Religion 3 Quiz (Hinduism)

Origin

Grown from fusion of the Indigenous religions of the Indus Valley + faith of an Indo-European people thought to have migrated there from 1750-1500BCE. Indo-Europeans (Aryans) originated in other parts of Asia Subcontinent itself = homeland

Atman and Brahman (Upanishads)

Heart of higher wisdom = relationship between human soul (ATMAN) and Supreme Being (BRAHMAN • To know Brahman is to enter a new state of consciousness Suggest the connection but does not specify, the connections between the two • You are that = that/Brahman and you/Atman • Two = inseparably united but ≠ identical

The Ramayana

Hero, young prince Rama, whose father, Dasaratha, has decided to abdicate in favor of his son.. Except, the dad has to exile Rama before the coronation bc promise made to an earlier wife Rama = ☺ Okay! And leaves with his wife, Sita, and half-bro Lakshmana who also refused to be separated from him Bharata (Son who is made King) returned from a trip to find his dad died from grief and his bro missing... finds Rama and begs him to return but he refuses bc wants to respect late dad's wishes Meanwhile, Sita captured by Ravan, demon king of Lanka Rama and Bharata and group of monkeys led by Hanuman (monkey with divine ancestry) search for her Hanuman finds her and then Rama goes to war with Ravan Rama kills Ravan, reunited with Sita, and together they return to be crowned

Second Veda: Sama

Hymns meant to be sung

Vaishyas (merchants)

Responsible for more commercial transactions, as well as agriculture Power of wealth and economic decisions lies with Vaishyas • Also allowed to study Vedas

Each Veda consists of FOUR sections:

A) hymns (Samhitas) B) directions for the performance of rituals (Brahmanas) C) compositions for the forest (Aranyakas) D) philosophical works (Upanishads) Upanishads = most recent sections, composed 600BCE

Karma

Action Rewards and punishments attached to various actions System of cause and effect may require several lifetimes to figure out

First Veda: Rig

Earliest work, contains 1,038 hymns

The Upanishads

Early Vedic emphasis on placating the Gods through ritual sacrifice → critical philosophical inquiry • Questioning, rejecting, authoritarian structures • Did not totally reject the early hymns/rituals Rethink and reformulate them Interpreted allegorically, and the symbolic structures of sacrifices are analyzed in some detail • Form of conversations • Teacher/student; wife/husband; fellow philosophers

Jnana yoga

way of knowledge o Transforming wisdom that also destroys our past karma o True knowledge is insight into the real nature of the universe • When we hear scripture, ask questions, clarify doubts, and meditate on knowledge = liberation

Fourth Stage of Life

• FOUR: elderly man would renounce the material world altogether and take up the ascetic life of the samnyasin • Owned nothing, relied on food given as alms, and spent rest of his days seeking enlightenment and detachment from life • Became rare with increasing popularity of Gita, which stressed controlled engagement with the world

Other Popular Deities

• Ganesha, the elephant-headed son of Shiva and Parvati = most beloved of all Hindu gods • Moves obstacles/hindrances and no new project begins without prayer to him • Murugan, son of Shiva too, is popular among the Tamil-speaking people in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Canada • Monkey god Hanuman, model devotee of Rama and Sita, = everyone's protector

Caste System

four classes = VARNAS Priestly class from mouth Rulers from arms Producers from legs Servants from feet • Stratification likely took place long before Rig Veda was composed shorthand for the thousands of social/occupational divisions that have developed from the simple fourfold structure laid out in the "Hymn to the Supreme Person" • More than 1000 jatis (birth groups) in India and people ID themselves by jati • Ritual practices, dietary rules, and sometimes dialects differ between castes, and intermarriage = rare

Brahmins (priests)

Only group authorized to TEACH the Vedas Though not all of the Brahmin community were priests, all enjoyed the power/prestige associated with spiritual learning

Puranas

(old) texts retold the "old tales" of the Hindu tradition, shifting emphasis away from major Vedic gods in favor of other deities • Hindu tradition as we know it today crystallized

Dharmashastras

= foundations of later Hindu laws • Most famous = Manava Dharmashastra (Laws of Manu) probably dates around first century • Set out the roles and duties of the four principal castes that make up Hindu society:

Karma Yoga

= way of action o Path of the unselfish duty, performed neither in fear of punishment nor in hope of reward • To expect a reward leads to bondage/☹ since ≠ satisfied for long • Soon the goal will be replaced → further action and further accumulation of karma→ further rebirth • Even good karma = bad bc to enjoy it we must be reborn • Good karma = golden handcuffs o Act without attachment to the consequences

Supreme being

Brahman in countless forms and genders+ (330 million) Some sects say Vishnu, some Shiva

Quest for a unifying truth

Cannot be taught: it can only be evoked In later centuries, "higher wisdom" was not connected with any Vedic/book but through experience/enlightenment that one is freed from samsara

The Stages and Goals of Life

Dharma texts recognized FOUR stages of life = ashramas for males from the three higher classes in society

Fourth Veda: Atharva

Differs from the other three in that Atharva includes materials used for purposes other than sacrificial rituals = incantations and remedies to ward of evil spirits/illness

Yoga definition

Discipline

Indo-Europeans

Indian ~ English Similar cognates → Aryans originated in Central Asia and migrations = 2000BCE OR: originated in Turkey and began spreading out as much as 4000years earlier OR: originated in Indian subcontinent Astronomical data and evidence that the great river Sarasvati Rig Veda: Sarasvati had 5 Aryans tribes living on its bank Geological evidence shows that it was dry by the time Aryans were supposed to have entered India (1750BCE) = push back dates to Harappan if Aryans were there • Evidence ≠ conclusive • Biases and agendas traditions were committed to memory and passed from generation to generation orally

Jnana

Knowledge

Sanskrit

Language of the Vedas

Divisions of tantra: left VS right handed schools

Left hand • Inauspicious (ill omen) • Ritual performance or activities forbidden in everyday life Right hand • More conservative

Classical Hinduism

Less authoritative than revealed shruti/Vedas, still considered inspired & more important in lives Several texts: • epics (itihasas) Sacred texts = Ramayana (Story of Rama) and Mahabharata (Great epic of India/Great sons of Bharata) • Ancient stories (Puranas) • Codes of law/ethics (dharmashastras)

The Harappa Culture

Mohenjo Daro (Mound of the Dead) Harappa Uniformity in the culture across the entire northwestern part of the subcontinent By 2750 BCE there was written language, though no reading of it is universally accepted Impressive builders Pool-like structure for religious rituals Fire altar and carvings of mother goddess Yoga posture ~ Shiva Brought an end to the Indus Valley civilization? Arrival of the Indo-European around 1750 BCE Flooding, drying of the river, epidemics Hinduism may have originated well before 1750 BCE

Vedanta

One of the 6 schools of Theology • Most important • "end of the Vedas" • Shankara= important interpreter o Reality = non-dual (advaita): the only reality is Brahman, and this reality cannot be described bc it is without attributes o Brahman & Atman (human soul) = identical o Interprets "you are that" literally and upholds unity where others see two distinct entities o Liberation = removal of ignorance and dispelling of illusion (maya) through transforming knowledge • final release comes after death of the body o Three levels of reality • We believe everything we experience is real (dreams). And it is—until we are liberated and wake up to the truth • Limited reality = bc ignorance and illusion/maya

Brahman

One supreme being, can be any gender and can take any form

Marga

Path toward reaching salvation

Kshatriyas (rulers, warriors)

Permitted to study the Vedas but not teach them Protect the people/country Lines of descendants = * so sought to confirm their legitimacy by tracing their ancestry to the primeval progenitors of humanity (sun/moon) and even usurpers invoked divine antecedents • Emphasize divine connections Duties of a King: • Strive to conquer his senses, shun his vices of pleasure/wrath

Ages of Time

Puranas refer to the cosmic cycles of creation/destruction as the days/nights of the Brahma • Each day of Brahma contains about 4320million earthly years and the nights are equally as long • A year of Brahma = 360Brahma days • Live life cycle of 100years = 311,040,000million earthly years at which the end of which the entire cosmos → drawn into the body of Vishnu/Shiva where it remains until another Brahma is evolved [Big Bang]

The Brahmo Samaj

Ram Mohan Roy o Joined East India Company and familiarized with Christianity • Rejected Jesus as the son of God but admired him as a compassionate human being • Published The Precepts of Jesus: The Guide to Peace and Happiness where Jesus' moral teachings coincide with Hindu tradition o In 1828, established a society for discussion on the nature of Brahman presented in the Upanishads • Brahmo Samaj society • Emphasized monotheism, rationalism, humanism, and social reform • Drew on the Vedas (Upanishads especially) to defend Hinduism against attacks of Christian missionaries • Accused missionaries of straying from monotheism in teaching the Holy Trinity o Pioneer in women's rights, including right to education, fought to abolish sati and child marriage o Never became a mainstream movement but revitalized Hinduism by calling attention to both inhuman practices and to the need for education/reform

Sequel to the Ramayana

Rama's subjects become suspicious of Sita's virtue followering her captivity Bc no way to prove her innocence & possibly bc he doesn't want to set a precedent for excusing a wife who has slept outside her home, he banishes a pregnant Sita • Gives birth to two twin sons • Twins prepare to meet Rama in battle some time later and Sita tells them he is their father • Rama asks Sita to prove her innocence in public by undergoing some ordeal but she refuses and asks Mother Earth to take her back • Sita = ideal wife bc follows husband to the forest = model of strength/virtue in own right bc stands own ground when asked to prove virtue • On one occasion, in Lanka, she accepts the challenge but 2nd time she gently/firmly refuses o Tale retold in Sita's POV = Sitayana • The deeds of Sita are indeed great

Vedic Hymns

Samhitas do not mention the principal hindu deities often. They are only mentioned later on in the Later Vedic hymns • Earlier hymns speak of deities who were later superseded and many of the stories they allude to would not be familiar with most Hindus today Ritual sacrifice, usually using fire Connection between rituals and the maintenance of cosmic/earthly order or rta: truth/justice, rightness or things that make harmony possible Speculate on the origins of life Created through cosmic sacrifice of the primeval man (Purusha) = hymn of the Supreme Person Various elements of the universe = bc sacrifice

Shudras (servants)

Serve the other classes • Not permitted to accumulate wealth even if they had the opportunity to do so • Seniority = only through old age (instead of knowledge, valor, wealth)

Hindu "Trinity"

Symbolism of trimurti (three forms), the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva either coalesce into one form with three face or are represented as equal • Sometimes interpreted as implying a polytheistic belief in three gods: Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer

Shruti

That which was heard

The Three Ways to Liberation

The way of action The way of knowledge The way of devotion

Women in the Vedas

Three female poets -Ghosa, Apala, and Lopamudra—are named in the early part of the Vedas & Upanishads mention several women • Some teachers are even listed with their mothers' names instead of their fathers' Some may have received spiritual instruction from their mothers

Shiva

Unlike Vishnu, Shiva does NOT reveal himself sequentially, in a series of incarnations but instead expresses the manifold aspects of his power by appearing simultaneously in paradoxical roles • Creator and destroyer, exuberant dancer and austere yogi • Wedding portrait of Shiva and his divine consort, Parvati, is an important part of his tradition o His creative energy = symbolic form of a linga: an upright stone shaft placed in a receptacle, yoni, that symbolizes the womb

The 3 prominent Deities

Vishnu • Vaishnavas = followers Shiva • Shaivas Shiva's consort (The goddess): Parvati/Durga/Devi/the Goddess • Shaktas, in reference to her role as the shakti (power) of her divine consort

The Vedas

Works collectively known as shruti (that which was heard) Rishis/seers "saw" the mantras and transmitted them to their disciples starting an oral tradition Regarded as revealed scripture four collections of hymns and texts revealed to rishis (visionaries/seers) through SIGHT AND SOUND All read by people in certain cast system (Brahmins = class that historically was the "head"/highest in Hindu society) sacred texts but not books kept in homes, most don't know contents revealed though source of the revelation ≠ deity Agree authoritative/transcendental nature but differ on question of origin (Nyaya (logic) ~ composed by God or Mimamsa and Vedanta ~ eternal, coeval with God) Manual of rituals for all Hindu traditions, and some sections have been passed down without change for more than 2000years Interpretations ≠ static • Messages relevant to particular time and place Highest honor to be described as another Veda:

Third Veda

Yajur

Aranyakas

compositions for the forests

Tiruvaymoli

considered the "fifth Veda"

Bhagavad Gita

conversation between Arjuna and Krishna o Teaches both loving and devotion to Krishna and the importance of selfless action • Written 200BCE-200CE • Learned by heart for centuries • Recited at funerals when Krishnu describes the soul as existing beyond the reach of the human mind/senses, unaffected by physical nature o Told not to grieve at what is about to take place; also warned that if he does not fight he will be guilty of moral cowardice and face the consequences of quitting when it was his duty (dharma) to protect the people by waging a just war • Krishna also makes several statements about himself in the Gita = * • Upanishads presented Brahman as beyond human conceptualization but Krishna speaks of himself both as personal god (so filled with love he will reincarnate himself to protect humans) and the ultimate god (origin, maintenance, and dissolution of the universe)

Dance of the Shiva

cosmic dancer → Nataraja, king of the dance • Both dancer and ascetic, symbolizing mastery over universal energy & absolute inner tranquility • Has four hands o #1 right hand holds an hourglass-shaped drum (sound - speech and divine truth heard through revelation) o #2 right hand makes gestures that grants fearlessness to devotees o #3 left hand holds a flame (destruction of the world at end of time) o #4 left hand points to feet • Feet grant salvation and are worshipped to obtain union with Shiva • Master of fierce, violent dance that gives rise to energy and the gentle, lyric dance representing tenderness and grace o Universe shakes when he dances o Krishna sings for him

Bhakti yoga

devotion Emphasized most through the Gita Krishna promised he will forgive all our sins if we surrender/devote self to him General amnesty to those who sin through devotion

Brahmanas

directions for the performance of sacred rituals

Atman

human soul

Status of maya

if maya is real, then there are TWO realities (Brahman and maya); if maya is unreal, it cannot be the cause of the cosmic delusion

Ajnana

ignorance "Lack of Knowledge"

Moksha

immortal and believe when reaches liberation it will be freed from the shackles of karma/rebirth one with God Liberation • requires a transforming experimental wisdom (once achieved = immortal)

Samsara

implies continual cycle of death and rebirth/reincarnation

Mahabharata

longest poem in the world with 100,000 verses • Not normally in homes, but do own copies of an extract Bhagavad Gita • Story about the struggle of descendants of a king Bharata • War between two families, Pandavas and Kauravas Though cousins, the Kauravas want to cheat the Pandavas out of their share of the kingdom and will not accept peace Major kingdoms forced to take sides Krishna takes the side of the Pandavas but refuses to fight, will serve as charioteer for warrior Arjuna (who=human soul in quest of liberation) • Arjuna asks Krishna if its okay to take up arms against one's kin • Yes, correct to fight for what's right • Peaceful means must be tried, but if they fail one must fight for righteousness (dharma)

Denominations

no single text, deity, or teacher with many local deities ≠ pan-Indian gods

Holi

north Indian festival celebrated in March/April with bonfires to enact the destruction of evil and exuberant throwing of colored powder to symbolize vibrant colors of spring • Popular all over the world (with even non-Hindus) • Commemorates Vishnu's incarnation as a man-lion in order to save the lives of his devotee Prahlada and his incarnation of Krishna

Tantra

o Body of ritual practices and the texts interpreting them o To stretch/expand o Independent of the Vedic tradition, having gained importance in 5th century • Shaiva, Shakta, and Vaishnava communities have own tantra texts o Difficult to define because of its esoteric nature, regional and sectarian variations, and its interpretation of other systems of philosophy/practice

Deepavali

o Deepa = lamp and vali = necklace/row → necklace of lights o Celebrated new moon between 15 October and 14 November o Decorate house with lights, set off firecrackers, wear new clothes o Beginning of new year in some parts of India o Varies from region to region • South: celebrates dawn when Krishna is said to have killed Narakasura, demon from netherworld and ensuring light>darkness • North: return of Rama to Ayodhya and his coronation • Gujarat: new year • Presents are sometimes exchanged and generally time of feasting • In Tamilnuda, people say river Ganga is present in all waters on Deepavali day so people take purifying baths o ALWAYS family centered no matter differences

Attitudes towards Women

o Hindu scriptures written by men • Views on women = contradictory • Honoring, respecting, venerating women but also scorning them • Laws of Manu make it clear that women no longer enjoyed the relatively high status suggested in the Vedas o Nothing must be done independently for a girl, even in her own house o Manu's dicates ≠ followed by all • Traced to Auspiciousness o Prosperity in life, above all wealth and progeny o Second level: related to moksha • Implicit in Hindu culture • Ideal = sumangali o Married women who is full partner in dharma, artha, and kama, through whom kids are born, wealth/religious merit accumulated • Wife's dharma = loyalty to husband in life and death

Navaratri

o Nine nights o Begins on the new moon between 15 September and 14 October • Different ways for different reasons • In Tamilnadu it is largely a celebration of womanhood o Dolls of Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Durga o Women and kids dress in bright silk and visit each other, admire the goddesses o On the last two days -countrywide holiday—large pics of Lakshmi and Sarasvati are on display before dolls and worshipped • In West Bangal celebrate goddess Durga's killing of buffalo-demon Mahisa o Make statues of Durga for her spirit to inhabit and after nine nights immerse the statues in water to symbolize her return to the formless state • In Gujarat, Navaratri is celebrated with 2 special dances o Circular dance = garbha • Sacred lamp is kept in the center of circle as manifestation of goddess o Second dance = dandiya • Performed with sticks and recalls the dance that Krishna performed with cowherd girls • To some traditions, it was during the same nine nights and ten days that Rama battled Ravana o In Ramnagar, Varanasi on the Ganga, people act out the story and on the 10th day celebrate Rama's victory • 9th day of Navaratri that Arjuna found the weapons he had hidden a year before and paid respect to them before battle o Last 2 days dedicated to Lakshmi and Sarasvati celebrate importance of weapons and machines in life (cars, musical instruments,...) • Last day of the festival is dedicated to Lakshmi o Fresh starts, new ventures and new knowledge, and honor traditional teachers

Temple Worship

o Not clear when it began, Vedic literature says nothing about temples although the Harappa civilization does appear to have set buildings apart for worship • Some temples from 5th century CE in south bc north destroyed by Muslim rulers/invaders • Worship at public shrines established by early 5th century bc carvings of Vishnu/Shiva o Deities of Hindu temples treated like kings and queens • Murtis/icons are given baths, adorned, carried in procession, honored with hospitality of royal guest with music and dance to entertain them • Not symbols but deities themselves, fully present and accessible o Does not detract from his/her presence in heaven immanence in the world, or presence in the human soul • Always complete and whole, no matter how many forms manifested at a given time • image in a temple = only a symbol of higher reality • some sects reject images altogether o Temple has a correlation to the universe itself and to body of the divine beings • Glimpse of temple tower in South India is said to be enough to destroy one's sins o No congregational prayer • Priests pray on behalf of the devotees, presents offerings of fruit/flowers/coconut and then gives back some of those blessed objects to the devotees • Food = prasada (divine favor), a gift from the deity • Some temples, prasada = bought , some = free...etc. o Donations inscribed on wall of temples • Important source of info about the past • Suggest certain lifestyles and income o Largest Vishnu and Shiva temples = region Khmer empire (modern Cambodia to Thailand/Laos) • Temples have own architectural idiom • Shiva temples = mountains • Vishnu temples = built to astronomical calculations (sun rises behind central tower at the time of the spring and autumn equinoxes o Large Vishnu temple - Angkor Wat in Cambodia

Colonialism and Beyond

o Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama found a sea route from Europe to India • Landed in western city of Calicut in 1493 • Soon Dutch, English, French were travelling to India and establishing settlements there o European research into Indian languages led to the historical reconstruction of movements of Indo-European people from Central Asia and pioneered theory of common Indo-European ancestry o Soon foreign powers involved in local politics • Chieftans enlisted English/French help to acquire land • Eventually large parts of Indian subcontinent = British control • British ≠ Hindu/Muslim rulers, did not recognize the importance of local tradition/practice despite "religious neutrality" • Foreign missionaries critical of idolatry and caste system and practices (like sati, self-sacrifice of widows on their husband's funeral pyres) o Foreigners weren't the only ones to call for reform, though, as some Hindu intellectuals agreed

Domestic worship

o Ways express devotion = rituals (puja) performed in home • Shrine to hold pics of revered figure • Simple acts all family members can take part, like lighting oil lamps, reciting prayers, offering food to deity • More elaborate rituals may involve priest/specialist

Primary source of knowledge

performance: rituals, recitations, music, dance, and theatre

Upanishads (Sitting near{the teacher})

philosophical works

artha

prosperity and power

literature of Common Era

recognized as the aims that human beings strive for • dharma, the discharging of one's duties • artha, prosperity and power • kama, sensual pleasure of many types (including sexual pleasure and appreciation of beauty) • moksha, liberation from cycle

Dharma

refers to righteousness, justice, faith, duty, and religious and social obligation, but it does not cover everything that is sacred for Hindus

Hymns

samhitas: the earliest parts

kama

sensual pleasure of many types (including sexual pleasure and appreciation of beauty)

Hinduism

term used to describe the diverse philosophies, arts, branches of knowledge, and practices associated with the people and communities that have some connection with India and don't self-identify with another religious tradition. When Hindus are asked about religion they usually refer to caste

Darshana

to see and be seen by a particular deity/guru important too utter prayers outloud (sing holy mantra)

Weddings

• According to dharmashastras, a man is born with debts to sages, gods, and ancestors • Wife helps him repay these debts and without her a man ≠ fully perform his religious obligations • For the woman, there is no higher ideal than to be a faithful wife • Before wedding can be arranged, parents of prospective bride must find a suitable bridegroom • Rely on help of friends and family but today search mostly through internet • Ideally, he is from same geographic region, speak same language, and belong to same community though he must be from a different clan o Compatible with the bride in education, looks, age, and outlook and ~SES • When find the man, compare the to-be bride/groom's horoscopes to assess compatibility of character and balance the ups and downs in their future lives • When compatible, two and family meet to decide if they like each other • Both parties may opt out or require more time to get acquainted • Arranged marriages = less common today than earlier centuries • Couple can decide to get married with or without family's approval • Cross boundaries of caste and community, even language and geography • To be legally binding, marriage ceremony must include several basic features • An exchange of flower garlands • Gift of the girl by her parents • Clasping of hands • Sapta padi (taking 7 steps together around fire, the eternal witness) • Giving of auspiciousness to the bride o Some include lavish exchanges of presents with friends and extended family, processions on horseback/antique cars, entertainment... o Couple's close relatives have active roles to play but rest can come and go as they please o Ceremony lasts several hours and bride may have multiple outfits to change into o Couple sit on a platform near a fire, bride's dad quotes Ramayana "This is Sita, my daughter; she will be your partner in dharma" • Giving of auspiciousness to the bride = gold necklace/string of black beads/simple yellow thread = wear for duration of her marriage o Bride and groom take several steps around the fire together as he recites Vedas • Wife = referred to as husband's partner in dharma and his companion in love o Later in the evening, new husband and wife taken outside for ritual called "the sighting of Arundhati" • Indian astrology, 7 brightest stars of Great Bear (Big Dipper) = 7 sages, one of who (Vasistha) is accompanied with star/wife (Arundhati - symbol of fidelity)

Vishnu

• All pervasive one • Portrayed as coming to Earth in various forms to rid the world of evil and establish dharma/righteousness First of incarnations (avataras) he appears as a fish who saves Manu, primeval man Originally in Vedic literature but expanded in Puranas While bathing, Manu finds a small fish in his hand → asks him to take it home and put it in a jar → fish has expanded to fill the jar → asked to put in a lake, then river, then finally the ocean. • Fish = Vishnu, tells Manu that a great flood is coming and he must build a boat, put his family on it with the seven sages/rishis, and the seeds of all the animals • ~ of flood myths in other religious traditions • Eventually, Vishnu will have TEN incarnations in the present cycle of creation • Nine are said to have already taken place, the tenth is expected at the end of this age 2nd = tortoise, 3rd = boar who saves earth goddess Bhu 7th = Rama, the hero of the epic 9th = Krishna • Puranas tell many stories about Krishna: the delightful infant, the mischievous toddler who steals yummy butter, the youth who steals the hearts and dances away the nights in their company • Later Puranas celebrate the love of Krishna and his beloved, Radha • Accompanied by his consort Sri (Lakshmi) the goddess of good fortune who blessed followers with wealth and eventually liberation

The Goddess

• Appears in multiple forms, although the lines between them are not always clearly defined • Though many gods appear in Vedas, none of them were all powerful o Likewise, the early Puranas honor many consort gods but no supreme female deity • Only later Puranas explicit references to worship of a goddess as the ultimate power, creator of the universe, redeemer of human beings • She = shakti/power of Shiva, but often her independence from male deity = emphasized • Most familiar manifestation = Parvati, the wife of Shiva o Durga = warrior aspect o Kali = fierce/wild/dark/disheveled with garland of skulls • Devotees still call her mother in this manifestation o ETC. • Festivals like the autumn celebration of Navaratri (nine nights) are dedicated to the Goddess

Madhva

• Classifying some souls as eternally bound • Different grades of enjoyment/bliss even in liberation • Dualistic • Human soul and Brahman are ultimately separate, not identical in any way

Ramanuja

• Devotion to Vishnu leads to ultimate liberation • Challenges maya and belief that the supreme being is without attributes • Vishnu = immanent throughout the universe, pervading all souls and material substances, but also transcending them o Single reality = Brahman o But also, Brahman is qualified by souls and matter • Liberation ≠ realization that soul/Brahman are the same but realization of the soul's RELATIONSHIP with the lord

manavantaras

• Each day of Brahma contains 14 secondary cycles of creation and destruction

The Naga

• Earliest symbols in Hindu tradition = naga/serpent • Open-air shrines of intertwined snakes (women pray about matters like child-birth) • Trace origins to union of naga princess and Hindu prince from India

The Arya Samaj

• Established in 1875 by Dayananda Saraswati o Born into Brahmin family, left home at 21years to be ascetic o 15 years as wandering yogi, studied Sanskrit under charismatic guru, Virajananda • Taught only true Hindu scripture were early Vedas and rejected later additions, including worship of images o Believed Vedas = literally revealed by God and that the vision they presented could be revived by stripping away later human accretions (rituals, societal customs) o Vedic teachings ≠ variance with science and reason • Rejected notion of a personal savior god • Believed soul is in some way coeval with the deity • Ideal = full, active life of service to other humans; working to uplift humanity would promote welfare of both body & soul

Funeral Rites

• Except for infants/ascetics (buried), cremation by fire = final sacrament in most communities • No fire is to be lit or tended in the house where death occurred until cremation fire has been lit • Family is considered to live in a state of pollution for a period of 12days to a year • Each religious community has own set of scriptures to recite but most include portions of Vedas and Bhagavad Gita • Performed by eldest son of deceased o First few days the spirit of deceased is a preta (ghost) • Spirit offered water to quench thirst from body's fiery cremation and balls of rice for sustanence • Rituals go back to earliest Vedic times when dead thought to need food for journey to afterlife on far side of the moon • After period of time, pollution lifted in "adoption of auspiciousness" ceremony • Every new moon, departed soul offered food in the form of libations with sesame seeds and water • After a year, anniversary of death is marked with further ceremony, and family freed of all constraints • Women's Rituals

Variations of Yoga

• Yoga = any form of mediation/practice with ascetic tendencies; any path that may lead to emancipation • In some interpretations, the eight limbs ≠ present o Self-abnegation, where worshipper seeks union with Supreme Being through passionate devotion

Gupta empire

• Great cultural and scholarly activity • Concept of zero, decimal system o Aryabhatta in 499 established both the value of pi (3.14) and length of the solar year (365.3586days); proposed Earth is spherical and rotates on its axis • Contact with Greek/Roman trade missions increased o Coastal towns flourished, especially in southern India • Hinduism = overshadowed by Buddhism before • Under Guptas, Buddhism influences receded and Hindu sectarian traditions became popular o Eventually some Hindu texts assimilate the Buddha as incarnation of Vishnu

The Struggle for India's Independence

• Hindus and Muslims came together to fight for independence against British colonial rule o Earliest eruption: India's First War of Independence known in Europe as the failed "sepoy mutiny" of 1857 • Struggle continue for another 90 years • Many leaders • Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma = great soul) o Born in Gujarat and trained in England as barrister/lawyer o Practiced law in South Africa from 1893 - 1915 • In response to the racial discrimination faced by the Indian minority there, he began experimenting with civil disobedience and passive resistance as protest o In India, he became leader of the Indian National Congress in 1921 and applied techniques from Hindu and Jainism in campaign for India's freedom o Non-violence (ahimsa) • Strategy = satyagraha (truth force) • Practice of fasting as self-purification and psychological weapon • "an eye for an eye makes the world blind" • Gita = allegory to conflict of good/evil within human beings and guide throughout his life o Social reform • Untouchables → named Harijan (children of God) [today reject the name as patronizing, it drew attention to discrimination of societal structure] o Peace between Muslims and Hindus • Less successful • British "divide and rule" policy amplified tension between two • Muslims demanded own independent state in NW where majority (Pakistan = land of the pure) • Violent responses o 12million people displaced and 1million killed o Gandhi was assassinated in 1948 by a Hindu angry over perceived support of Muslims

Independence and the Secular State

• India = secular state but personal/family law differs depending on religious tradition that the individual belongs to • Under British rule, dharmashastra became laws for Hindus even though they did consider them such in the Western sense o Thus, how people marry, divorce, adopt kids, inherent property, etc. depends on their religious affiliation o Legislation was passed in the 1950s to codify the Hindu laws but the new laws ≠ reflect diversity of the Hindu traditions = further tension btwn Hindus/Muslims bc the laws in other traditions were not codified o Despite calls for uniform civil code, different legal regimes remain in place today

Four Components of Tantra

• Jnana (knowledge of the deities and divine powers) • Yoga (praxis) • Kriya (praxis and rituals) • Charya (conduct and behavior) o When an image of a deity is installed in a temple, a large geometric drawing (yantra or mandala) representing deities/cosmos is drawn on the floor and used as an object of meditation and ritual • Worship of deities in temple largely based on tantra texts o Use of mantras (words said to have transformational potency) = also important in practice of tantra o Tantric Yoga center on shakti/power of the Goddess ~ coiled serpent at the base of the spine • Power rises through 6 chakras/wheels within the body to reach the final chakra (skull) known as the thousand-petalled lotus • Ultimate aim = to allow power to unite with the diving being; once achieved, the practitioner is granted visions and psychic powers to lead to moksha

First Stage of Life

• ONE: during student-hood, boy was to remain celibate and concentrate on learning • Early epics suggested girls could also become students, it is likely right w/drawn by the times of the Laws of Manu were codified

Yoga

• Physical and mental discipline through which practitioners yoke their spirit to the divine • Origin = uncertain, Harappan culture • Collection of short, aphoristic fragments from early Common Era called Yoga Sutras • Attributed to Patanjali, lived in 2nd century BCE o System of moral, mental, and physical discipline and meditation with a particular object (physical or mental) as the single point of focus o Eight limbs/disciplines • Yama • Restraints: avoidance of violence, stealing, avarice... • Niyama • Positive practices: purity, asceticism... • Learning to detach the mind from the domination of external sensory stimuli* • Perfection = concentration (dharana) and meditation (dhyana) → Samadhi: absorption into and union with the divine • Coming together and transcending polarities o Empty and full; neither life nor death and yet both

The Ramakrishna Movement

• Ramakrishna Paramahamsa o Raised in Vaishnava bhakti tradition, trance experience o Early 20s, employed as a priest in temple to goddess Kali and he experienced the Divine Mother as an ocean of love o Took instruction in the Tantra and Vedanta → all religions lead in the same direction and that all are equally true • After his death, disciples formed Ramakrishna Mission to spread his eclectic ideas • Swami Vivekananda, former member of Brahmo Samaj who believed Western science could help India make material progress and Indian spirituality could help West along path of enlightenment • Interpreted Shankara's non-dualist (advaita) Vedanta where Brahman = only reality o Established a monastic order and a philanthropic mission, both dedicated to humanitarian service • Encouraged non-sectarian worship • Ignored caste distinctions, founding institutions available to all o Hindu presence = * bc new schools/hospitals had been run by Christian missionaries • Renunciation promotes spiritual growth • Insists its members not withdraw from the world (≠monastic movement) but live in it, giving humanitarian service to others

Third Stage of Life

• THREE: he and his wife must retire to the forest and live a simple life

Second Stage of Life

• TWO: repay his debts to society/forefathers and his spiritual debts to gods - by marrying and earning a living to support his family and other students • Few men went beyond these two stages, likely most people never had the opportunity to study at all

The Linga

• Translated to phallus but Hindus do not normally think of it as a physical object • Symbolizes the spiritual potential in all of creation and creative energy of Shiva • Union of yoni and linga = female and male forces united in generating universe