Refugee, The refugee crisis
What is at the heart of migration policy?
Increasingly... securitization - linking migration to foreign policy/terrorism initiatives- policy securitised post 9/11- security at the heart
What is the connection between Schengen and the single market concept?
It is important dor the single market to be able to implement the four freedoms: services, goods, capital and labour
Who makes immigration policy?
It is the preserve of the national govt EU has some role, but its not major- MS sets their own target re regular migration Treating migrants fairly - Social integration: funding available- European Refugee Fund- for settlement of refugees in MS
GREENHILL: What does Greenhill argue is the role of the Southern states?
States along the Southern border- Italy and Greece- have acted as key entry points for the majority of migrants- ill-equipped- have become holding camps bc aid from Brussels to frontline states has been slow to arrive, also slow in facilitating the resettlement of migrants and refugees to other parts of Europe
LAVENEX- what has the agreement with Turkey meant that the EU has been able to do?
Stem irregular flows of migratns in the Eastern Medtearranean by 97%
GREENHILL: inflammatory rhetoric from Polish PM?
warned that Muslim refugees would bring parasites and diseases to the local population
Why do the Dublin Regulation and Schengen fail?
• A unilateral and national response from Member States: refusal to provide financial aid to Italy and distribution conflicts among member states. • 'Schengen Crisis': the re-introduction of internal border controls in Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Hungary, Malta, France, Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Belgium, provoked by the 'waving-through' of migrants from Italy through to the rest of Europe.
Tenets of the Dublin Regulation?
• Establishes the member state responsible for examining Asylum applications according to the first point of irregular entry. • Re-allocation system based on size and wealth; countries can temporarily opt out if they pay a solidarity contribution for each application of €250,000 as a fairness mechanism. • Creation of the 'third safe country' concept refers to the process whereby Member States are able to disregard asylum claims if the asylum seeker can, or could have, found protection elsewhere.
How much did Turkey spend on organising and setting up refugee camps?
$15 million
Example of the link between human smuggling and terrorism? Europol
- Two of the suspected perpetrators of the Paris attacks on 13 November 2016 travelled to the EU disguised as irregular migrants.
Greenhill: threats from Turkey
-"we're tired of waiting for help...Either concede to our array of demands or face the migration-related consequences of failing to do so" -Turkey could send refugees to Europe by easily opening the doors to Greece and Bulgaria
How many asylum claims were accepted and what happens to those rejected?
-25% of asylum claims accepted- many sent back, some may appeal, many become illegal migrants and go underground working in the black economy
What were the two principal routes into Europe?
-Eastern Mediterranean entry route: In 2015 the largest number of irregular migrants arrived in Greece -The Central Mediterranean entry route: Italy is second in the EU in terms of the number of irregular migrant arrivals
3 main trades which Greenhill highlights as being part of the deal?
-Greece can return to Turkey all new regular migrants', EU assists Turkey with 6 billion euros in financial support for hosting 3 million refugees. -Accelerate visa liberalisation for Turkish nationals and 're-energise' Turkish EU membership talks -Turkey recognised as a 'safe' country despite human rights violations by the govt and crackdowns on the free press- international reputational boost.
Differentiation between migrants and refugees?
-Migrants are fundamentally different from refugees and, thus, are treated very differently under international law. -Migrants, especially economic migrants, choose to move in order to improve their lives. -Refugees are forced to flee to save their lives or preserve their freedom. -Migrants and refugees increasingly make use of the same routes and means of transport to get to an overseas destination. If people composing these mixed flows are unable to enter a particular state legally, they often employ the services of human smugglers and embark on dangerous sea or land voyages, which many do not survive.
Where have migrants primarily headed towards? & implication of this?
-Not satisfied to stay in first country of arrival- Germany and Sweden are the most desirable destinations. -Monetary, social and political costs of the recent influx to the EU has been unequal.
What is the third safe country concept?
-The 'safe third country' concept- permits member states to disregard an asylum claim- will be returned to Turkey is they have passed through there. According to this concept, Member States are able to disregard asylum claims if the asylum seeker can, or could have, found protection elsewhere on route to Europe. -A country can be considered as a 'third safe country' if the possibility of refugee status exists and if they can receive asylum in accordance with the Geneva Convention without persecution. -No EU country considered Turkey as a third safe country before the agreement was signed.
Ayslum policy?
1. The Common European Asylum System 2. The Dublin Regulation
What are the 3 pillars of the CEAS?
1. To harmonise standards of protection by further aligning the EU States' asylum legislation 2. Practical cooperation between Member States 3. Increased solidarity and sense of responsibility among Member States & EU and non-EU countries
When was Schengen implemented?
1985- part of the Lisbon Treaty which places free movement above all other policies
When did the Syrian Civil war begin?
2011 - Little critical assistance provided by the global community - Accusations against the Syrian government involving the use of Chemical Weapons. - Hundreds of thousands of refugees flood neighboring states of Lebanon and Jordan.
When was the height of the refugee crisis?
2015
What happens in 2015?
2015: Thousands of refugees reach Greek beaches daily; 1+ million Syrian refugees reach Europe Hungary builds border wall with Serbia to prevent influx of refugees 1.3 million asylum requests made by Syrians
Who is involved in Schengen?
4 of 26 members are non-EU members. UK, Ireland, Cyprus, Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania not involved. They opt into some aspects- eg UK and Ireland opt into shared intelligence database
By 2017 how many Syrians have left the country as refugees?
5 million -5.6 million people have been displaced- 55% of the population have either moved internally or externally. 150 million people disappeared and are assumed dead.
According to THE BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM, how many refugees drowned off the coast of Libya?
700 in April 2015
From the Swedish Democrats?
: 'Islamism is the Nazism and Communism of our time'
What happened in 2014 regarding the Syrian Civil War? Implication for Turkey?
: Declaration of ISIL's caliphate Millions of Syrian refugees now within Turkey's borders Bulgaria builds a 30km wall with Turkey
What is it a crisis of?
A multifaceted nature: -Crisis in governance -EU policy -Security -Humanitarian
What does Greenhill argue Turkey served as for refugees?
A waiting room
When did illegal migration become more attractive?
As avenues for regular migration closed as the economic situation worsened- through legal routes- as channels closed, illegal arrival became more attractive- the crisis in part around the closure of legal routes.
Greenhill: How were displaced people used?
As instruments of foreign policy
How does Greenhill argue that Turkey has acted?
As opportunists. They played no direct role in the creation of the migration crisis but exploit the existence of outflows generated by others.
Why is the EU-Turkey deal dangerous in terms of Turkey's position?
Authoritarian crackdown in Turkey- no longer fears censure from the EU 'a moral vacuum @ the heart of the EU'
What happens in 2016?
Balkan countries close borders -EU-Turkey deal
Why do the CEAS and Dublin Regulation essentially fail?
Because protectionist policies dominate protective norms at the discretion of the MS
What leads to organisational hypocrisy?
Both environments place expectations upon the organisation
When can Schengen be legally undermined?
Can be undermined legally where there is a threat to security or to public policy, terrorist threat. Since 2015 a number of member states have temporary closures- supposed to be temporary but there have multiple extensions to the closures. -Refugee crisis has created tension for Schengen- potentially undermining Schengen largely due to public reaction of refugee flows.
EG of how the EU-Turkey deal demonstrated the effect of public pressure
Chancellor Merkel Went from publically "inviting" 1 million refugees to facing several electoral losses, such as in recent Bavarian state elections. Rise of AfD party
Difference in duty of the EU and individual MS?
Chasm between the duty of the EU as a supranational unit and the individual MS
GREENHILL: What method does Turkey use to make a deal with the EU and how?
Coercive Engineered Migration (CEM) by Turkey: cross-border population movements that are deliberately created or manipulated by state or non-state actors to induce political, military and/or economic concessions from a target state/s.
LAVENEX: What has the EU become vulnerable to?
Cooperation with third countries which dont live up to European legal standards and may take advantage of the situation
Problem with smuggling? Europol
Criminal networks exploit the desperation and vulnerability of migrants. -They offer a broad range of facilitation services such as the provision of transportation, accommodation and fraudulent documents at excessively high prices. In many cases, irregular migrants are forced to pay for these services by means of illegal labour. The scale of this exploitation is set to further increase in 2016.
What have transit routes bred?
Criminality: -Many deaths through dangerous Mediterranean crossings -Dependence of smugglers
GREENHILL: What does Greenhill argue the EU does in the EU-Turkey deal of MArch 2016?
EU concedes to Turkey's political and economic demands- use of people as instruments of foreign policy.
Another reason? Bureau of investigative journalism
EU failed to act on Frontex's predictions: its intelligence-gathering role was hampered by a lack of MS action -Frontex risk analysis during the past three years correctly predicted a surge of refugee numbers streaming through the central Mediterranean, Greece and Hungary. -Europe did not act on its findings. -The consequences of these EU-wide failures has been to create an environment in which thousands of people have drowned at sea and where smugglers have made fortunes from refugees fleeing war.
What is a hotspot?
EU supporting camps in the first country of arrival- fingerprinting and fast-tracking claims to send back those not eligible for asylum & re-allocation from camps. Mainly Greece and Italy.
How has knowledge of the migrant routes guided policy?
Eg Eastern Med route- a deal with Libya set up a coastguard system to prevent it (GREENHILL: in exchange for the provision of significant financial and in-kind aid)
What does Nicolescu 2017 argue about Europe's border?
Europe didn't have secure enough borders to limit illegal migration, making Europe vulnerable to increased internal security threats such as terror attacks
According to the Bureau of investigative journalism highlight Junker as saying?
European Commission President Junker: "We need to strengthen Frontex significantly and develop it into a fully operational European border and coast guard system. It is certainly feasible. But it will cost money."
What was Frontex's new mission?
Extending the policy outwards - readmission agreements -Policy focussed on creating a more secure, wider European external border. -Policies focussed around anti-terrorism, analysis, information gathering. -Coastguard border force and facilitating cooperation among member states
Why is the Schengen area important?
Facilitates free movement across Europe- a core EU principle- a border free Europe -Attachment to the single market concept
Why is the failing of Dublin a failing in internal security?
Failing of external border controls necessary for the Schengen area to succeed
Who does the Dublin Regulation put pressure on?
Greece, Italy, Spain, Malta
Why is smuggling an attractive crime?
High profits and low risk of detection
What does Castro Sanchez argue is the fundamental concern for security?
Human rights, inc as 'terrorism and organised crime, drug trafficking, corruption, trafficking in human beings, smuggling of persons and trafficking in arms'
What does Europol highlight a link between?
Human smuggling and human trafficking - In January 2016, 55% of the irregular migrants arriving in the EU were women and minors. - In many EU Member States, unaccompanied minors disappear from asylum or reception centres. - These criminal networks also exploit vulnerable migrants as part of labour and sexual exploitation and fraud schemes as well as many other types of crime
What kind of crisis is this?
Humanitarian- cost to human security and lives Internal security- terrorism and rise in organised crime Political Crisis- how it may affect domestic politics- for example in Germany- Went from publically "inviting" 1 million refugees to facing several electoral losses, such as in recent Bavarian state elections. Rise of AfD party Institutional- failure of CEAS, Dublin, Frontex, Schengen Crisis for the EU- failure to implement policy- EU Turkey deal
Statistics acc. to a 2016 Europol report?
In 2015, more than one million migrants reached the EU. More than 90% of the migrants travelling to the EU used facilitation services.
Why does the CEAS fail?
LAVENEX 2018- due to organisational hypocrisy
Why did Frontex fail?
Lack of communication by MS Frontex actually has little power and struggles to operate in the straitjacket imposed by the collective failure of member states and Brussels to fully commit and cooperate with it - despite the current crisis. Its operational work is under-resourced.
How can we explain the unilateral responses of the MS?
MS differ not only over interests but also over beliefs and norms and the very goal of a European policy. -Conflicts of value inevitable in asylum law bc justification comes from the universalist claim of human rights but is dependent on particularist states' consent to grant asylum.
How does Greenhill argue that vulnerable refuges are viewed?
Not viewed as vulnerable refugees but a liability to national security, societal stability and cultural identity
What type of refugees would Slovakia take?
Only Christian ones
Greenhill: What is making concessions to Turkey more palatable?
Previously deemed as outargeous but now palatable as MS fear
What else does Europol link human smuggling to?
Terrorism: - Raised concerns that migrant smuggling routes and networks are used to infiltrate potential terrorists - There are also concerns that terrorist organisations rely on migrant smuggling as a source of funding
What does the EU-Turkey deal prove?
That the EU was suscpetible to threats and CEM which psoes a question for future crises -opens the way for other countries to cooperate against the EU in return for concessions
Greenhill: What has Turkey exploited to get the deal?
The EU's failure to efficiently handle the crisis
What does Greenhill highlight as the benefits of the EU-Turkey deal for Europe?
The EU-Turkey Migration Deal: -help staunch ongoing migration crisis -prevent further unchecked arrivals -alleviate intra-EU strains on Schengen & broader European political & economic projects
What is the Schengen area?
The Schengen area encompasses most of the EU Member States, and some non-EU states. Within the Schengen area there are no internal borders but external borders have tighter controls.
Problem with the hotspots?
The concept was supported but difficult to operationalise
What is smuggling?
The fastest growing criminal market in Europe -In 2015 alone, criminal networks involved in migrant smuggling are estimated to have had a turnover of between EUR 3 -6 billion. It was set to triple in 2016.
What did the Turkish PM threaten at the time?
To turn on the switch and funnel even more refugees into the EU
Where do refugees get shipped back to?
Turkey
What does Greenhill argue has caused anxieties and fears in the EU?
Uncertainty over EU assistance -countries not following Dublin Regulation and allowing refugees to reach further North unregistered as an unofficial method of intra-EU burden sharing
What does Greenhill argue Turkey has used people as as part of CEM?
Used people as valuable bargaining leverages instead of weapons
Scale of flows acc to VOX 2015
VOX 2015: At least 2,000 refugees arriving daily to Hungary, Macedonia and Serbia in August 2015 alone, 3,000 arriving in Greece.
Definition of internal security? Odutayo 2016
a more traditional view of security which refers to 'security of territory from external aggression [and] as protection of national interest in foreign policy'
Definition of crisis? Seeger, Reynolds and Sellnow
as 'a specific, unexpected and non-routine event[s] or series of events that create high levels of uncertainty and threaten...an organisation's high priority goals' (Seeger, Reynolds and Sellnow)
LAVENEX- what does org hypocrisy do the the CEAS?
causes a cleavage between what the EU says it's doing in terms of its' goals and ideas, and what it's actually doing, due to Member State's preferences diverging from decision-making rules
What does Odutayo argue about human security being paramount to internal security?'
human security also stresses that national security is threatened by the insecurity of citizens outside the nation's borders', showing how global security in the protection of human beings is essential for national security
Definition of human security? Odutayo 2016
human security, which manages threats to 'human survival, daily life and dignity'
GREENHILL: Inflammatory rhetoric from David Cameron?
invoked insects warning of a 'swarm' of 'illegal migrants' invading Europe
Why does EU refugee policy fail according to organisational hypocrisy?
it's impossible to uphold the expected norms and values of the EU regarding the Geneva convention, whilst responding to its' technical environment, i.e. Hungary rejecting re-allocation, building fences at its' borders and automatically detaining asylum-seekers, therefore breaking European and International law in line with the EU's normative values
Why do PM's use this inflammatory rhetoric? GREENHILL
necessary that the dominant groups believe refugees to be a menace, whether or not they are actually harmful is not a crucial circumstance- if they are perceived as fundamentally threatening to their security, culture or livelihood, anxious and motivated individuals and groups will mobilise to oppose their acceptance
What has the common compulsory mechanism provoked?
outcry and non-implementation: plan to share the burden according to a quota system to force member states to take a proportion of refugees but challenged by MS in European Court of Justice- countries came up with their own quotas. EG Germany open its borders and took more. Hungary built a wall and refused Muslim refugees. The end of Dublin?
GREENHILL: inflammatory rhetoric from Orbán (Hungarian PM)?
refugees entering Europe 'look like an army' & most new arrivals are not Christian, but Muslim. Limitless
GREENHILL: how have right wing ultra-nationalists in Europe responded?
responded by taking a hardline on immigration, and unilateral national responses are trumping universalistic, supranational ones. -Voters in Germany punished Merkel's Christian Democratic Party in all three states while the anti-immigrant Alternative for Germany party made noteworthy gains
Example of terrorist movements being disguised as refugee migration movements?
terrorist movements have been disguised as refugee migration movements (Nicolescu, 2017: 175), with ISIS fighters taking advantage of the possibility of refugee status to be able to stage an attack- as has been the case in Germany, for example in the attack of a young Afghan on a train in Southern Germany (Nicolescu)
What does organisational sociology dictate?
that an organisation is a reflection of its' environment and it distinguishes two environments: the strategic, which refers to the social norms and values the organisation seeks to conform to, and the technical, which refers to their actors of the organisation, their interests and institutions-mediated interaction.
GREENHILL: In a post 9/11 environment, on what grounds do politicians argue that migrants are a danger to society?
that migrants who are from different religious, linguistic and ethnic backgrounds than the majority in their newly adopted homelands are a danger to society.
Why did the Dublin Regulation fail?
the Dublin regulation failed due to Member States refusing to burden-share with States of first-entry to Europe, led to migrants moving freely through Europe and in turn, Lavenex's Schengen crisis- closing of border- failing of the EU's greatest integration success.
Acc to Castro Sánchez, how is the refugee crisis a human security crisis in Europe?
the blatant dismissal of the protection of refugees as human beings in Europe
What do the failings of EU refugee policy lead the EU to being vulnerable to?
the co-operation of third countries which don't share European legal standards and who also have ulterior motives
According to Castro Sánchez, how is the refugee crisis an internal security crisis in Europe?
the failed attempt of the EU Member States to protect themselves unilaterally (Castro Sánchez: 2017
What does Nicolescu say about the rise of terrorism?
the number of terrorist attacks across Europe has increased since the arrival of refugees to Europe, with the number of attacks in Germany and France especially sharply increasing in both countries in 2015
GREENHILL: What do responses from the member states illustrate?
the potential power of unregulated migration to make people and governments feel insecure and under threat
What does Park argue about the refugee crisis being a security crisis?
the refugee crisis in Europe is misperceived as an internal security issue, but instead should be considered a human security issue. - more a crisis of human security, exacerbated by the failure of the CEAS and negative rhetoric that sways public opinion into believing that refugees threaten national security.
What does mass migration undermine for national govts?
undermines fragile political bargains & governance arrangements. Citizens become reactionary
Main points of the EU-Turkey deal? (6)
• €6 billion in aid from the EU to Turkey over 2 instalments to cover for refugee's needs. • All new irregular migrants crossing from Turkey into Greek islands as from 20 March 2016 will be returned to Turkey. • For every Syrian refugee being returned to Turkey from Greek islands, another Syrian refugee will be resettled from Turkey to the EU. • The EU will use 18,000 spare places from an earlier resettlement scheme, and up to 54,000 places from a slow-moving plan to redistribute refugees in Greece and Italy around the EU. • The EU agrees to accelerate plans to bring in visa-free travel for Turkish nationals to the Schengen passport-free zone, provided certain criteria were met • The opening of new chapters in Turkey's accession procedure - namely no. 33 on Budgets.