society as it was an episode of theological insight * Popular culture continued as it had for centuries; the Reformation made little or no different to the nature of village life - even in the mainstay Lutheran principalities - SAXONY, HESSE AND WÜRTTEMBERG * By the 1580s Lutheran clergymen recognised that the Reformation movement had not succeeded in its essential task - that of winning hearts and minds to the new faith

Who was Martin Luther?

* Born Erfurt * 10/11/1483 * Trained as a lawyer * Became an Augustinian monk * Becomes an effective preacher and thinker * Great Augustinian advocate * Centred his work around faith of individual - idea that faith is pre destined * Becomes University lecturer at Whittingale * Depression sufferer perhaps

3. Pretend that no one can call a council but the Pope

* Can show nothing in the scriptures giving the Pope sole power to call and confirm councils, nothing but their own laws

1. Affirmed and maintained that the temporal power has no jurisdiction over them, but, on the contrary, that the spiritual power is above the temporal

* Devised that Pope, Bishops, Priests and Monks - spiritual estate * Princes, Lords, Artificers and Peasants - Temporal estate * Artful lie * All Christians are of the spiritual estate, and there is no difference among them, save of office alone * As St. Paul says 'we are all one body, though each member does its own work, to serve the others' * A Priest should be nothing in Christendom but a functionary

Natalie Zemon Davies IN THE RITES OF VIOLENCE

* Focuses on 1560s and 1570s * Crowds can be seen as sometimes acting clerical roles - defending true doctrine * Protestant rioters did infact kill and injure people, and not merely in self- defence. Catholic rioters did destroy religious property (Smashed pulpits at Senlis and went on to burn them at Amiens)

2nd May 1581's account

* Mutilated all the pictures and altars in the churches of Belgium * Clergy and 500 Catholic citizens were driven out and several were imprisoned * Upon the evening of the Feast of the Ascension they began to pull down the altars, occupied the churches and kept them locked until this day * Cause people to leave the town

Give examples of what women did to cause violence?

* Pamiers -- bookseller's wife set fire to the house of the leading enemy of the Huguenots there * Toulouse -- La Broquiere, solicitor's wife, fought Catholics with firearms * As the wives of Catholic tradesmen march with their husbands in Corpus Christi day processions, they participate in Catholic disturbances * Throw insults at a Protestant funeral in Montauban * Most extreme violence seems directed against other women - At Aix- en Provence in 1572, a group of butcher women torment a Protestant woman, the wife of a bookseller, finally hanging her from a pine tree, which had been used as a meeting place for Protestant worship NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

Why was the German Church the worst of all?

* Under- educated priests (didn't know much about theology, hadn't been to University, hadn't read the Bible, entirely depended on parishioners as they were poor, some were Princes financially benefitting over people twice - taxes and prayers) * Over- mighty bishops * Priests were allowed to pay money to keep a wife * Pope had tense relations with Germany's supreme governor, the Holy Roman Emperor (rules over German principalities) * Most out- dated church in Western Europe

2. Objected that no one may interrupt the scriptures but the Pope

* Wickedly devised fable * Cannot quote a single letter to confirm it * Though they say that this authority was given to St. Peter when the keys were given to him, it is plain enough that the keys were not given to St. Peter alone, but to the whole community

5th July 1581's account

* Wrought much havoc (Calvinists) * Spared nothing and destroyed everything completely * Not one person did protest against this since the rule of the clergy is completely destroyed and at an end here

When and where was Luther called to defend his beliefs?

- 1521 - Diet of Worms - Presided by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V - Luther loses and is expelled from Germany (made an outlaw) - Becomes illegal for anyone to shelter him, his books are burned, if anyone happens to kill Luther then they won't be punished for it

Describe the belief in witchcraft and the devil

- 16th century has been accused of being backwards and superstitious and really naive - Protestants seemed to fear the devil more than Catholicism - Protestants massive focus on sins - Devil was seen as easily dragging people away from God - Devil/witchcraft is the opposing force to the omnipresent God - Witches seen as the Devil's agent - Healer/women who weren't married tended to be accused of witchcrafts by their communities - Protestantism tries to control them much more than Catholic - witchcraft happened after Reformation so don't do a good job of rationalising popular culture

Evidence of Calvinism from the merchant family of the Fuggers in Antwerp (Iconoclasm in Antwerp)

- 2nd May 1581 - 5th July 1581

What kinds of people made up the crowds that performed the range of acts examined in the paper?

- Alienated rootless poor - A large percentage of men in Protestant iconoclastic riots and in crowds of Catholic killers in 1572 were characterised as artisans - Social composition of the crowds extended upward to encompass merchants, notaries and lawyers, as well as the clerics - Of the 20 leaders of the 1572 massacre at Orleans, 3 were lawyers, 8 merchants and others were various kinds of craftsmen - tanners, butchers and candlemakers - Significant participation by city women and teenaged boys (not rootless and alienated, more marginal relationship to political power than lawyers, merchants or artisans) NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

What happened in 1541?

- An event of major importance took place - the Colloquy of Ratisbon held in Regensberg - Conference to reach a compromise on Christianity - Conference collapsed into dispute and debate - Way was now open to a second wave of Reformation thought

Why was Luther controversial?

- Attacks representatives of God on Earth - Attacks system of indulgences - felt it was open to abuse, people were spending all their money to get into heaven - Through reading the Bible you can get salvation for yourself - Babies won't go to hell, comfort to people

What did Calvin set up?

- Believed in rigorous Church structure - In Geneva he set up Church Governments (Ministers, Elders - looked for people who are sinning - Deacons - each part had their own part to play) - Religious Councils so matters of religion and social order could be organised - No such thing as secularism - Establishes local government through the city which people had never seen before (controlling people's behaviours)

What was the role of Catholic preachers in legitimating popular violence as even more direct

- Catholic preachers at Paris were telling their congregations in 1557 that Protestants ate babies - In the year of the attack on the rue St. Jacques conventicle, Catholic preachers blamed the loss of the battle of Saint Quentin on God's wrath at the presence of heretics in France NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

Who were the champions in bloodshed?

- Catholics - Strongest party numerically in most cities - Stronger sense of the persons of heretics as sources of danger and defilement - Happy to catch a pastor when they could - Death of any heretic would help in the cause of cleansing France - 1 in 10 people killed by Catholic crowds were women in 1572 (ratio higher in Paris) - NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

What were the goals of popular religious violence?

- Defence of true doctrine - Refutation of false doctrine through dramatic challenges and tests - Ridding the community of dreaded pollution (pollution was a dangerous thing to suffer in a community, from either a Protestant or Catholic point of view, for surely it would provoke the wrath of God) NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

What did these leaders need to do?

- Develop an order of service - Design a prayer book so people have structure to their worship - Print bibles and translate versions of the bible - 2 Sacraments - Printing allowed all this to be possible

What was the Eucharist?

- Dramatic reenactment - Breaking of bread and drinking of wine - Body and blood of Christ - Mystical union of Christ (Protestants called 'mystical' 'hocus pocus') - Catholics believed they are genuinely eating flesh and drinking blood - Beliefs in the eucharist and the sacrament are important to salvation - For medieval Catholics whose lives were fleeting and their children died very young it was a great comfort

When was the end of the Reformation?

- Historically, the Peace of Westphalia is considered to be the event that ended the Reformation. This is the most commonly held interpretation; - According to other historical interpretation, the Reformation could truly be considered to have ended in the middle 18th century, as the Peace of Westphalia did not specify, nor did it mean that it concluded; that is around time the First Great Awakening (1730-1755) took place. People who hold this interpretation often argue that the emergence of Pietism prolonged the Reformation up to this point; - Some argue that the Reformation never ended as new spin-offs continue to emerge from the Roman Catholic Church, as well as all the various Protestant churches that exist today.

What was important about the Administration of the Sacraments?

- Important culturally - Sacraments were religious rights - a means of giving God's grace - Believed to be instigated by Jesus and written in the new testament

What is the Marxist Historians Interpretations?

- In the German Democratic Republic - Reformation marked a national loss of any critical spirit towards authority, especially during the Peasants' War and through the alleged affirmation of princely authority and traditional social hierarchies by Lutheranism - Other historians have argued that the early 1520s represented a unique opportunity for a 'republican turn' in German politics

What was important about the belief in the true word of God being preached?

- It should not be accessorised by indulgences and the Virgin Bible - People should be reading the Bible - Educated minister at University (theology degree) - Church service and the Bible should be available in people's own language (previously Latin where vast majority couldn't read it)

Why did the literacy rates increase?

- Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. - - From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe. - By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a "good" against "bad" church. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas. Reform writers used pre-Reformation styles, clichés and stereotypes and changed items as needed for their own purposes. Especially effective were writings in German, including Luther's translation of the Bible, his Smaller Catechism for parents teaching their children, and his Larger Catechism, for pastors. Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the German Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's ideas. Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.

What was provenance and prophecy

- Making life make sense - God is active in the world; he shapes and influences events - God can speak to people and they could speak to Him through prayer - People struggled to deal with misfortune (early modern period did not have science or understand medicine)

Lecturer

- Mystical union of Christ, Protestants called it mystical 'hocus pocus' - Reformation wouldn't have happened without the printing technology

What could you do in the Catholic Church in order to get into heaven?

- Pay priest and go to mass on their behalf - Believed that the more prayers that were read, the faster you'd go to heaven (chantry priests say mass for the soles of the departed) - If your relative dies and you want them to have a short time in purgatory, you pay so priests can say prayers for their loved ones so quicker time in purgatory - Leaving money in wills to chantry priests - Purchasing of prayers (indulgences) - People pour their earnings into the church (good deeds on earth means you'll be rewarded) - led to the wool industry - Private sermons - Voluntary donations (piety willing to pay financially)

What was important about the sacraments being rightly administered?

- Priests and Ministers needed to be educated and professional - Not being heretics, but establishing a new religion in one that was dysfunctional

Describe the belief in magical healing

- Something that the authorities didn't like - White witches and wizards were found in every village - Protestant authorities did not like people giving spiritual authority to those who haven't earned it and don't have degrees - Old age --- rare at the time (people who have that have an automatic authority; elders and superstitious roles) - Witch trials became famous in sixteenth century 'the witch craze' - Less prevalent in 'elite' or 'learned' culture

What is the link of the Thirty Years War to the Reformation?

- The Reformation led to a series of religious wars that culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), which devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. - Roman Catholic House of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. - The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. - Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe.

What were the causes of the Protestant Reformation?

- The presence of a printing press in a city by 1500 made Protestant adoption by 1600 far more likely. (Rubin) - Protestant literature was produced at greater levels in cities where media markets were more competitive, making these cities more likely to adopt Protestantism. - Ottoman incursions decreased conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, helping the Protestant Reformation take root. - Greater political autonomy increased the likelihood that Protestantism would be adopted. - Where Protestant reformers enjoyed princely patronage, they were much more likely to succeed. - Proximity to neighbors who adopted Protestantism increased the likelihood of adopting Protestantism. - Cities that had higher numbers of students enrolled in heterodox universities and lower numbers enrolled in orthodox universities were more likely to adopt Protestantism. - Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and bad political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism.

What was the Swiss Reformation?

- Took place in Zurich, Bernese, Basle and Geneva (mostly Zurich and Geneva) - Zwingli, Bullinger and Calvin (Calvin most significant)

How did Calvinism develop imagery?

- Used mythical and biblical figures to support new ideas and actions - 'the New Israel' - Geneva is the new Jerseleum

What were the occasions for religious riot?

- When it is believed that religious and/or political authorities are failing in their duties or need help in fulfilling them - A rise in grain price does not seem to be a significant variable in regard to the timing and triggers of religious riot NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

'Dark outcomes'

- Witch trials became more common in areas where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market. - Protestants were far more likely to vote for Nazis than their Catholic German counterparts. -- Christopher J. Probst, in his book Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany (2012), shows that a large number of German Lutheran clergy and theologians during the Nazi Third Reich used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and their Jewish religion to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists. - Higher suicide rate and greater suicide acceptability.

What were the consequences of the Protestant Reformation?

1. Human Capital formation 2. Protestant ethic 3. Economic development 4. Governance 5. 'Dark outcomes'

What 'three walls' did Luther talk about in The Priesthood of All Believers

1. Affirmed and maintained that the temporal power has no jurisdiction over them, but, on the contrary, that the spiritual power is above the temporal 2. Objected that no one may interrupt the scriptures but the Pope 3. Pretend that no one can call a council but the Pope

What were the Seven Sacraments?

1. Baptism (cleansing new babies - if not baptised then would go straight to hell) 2. Eucharist (mass) 3. Reconciliation 4. Confirmation 5. Marriage (importance of controlling sexual relationships) 6. Holy Orders 7. Anointing the Stick (blessing those who were dying to help them into heaven) (BERCMHA - job of the priest to do all these things)

What three popular cultures did Calvinism trying to regulate?

1. Belief in provenance and prophecy 2. Belief in magical healing 3. Belief in witchcraft and the devil

What were two of Calvin's key beliefs?

1. Belief in the true word of God should be preached 2. Sacraments should be rightly administered

What else were Calvin's Key Beliefs?

1. Election and Predestination (derived from Augustinian theology) 2. Iconoclasm (often violent action against idolatry) 3. Simple, stripped back forms of worship (no images, no music) 4. 'Breaking of the bread' and the disputation of 'the real presence' of Christ - Believe it contains the presence of Christ (breaking of bread is symbolic)

What were the other key parts of the Catholic Church?

1. Eucharist: dramatic recreation of Christ's Last Supper with his Disciples 2. Transubstantiation 3. Heaven, Hell and Purgatory 4. Indulgences - money paid for the benefit of the soul after death 5. Salvation - economy of it

What are two approaches for a historian talking about a massacre of the magnitude of St. Bartholomew's Day?

1. Extreme religious violence as an extraordinary event - the product of a frenzy, frustrated and paranoid primitive mind of the people 2. Violence is a more usual part of social behaviour, but explain it as a somewhat pathological product of certain kinds of child- rearing, economic deprivation or status loss

What were the uniting factors of Medieval Christianity?

1. Faith in Jesus 2. The Holy Trinity: Jesus the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit 3. The Bible 4. The 10 Commandments 5. Two Creeds 6. Lords Prayer

What did people do on this topic of provenance and prophecy?

1. Fast - Show their reverence to God (self punishment, believed they had sinned, manuals wrote on which foods were purer than others --- fruit pure, meat seen as having sinful connotations) 2. People would look constantly for the presence of God - Protestants began to believe that God was speaking to them in a new way - Plague/famine --- punishment - Earthquakes/thunderstorms --- messages from God 3. Miscarriages and live births - Children are communicating in some way

What was the three tier salvation system that Catholics believed in?

1. Good go straight to heaven 2. Bad go straight to hell 3. Vast majority go to purgatory for a while to burn in the flames of hell for a few thousand years to gain forgiveness for their sins and then they can go to heaven

What were the issues of Papal Infallibility?

1. Hierarchical system - Pope, Cardinals, Archbishop, Bishops, Clergy (Regular and Secular) - Canon Law - The Inquisitors and the formation of a persecuting society

When does Mary Tudor attempt to re- establish Catholicism in England?

1553 - 8

What were the two pillars of the Catholic Church?

1. Papal Infallibility 2. The Administration of the Sacraments

What were the two types of Church?

1. Visible 2. Invisible

How much of what you earned already went to the Church?

10%

When does Charles V end his reign?

1556

When was the Great Schism? (a split within the Roman Catholic Church)

1378 - 1417

When was the invention of the printing press?

1456

When was the wide dissemination of Reformation ideas in urban and rural areas of Germany and Switzerland?

1522

When had Luther translated the New Testament by?

1522 - Full edition of Bible completed in 1534 - Translation was vital for Luther to defend his claim that he had precise and privileged knowledge of God's Word - 'Luther - Bible' was an immediate and lasting success - Luther's personal symbol, a rose, became the trade mark printed on each Wittenberg copy of the Bible to testify its authenticity - Luther did not cause a uniform, broad change of opinion in his support - He merely intensified a process of opinion formation in regard to questions about religious reforms in which his positions had become central U RUBLACK

When was the Reformation in Geneva?

1532

When was the Roman Inquisition established?

1542

When was the First War of Religion in France?

1562 - 3

What was St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre?

1572 A targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence, directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants) during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici (the mother of Charles IX) The massacre took place five days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris. 5,000 - 30,000 French dead George Mosse - 'worst of the century's religious massacres' Henry Chadwick - Throughout Europe, it "printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody and treacherous religion".

When was the Protestant Union founded in Germany?

1608

What was important about the Thirty Years War?

1618 - 48 - Longest and most extensive war over religion and power ever fought in Europe - The peace that was financially achieved affirmed much of the 1555 settlement for the German lands - The Holy Roman Empire continued to have no unified confession and thus no unified imperialist military goals - Calvinism was legitimised U RUBLACK

When were the Civil Wars in England?

1642 - 6 and 1648

What was Gerald Strauss' famous observation?

A century of Protestantism had brought about little or no change in the common religious conscience and the ways in which ordinary men and women conducted their lives

What did Christianity regard itself as?

A continuation of Judaism

What were some key visual sources?

A) Hans Sebald Beham: The Descent of the Pope into Hell, 1524 B) Horrible Cruelties of the Huguenots

What was significant about the year 1534?

Act of Supremacy in England Acknowledging Henry VIII as supreme head of the English church First big wave of anti- Protestant prosecution in France

J. J Scarisbrick

Act of state and nothing more

Where did Catholics travel to so to convert followers of traditional religions to that of Catholicism?

America, Africa and India - Genuine belief that they were spreading the true salvation to the people - Bringing the word of God to the people

What is the definition of a religious riot?

Any violent action, with words or weapons, undertaken against religious targets by people who are not acting officially and formally as agents of political and ecclesiastical authority

Peter Heath

Argues that studies of English scholars have especially relied upon wills from the fourteenth century, such as N.P Tanner who examined 1,800

What in particular did Calvinists change?

Baptism - Made it much shorter - Exercism of the devil out of the child

U Rublack's view of Luther

Born 1483 - Father Hans was a small upwardly mobile mine owner from a peasant background in a tiny east German town - Mother Margareta came from a wealthier peasant family - Lived in an age where people vigorously debated how to live a Christian life and how to define the proper rights of the church - Both lay and clerical reform initiatives had long been under way in different parts of Europe - From 1380 onwards men and women from artisan and merchant families in the Netherlands and northern Germany had been forming hundreds of communities - These Sisters and Brethren of the Common Life tried to live simply and spiritually, outside convent walls and earning their own living

What law were all Catholics subject to?

Canon Law

What were the targets of both religions?

Catholic: - French bibles (seen burned publicly by the authorities in the 1540s and 1550s) Calvinist: - Priests' manuals - Priests, monks and friars - Missals - Breviaries - Iconoclastic Calvinist crowds still came out as the champions in the destruction of religious property (Catholics had more physical accessories to their rite and Protestants sensed much more danger and defilement in the wrongful use of material objects) NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

What would make cities less likely to adopt Protestantism?

Cities with strong cults of saints (Steven Pfaff) Cities where primogeniture was practiced The presence of bishoprics made the adoption of Protestantism less likely. The presence of monasteries made the adoption of Protestantism less likely.

What contributed to a religious economy?

Confraternities (indulgences) - groups devoted to paying for prayers to be said to a patron said) Cult of saints Pilgrimages became increasingly profitable for churches or monasteries which held relics Chantry priests Catholic Church had become customers and the priest provided them with a service

Haigh

Declared by 1983 that the traditional narrative of the 'Dickens reformation is now in tatters', arguing that himself, Scarisbrick and Duffy effectively re- wrote the Reformation, suggesting that revisionism is significant in contributing to the disagreement among historians

How did Calvin and the Protestants become more violent?

Destroy the Sacraments Burn models of the Saints Vandalism/Urination/Humiliationism - in early modern France Radical

Economic development

Different levels of income tax revenue per capita, % of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers. Protestant cities grew more. CANTONI Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states. Different social ethics.

What was Luther's Hymn called?

Ein Feste Burg (A Mighty Fortress is our God) 1527 - 1529 wrote Translations Best loved hymn of Lutheran and Protestant traditions - Been called the 'Battle Hymn of the Reformation' for the effect it had in increasing the support for the Reformers cause

Who is another person who translated the Bible, but didn't break away from the Catholic Church completely like Luther?

Erasmus

Who attempted to convert people to the Catholic faith?

Evangelists/Jesuits

Geoffrey Elton

Fast reformation from above - State papers focus - Administration records showing the processes of policy formation and enforcement

What was Martin Luther's key belief?

He came to focus on human salvation (how does a soul get to heaven?) * Romans 1:17 'The just shall live by faith alone' * Means no money needed to be paid to priests

Which two monarchs died between 1545- 7?

Henry VIII of England Francis I of France

Human Capital formation

Higher literacy rates. BECKER Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates. Higher primary school enrollment Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts. Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history. BOPPER

What has Natalie Zemon Davies noticed?

Historian Natalie Zemon Davis has noted that in religious riots Huguenots tended to attack property, while Catholics more frequently attacked people. Nevertheless, both groups used deadly force.

What idea did the reform preacher Jan Hus take up?

Idea off the Englishman John Wycliff that the King and Nobility should reform the church, returning it to a truly spiritual life, and deprive it of all secular domination and property - Found much popular support from a broad social spectrum - Many monasteries were no longer given donations - Wealthy citizens spent less on elaborate funeral rites and more on gifts for the poor - Movement was highly active and articulate - Hus burnt as a heretic at the Church Council of Constance in 1415 and subsequently became a martyr for those committed to radical church reforms U RUBLACK

What was the Wife Tax?

If a priest would like a wife, he just needed to pay in order to do so - 60% of priests paid this tax

What did the sociologist Max Weber describe Luther as?

In 1921 - Described the charisma of those who successfully manage to claim that a higher spirit has been revealed to them - The 'great revolutionary power' in traditional societies

What was the visible church?

Issues of morality and behaviour Control in Society Believe you're not going to live long on this Earth so you need to get it right People you can see before you, some were chosen to be on Earth and others were destined to be punished forever for their inherent evil

Eamon Duffy

Many of the most renowned historians in this subject area are of Catholic or Protestant origin - Standpoint of Roman Catholicism

Who did Luther marry?

Katharina von Bora - Nun - Poor noble family - Luther justified breaking monastic vows because he deemed human sexuality so powerful that no one was able to live celibate

Which historian has wrote about folk law being rebranded as witchcraft and hence punished?

Keith Thomas

What was dramatically increasing during this time period?

Literacy rates

Who is a very influential artist who works for the Reformation Movement?

Lucas Cranach - Left hand side image of positivity of Reformation - Right hand side image of negativity of Catholicism - Images easy to read in this period - Propaganda

What happened on the 31st October 1517?

Luther nailed his 95 Theses against indulgences to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg - Attacking indulgences was dangerous - From hereon in, Luther becomes increasingly aggressive towards the Church's practices - and especially the Pope

What does Margaret C Jacob argue?

Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the new social history in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity."

Who are the Huguenots?

Members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France. Huguenots were French Protestants who were inspired by the writings of John Calvin and endorsed the Reformed tradition of Protestantism, contrary to the largely German Lutheran population of Alsace, Moselle, and Montbéliard. Hans Hillerbrand in his Encyclopedia of Protestantism claims the Huguenot community reached as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, declining to 7-8% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV of France. Peaked two million by 1562 (concentrated mostly in southern and western parts of France)

Who were the regular clergy?

Monks and nuns Houses of religious order

Who were the Fuggers?

One of the richest families in Europe in the 16th century - Receive letters from representatives describing local conditions and events - anything the correspondent might think of relevance to the family's mercantile interests

What strong beliefs did Luther develop over time?

Paying indulgences, going on pilgrimage - didn't need a priest to act as an intermediate Over time he becomes increasingly aggressive and angry Calls Pope the 'anti- Christ' (attracts attention of Papal authority who were used to dealing with heretics)

Robert Whiting

People in general failed to take new doctrines to heart

What had occurred by the 1540s?

People pretty much carrying on as they had before - Widespread belief in indulgence - People still followed the Saint - Women still looked to the Virgin Mary - Much of Europe was vaguely Catholic

What was the invisible church?

People who were gone before you Saints who had been saved by God and gone to heaven

Who were the secular clergy?

Priests

What is the difference on opinion of priesthood?

Protestant: - All believers have equal access to God - No earthy intermediates are needed Catholic (Council of Trent): - Catholic priesthood is necessary as only priests can perform the sacraments necessary for spiritual health

What is the difference on opinion of Sacraments?

Protestant: - Bible only documents two sacraments: * Baptism * Lord's Supper (Distinguish the Protestant practice from the Catholic Eucharist) - No priestly status is required to perform them, although ministers to the church are necessary and useful to directing and guiding it Catholic: - Seven Sacraments - Baptism can be performed by anyone in an emergency - Marriage is technically bestowed by the two partners on one another, all the rest can only be performed by a priest

What is the difference on opinion of God's omnipotence?

Protestant: - Everyone is pre destined to their fate - Human action avails nothing Catholic: - God's omnipotence does not restrict human will - Each individual is still responsible for earning their own salvation

What is the difference on opinion of intermediates?

Protestant: - No heavenly intermediates are needed to intercede with God - Although the Virgin Mary, saints, and angels are all in heaven, they should not be the objects of prayer or veneration Catholic: - Although the saints and angels should not be worshipped, their intercession is valuable and necessary to helping the Christian to achieve salvation - The Virgin Mary is especially honoured by God, and should be also by believers - Religious images should not be worshipped, but they help to inspire devotion (these fine points were often lost on the average peasant)

What is the difference on opinion of scripture?

Protestant: - Scriptures are the only source of true doctrine - Studying and understanding them is important to all believers - Translating Bible into vernacular tongues and making it available to all is essential Catholic: - Only one way in which doctrine is revealed - Only priesthood of church can correctly interpret the meaning of scripture

A. G Dickens

Rapid reformation from below - Regional archives in Yorkshire - Was the 'pioneer of wills' in the 1950s Had a difficult time in a York diocesan registry dealing with diocesan records, but institutional developments of archives becoming more available and the new professionalisation of archivists meant that by the end of the 1930s investigating local studies became an easier and more 'user- friendly' process - Prime example of historians' ideologies influencing and determining their conclusions, with Haigh arguing that he allowed his Protestant 'prejudices such prominent places in his writings'

Where did the Reformation not succeed?

Spain - Establishment of Spanish Inquisition 1478 - The rulers of the nation stressed political, cultural, and religious unity, and by the time of the Lutheran Reformation the Spanish Inquisition was already 40 years old and had the capability of quickly dealing with any new movement that the Catholic Church perceived or interpreted to be religious heterodoxy. (Pettegree) Portugal Luxembourg (a part remained Roman Catholic) Ireland Italy - Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s, but never caught on. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and also popular disinterest. Not only was the Church highly aggressive in seeking out heresy and suppressing it, but there was a shortage of Protestant leadership. - No one translated the Bible into Italian; few tracts were written. No core of Protestantism emerged. The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism," as it was called in Italy, were suppressed or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Roman Catholic Church and motivating the Counter-Reformation FIRPO^

What was the impact of Luther's ideas?

Sparked the Peasants' War (1524- 5) - Inspires rural peasants who feel they have a raw deal from the way that Germany currently operates (feudal surfs trapped into the system of poverty) - 6,000 peasants die - Luther was forced to denounce Ideas had a life beyond him - works become re- translated and fall into the popular market Led to political and religious division in Germany - and across Europe Wanted to reform Catholic Church from within... didn't set out to be the new Church 2017 is the 500th anniversary year of him beginning his reformation

How successful was Calvinism?

Spreads throughout much of Europe More successful than Lutherism 16th century Calvinism had a strong identity - France, Netherlands, British Isles, Hungary - allied itself with ruling power (Calvinism is about social control and monarchy, perfect for monarchs)

What is iconoclasm?

Symbolic destructive religious action, rooting out what you don't believe in (Catholicism and replacing it with something more simple)

What became an icon of Protestant propaganda?

The 'Pope Ass' - Equation of the Papacy with a hybrid monster was to touch the audience's fascination with and fear of mixed categories, and a desire for clear codes of civilised male and female behaviour - Through such drastic words and images, the scholars Luther and Melanchthon and the artist Cranach changed the course of history • Their attacks on the corruption and hypocrisy of the institutions of the church showed extraordinary results • Countless monasteries and convents were dissolved • Monks, nuns and priests were released from their vows of celibacy, and exhorted to marry and start families • More Europeans than ever before refused to recognise the Pope as head of their church, and sought to give new moral and spiritual meaning to Christianity in their daily lives U RUBLACK

What was the most important sacrament?

The Eucharist

What was Hans J. Hillenbrand's claim in his Encyclopaedia of Protestantism: 4 volume?

The Huguenot community reached as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre Declining to 7-8% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV of France.

Who sparked fear throughout Europe?

The Medieval Inquisitions

Who was God's representative on earth?

The Pope

What was the one thing that all the leaders agreed on?

The Protestant separation from the Catholic Church was a permanent thing Therefore the new Church needed to clearly define itself They took Luther's ideas further and developed Protestantism as a coherent faith

Governance

The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the development of the state system. NEXON The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements. The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition. Establishment of State churches. GORSKI Poor relief and social welfare regimes.

What do Luther's ideas occur stimultaneously with?

The invention of the printing press - Crucial that Luther's text was circulated in Germany and outside Germany very quickly and cheap - Articles he writes about are justification of faith

P. Collinson

The reasons for disagreement among historians are many and varied, depending on the historians' own religious and political views, interpretation of the type of source used and the purpose for which the history is studied for in the first paid - certainly causing the Reformation to become 'a bone of contention' for those studying it Without the Reformation, likely that modern England would not have been so insular

What was the problem with priests?

The richer they became, the more allusive they became - Stories of the preachers who couldn't read, unable to interpret scripture, priests that are always drunk - Priests who travel and disappear, not coming back for a few months - Priests who are away and unavailable when babies died (belief that those babies would go straight to hell)

Which parts of the Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years War?

Two main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religion) Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict. CROSS

Where was the divide between European Christianity?

West (Rome) and East (Constantinople)

Ulinka Rublack IN REFORMATION EUROPE

Why did Luther's movement find initial political support in Germany? - • "Polycentric" structure of the 'Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation' • Mainly consisted of territories governed by a prince or by a bishop who simultaneously acted a secular prince, and of cities which were not ruled by princes • Around 1500, several 'free', Imperial cities of the South, like Augsburg and Nuremberg, were important centres of trade, while the northern Hanse cities, such as Hamburg and Lübeck, once more grew in importance as the North Atlantic trade took off around 1600 • Representatives of the free Imperial cities and territorial lords decided collectively about common concerns, while the Emperor was elected and his powers negotiated by a body of princes • Since 1440, only members of the house of Habsburg had been elected as Emperors, and they turned into a strange species of 'elected hereditary' rulers - hereditary lands were mainly in Austria • The German princes thus avoided electing one of their own as Emperor, who then might have been able to extend his power over other German territories • Opted for a foreign power, and, after each voting prince had been substantially bribed, for a family whose increasingly manifold possessions seemed to guarantee financial resources and a restricted interest in German politics • Ideally then, the Imperial Constitution served the interest of all major political powers in Germany by ensuring as much protection and as much autonomy from the Emperor as possible • The Reformation movements made religious choice part of these complex political attempts to secure power and liberty • The Habsburgs remained Catholics • But as soon as it became clear that a number of princes would support the Reformation, a new era of religious politics between different confessions, an era of confessional politics, therefore began in Germany • Not to say, that here as elsewhere, German powers decided on religious matters purely on political grounds • Closer analysis shows that some decisions were motivated by deep piety and others by interest in political gains, while most decisions were based on motives which escape our near modern distinction between religion and politics • 1525: common people revolted in many parts of Germany to fight for their vision of a just and godly society • 1555: after two short wars between the Emperor, supported by German Catholics and Protestant forces, the Peace of Augsburg stipulated that each ruler should determine the faith in his or her territory, a decision later summarised by the formula cuius region, eius religio, whose rule it is, whose religion it is • The Swiss Confederation had already been divided into Catholic and Reformed towns and regions since 1529 • Only after 1555 that three main confessions consolidated their Reformed insitutions and doctrinal hold on the population: Lutheranism, Catholicism, with its renewed fervour after the Council of Trent (1545 - 63) and Calvinism which emerged as the second mainstream Protestant faith and awaited its recognition by Imperial Law • As Calvinism spread, the whole of Europe was undergoing dramatic changes • France, Netherlands, Scotland, Hungary and Poland, Reformed preaching attracted substantial parts of the population, and in England a Protestant culture became ingrained during Elizabeth I's reign • The increasingly fragile period of cooperation among the German political powers and the further spreading of different faiths and allied power interests in Europe ended in the Thirty Years War

Point 1 - Extraordinary event

• As Estébe has said, "the procedures used by the killers of Saint Bartholomew's Day came back from the dawn of time; the collective unconscious had buried them within itself, they sprang up again in the month of 1572" • Though there are clearly resemblances between the purification rites of primitive tribes and those used in sixteenth- century religious riots, this paper has suggested that one does not need to look so far as the 'collective unconscious' to explain this fact, nor does one need to regard the 1572 massacres as an isolated phenomenon

What do current mainstream interpretations favour?

• Current mainstream interpretations favour the liberal idea that the Reformation furthered the federative constitution and positive pluralism which distinguish Germany today

Describe the organisation of the crowds of Catholics and Protestants?

• Even with the riots that had little or no planning behind them, the event was given some structure by the situation of worship or the procession that was the occasion for many disturbances • Existing organisations could provide the basis for subsequent religious disturbance, such as confraternities and festive youth societies for Catholics; and for both Protestants and Catholics, units of the militia and craft groupings • Zeal for violent purification also led to new organisations - sometimes the model was a military one, as in the companies of Catholic artisans in Autun, Auxerre and Le Mans raised by the lifting of an ensign; the 'marching bands' organised in Beziers by both Protestants and Catholics; and the dizaines set up by the Reformed Church of Montauban in 1561 NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

Catholic zealots

• Extermination of the heretical 'vermin' promised the restoration of unity to the body social and the guarantee of its traditional boundaries NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

What role did printing play in the production and consumption of these sources?

• For a long time historians thought that there was no question about the new technology's overwhelming importance in spreading the Reformation • Luther seemed to have became Europe's first media- star almost overnight • 3.1 million of his works were sold between 1516 and 1546, excluding his Bible translation • Sometimes a whole edition would sell within weeks or months • Between 1518 - 1529 80% of all editions of Luther's works were published in German • Luther figured as author of 20% of the 7,500 cheap broadsheets printed between 1520 and 1526 • Many other broadsheets supported Luther and his teaching • The question about how important print was for Luther's cause has become more difficult to answer - 30% of the male urban population could read. 90% of the German population lived in the countryside • Even with the best will in the world, few villagers could make sense of printed letters, even though reading (rather than writing) skills were to improve impressively later in the century • How many of the approximately ten million German inhabitants really ever saw a Luther- print? • North German city of Bremen - no printing press operated here before the Reformation and no 'trace of humanist spirit' or of Luther's influence through print can be discerned • Bremen nonetheless accepted the Reformation very fast, and soon after 1522, through the sermons of a Dutch Augustinian monk who had been in Wittenberg for several years before coming to Bremen • Objections of this kind usefully remind us that a history of the printed word needs to be linked to the history of reading • Rather than merely counting how many editions a book had and how many books people owned, historians need to ask whether, how, by whom, what, when and where the printed word was read • Literacy production was not just a matter of writing and getting published. It demanded hard work and reflection. • Printers and publishers had to be persuaded to invest their capital. They had to produce cost- efficiently, but Luther wanted high- quality printing for his major works, and depended on workshops using good paper, typefaces, artisans and correctors, all of which were expensive and hard to find • Seventy years after its introduction, print was still regarded as a 'new medium' and enjoyed an ambiguous status in Europe • These cultural attitudes towards language, print and the spoken word unexpectedly reveal where a man like Luther saw his priorities U RUBLACK

What roles do adolescent males and boys aged ten to twelve play in Catholic and Protestant crowds?

• In Lyon and Castelnaudary in 1562 enfants stoned Protestant worshippers on their way to services • In several towns in Provence - Marseille, Toulon and elsewhere - Catholic youths stoned Protestants to death and burned them • The reputation of the adolescents in Sens and Provins was so frightening that a member of a well- known Huguenot family was afraid to walk through the streets, lest the children of Provins (enfants de Provins) massacre him • In Toulouse, Catholic students take part in the massacres of 1572, and a decade earlier Protestant students had had the university in an uproar, whistling and banging in lectures when the canon law or the 'old religion' was mentioned • In Poitiers in 1559 and again in 1562, Protestant youngesters from ten to twelve and students take the initiative in smashing statues and overturning altars • Youths are mentioned as part of almost all the great iconoclastic disturbances - in the Netherlands, in Rouen and elsewhere NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

What do more radical historians assert?

• More radical historians assert that the Reformation and its contribution to a federal political structure saved Germany from the problematic consequences of the large European nation- states; absolutist power structures, aggressive warfare, empire- building and aggressive capitalism

Why did it seem to many that a change was urgently needed?

• The Church had appeared corrupt for a long time • The Papacy constituted an important political, military and territorial power • Monasteries and bishops owned land in all of Europe, and they and the urban clergy enjoyed extensive legal rights and privileges • France formed a national church to assert some autonomy from papal power during the fifteenth century • Spain and Portugal similarly fought for independence from Rome, their rulers preferring to nominate their own rather than papal favourites as bishops U RUBLACK

Protestant zealots

• The purging of the priestly 'vermin' promised the creation of a new kind of unity within the body social, all the tighter because false gods and monkish sects would no longer divide it • Relations within the social order would be purer, too, for lewdness and love of gain would be limited • For instance, the religious disturbances in Toulouse in the first five months of 1562 correspond to a period of grain prices which were the same as, or lower than, those of the preceding two years • The supply was surely more abundant there than during the hard times in the spring and summer of 1557, when there was no religious disturbance • The Catholic attack on the conventicle on the rue Saint Jacques in September 1557 occurred at a time when grain had dropped to a good low price in Paris and was plentiful • The Saint- Médard riot at the end of 1561 took place when prices were rising, but were far from what contemporaries would have thought a famine level • As for the 1572 massacres, they occurred at a time of slowly rising grain prices, but not yet of serious dearth, with August - September prices in Paris being a little lower than those of October 1571 and in Toulouse lower than in the immediately preceding summer months • In short - grain prices are relevant to religious riot in France only in the general and indirect sense that the inflation of the last forty years of the sixteenth century had an effect on many aspects of life, as did the Religious Wars themselves • The occasion for most religious violence was during the time of religious worship or ritual and in the space which one or both groups were using for sacred purposes • EXCEPTIONS - profanation of religious statutes and paintings might occur at night, especially in the early years when it was a question of a small number of Protestants sneaking into a church • Widespread murder, as in the 1572 massacres, might occur anywhere - in the streets, in bedrooms • Much of the religious riot is timed to ritual, and the violence seems often a curious continuation of the right NATALIE ZEMON DAVIES

Point 2 - Usual part of social behaviour

• This paper has assumed that conflict is perennial in social life, though the forms and strength of the accompanying violence vary; and that religious violence is intense because it connects intimately with the fundamental values and self- definition of a community • The violence is explained not in terms of how crazy, hungry or sexually frustrated the violent people are (though they may sometimes have such characteristics), but in terms of the goals of their actions and in terms of the roles and patterns of behaviour allowed by their culture • Religious violence is related here less to the pathological than to the normal

What were the limitations of Luther?

♣ Luther thought mainly in German terms ♣ Mostly did not act diplomatically - he was a man of strong convictions and feelings, and they showed ♣ His belief in the imminent end of the world hindered long- term strategic thought, and as a consequence, even Reformation propaganda was 'too preoccupied with proclaiming the end of the world to show men how to live pious lives within it' Scribner ♣ In disseminating his views in print, Luther only partly gained control of the publishing market ♣ Popular preachers and pamphleteers often propagated their own views ♣ Luther's success cannot be termed accidental within a larger historical framework - it was part and parcel of long- term reform movements since the Middle Ages ♣ In September 1524 Luther summarised the progress of his Reformation thus far: Protestants preached in four Magdeburg churches; the Imperial Cities had opposed the Edict of Worms at their Speyer meeting; the banishment of a Protestant minister in Augsburg had failed; the Strasburg bishop had been told to leave the city; Bugenhagen was about to implement the Reformation in Hamburg; Philip of Hesse had ordered the preaching of Scripture alone in his principality; Protestants were not persecuted in the Palatinate ♣ The year 1524 marked the break with the humanist movement around Erasmus, deeper divisions with Zwinglians, the clearer positioning of the Catholic territories and the onset of political protest resulting in the movement of 1525, followed by the decline of Luther's publishing success and a further multiplication of reform positions, in which people from all backgrounds now found proofs for their truth by quoting German Bibles ♣ Luther had managed to convince several princes and magistrates personally and politically of his truth but the struggle with his other truth claims continued