Research Methods Chapter 2
Quantitative Research- variable
A characteristic or phenomenon that can vary across or within organisms, situations, or environments
Qualitative research study
A research study based on nonnumerical data
Quantitative research study
A research study that is based on numerical data
Causation
A term whose meaning is debated by philosophers, but in everyday language implies that manipulation of one event produces another event
Manipulation
Active intervention by researcher that is expected to produce changes in the dependent variable
Path model- Indirect effect
An effect occurring through a mediating variable
Path model- Direct effect
An effect of one variable directly on another variable; depicted as a single arrow in a path model
Field experiment
An experimental research study that is conducted in a real-life setting
Laboratory experiment
An experimental research study that is conducted in the controlled environment of a laboratory- and the investigator precisely manipulates one or more independent variables and controls the influence of all, or nearly all, extraneous variables.
Internet experiment
An experimental study that is conducted over the Internet
Confounding variables
An extraneous variable that if not controlled for will eliminate the researcher's ability to claim that the IV causes changes in the DV
A mediating variable is An intervening variable A variable that moderates a relationship Extraneous variable Interaction variable
An intervening variable
Physical data
Any material thing created or left behind by humans that might provide clues to some event or phenomenon- of interest to a researcher, such as the contents of someone's trash, wear on the tiles in museums, wear on library books, and soil and DNA on clothes.
Why is it important to control extraneous variables (to the best extent possible)? An uncontrolled extraneous variable (variable "X") can cause doubt as to whether changes in one variable (variable "A") cause changes in another variable (variable "B"). An uncontrolled extraneous variable (variable "X") can act as an alternative explanation for the claim that changes in one variable (variable "A") cause changes in another variable (variable "B"). Uncontrolled extraneous variables rarely have an impact on empirical research and therefore it is not important to carefully control them most of the time. Both A and B are correct.
Both A and B are correct.
A variable that varies in type or kind is called a(n) Categorical variable Dependent variable Independent variable Intervening variable
Categorical variable
Methods of Data Collection- Focus group
Collection of data in a group situation where a moderator leads a discussion with a small group of people- (of 6-12 people) focused on the discussion of a research topic or issue.
Methods of Data Collection- Existing or secondary data
Collection of data that were left behind or originally used for something different than the current research study
Archived research data
Data (usually quantitative) originally used for a different research project-collected by other researchers for other purposes. When data are saved and archived, others researchers can later use the data.
Longitudinal study
Data are collected at two or more points in time (used in developmental psychology)
Numerical data
Data consisting of numbers
Nonnumerical data
Data that consist of pictures, words, statements, clothing, written records or documents, or a description of situations and behavior
Experimental Approach- Causal description
Description of the consequences of manipulating an independent variable describing the consequences attributable to deliberately varying a treatment.
Cohort-sequential design
Design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal elements by following two or more age groups over time
The strongest evidence for causality comes from which of the following research methods? Experimental research Natural manipulation research Correlational research All of the above provide strong evidence for making cause-and-effect claims
Experimental research
Experimental Approach- Manipulate Variables
Experimental research is the only research method in which the researcher is able to actively manipulate one or more independent variables and observe the outcome.
Experimental Approach- Causal explanation
Explaining the mechanisms through which a causal relationship operates- involves taking a causal relationship and identifying the mediating and moderating variables that produce the causal relationship.
Objective Observation
Impartiality and freedom from bias on the part of the investigator, or objectivity, was previously discussed as a characteristic that the scientist must strive to exhibit. In order to be able to identify causation from the results of the experiment, the experimenter must avoid doing anything that might influence the outcome.
The variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is called a(n) Categorical variable Dependent variable Independent variable Intervening variable
Independent variable
Qualitative research
Interpretive research approach relying on multiple types of subjective data and investigation of people in particular situations in their natural environment
Correlational Study
Nonexperimental research study designed to describe relationships among variables and make predictions
The Psychological Experiment
Objective observation of phenomena that are made to occur in a strictly controlled situation in which one or more factors are varied and the others are kept constant.
Laboratory observation
Observation conducted in lab setting or other controlled environment set up by the researcher
Naturalistic observation
Observation conducted in real-world situations
Time-interval sampling
Observations are recorded during preselected time intervals- such as during the first 5 minutes of each 30-minute time interval.
Event sampling
Observations are recorded every time a particular event occurs- (e.g., observe every time a participant asks another participant a question). efficient method when you want to observe a particular event that occurs infrequently.
Third variable problem
Occurs when observed relationship between two variables is actually due to a confounding extraneous variable- two variables might be correlated because there is some "third variable" producing the relationship, and once you account for the third variable, it becomes clear that variables A and B are not causally related; they are just correlated
In what kind of research are "words and pictures" common forms of data? Quantitative research Qualitative research
Qualitative research
Descriptive research
Research that attempts to describe some phenomenon, event, or situation
Methods of Data Collection- Observation
Researcher watches and records events or behavioral patterns of people- the researcher looks at what people do.
Methods of Data Collection- Questionnaire
Self-report data collection instrument completed by research participants
Methods of Data Collection- Tests
Standardized or researcher-constructed data collection instruments designed to measure personality, aptitude, achievement, and performance
Cross-sectional study
Study conducted at a single time period, and data are collected from multiple groups; data are collected during a single, brief time period (used in developmental psychology)
Method of data collection
Technique for physically obtaining the data to be analyzed in a research study- how the researcher obtains the empirical data to be used to answer his or her research questions.
Effect
The difference between what would have happened and what did happen when a treatment is administered
Cause
The factor that makes something else exist or change- something that produces something else.
Experimental research
The research approach in which one attempts to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable
Path analysis
Type of research in which a researcher hypothesizes a theoretical causal model and then empirically tests the model
Natural Manipulation Research
Type of research in which the independent variable approximates a naturally occurring manipulation, but it is not manipulated by the researcher
Triangulation
Use of multiple data sources, research methods, investigators, and/or theories/perspectives to cross-check and corroborate research data and conclusions- provides a better understanding of the phenomenon being investigated.
Moderator variable
Variable that changes or "moderates" the relationship between other variables- determine how the relationship between an IV and a DV changes across the levels of an additional variable (which is called a moderator variable because it "moderates the relationship"
Quantitative research- Dependent variable
Variable that is presumed to be influenced by one or more independent variables- are the presumed effect or outcome.
Quantitative research- Independent variable
Variable that is presumed to cause changes in another variable
Quantitative research- Quantitative variable
Variable that varies by degree or amount
Quantitative research- Categorical variable
Variable that varies by type or kind
Experimental Research
a quantitative approach designed to discover the effects of presumed causes. The key feature of this approach is that one thing is deliberately varied to see what happens to something else (i.e., to determine the effects of presumed causes).
extraneous variable
a variable that competes with the independent variable in explaining the outcome.
Extraneous variable
a variable that might compete with the independent variable in explaining the outcome.
mediating variable
a variable that occurs in-between two other variables in a causal chain. it's an intervening variable
Methods of Data Collection-Interview
an interviewer asks the interviewee a series of questions, often with prompting for additional information
Phenomenon
any publicly observable behavior, such as actions, appearances, verbal statements, responses to questionnaires, and physiological recordings. Only by focusing on these phenomena can we satisfy the demands of operationalism and replication of experiments.
what is probably the most commonly cited disadvantage of using laboratory experiments to learn about human behavior? because they tend to be done in highly controlled settings, their results may not be generalizable to the real world with their mechanistic approach to human behavior, they ignore the participants' thoughts and emotions operational definitions reduce the abstract concept to a trivial level, making broad interpretations difficult at best because they tend to use other species, the results are usually irrelevant to human behavior
because they tend to be done in highly controlled settings, their results may not be generalizable to the real world
Experimental Approach- Causal Inference
best method for identifying causal relationships. It is important to distinguish between causal description and causal explanation because the most immediate strength of an experiment is for demonstrating causal description
Dianne wanted to understand why affiliation is so strong in religious cults. She decided to join the cult so that she could discover how members are recruited and how their group identification is strengthened. Based on this example, Dianne is using the ______ method to collect her data. participant-as-observer observer-as-participant complete observer complete participant
complete participant
Experimental Approach- Control
experimental research is the method in which the researcher exercises the most control over extraneous variables (typically by holding them constant).
Which of the following is NOT a defining characteristic of a psychological experiment? it involves objective observation variables are manipulated in a highly controlled environment it always takes place in a laboratory one or more factors are varied while the rest are held constant
it always takes place in a laboratory
Disadvantages of Experimental Approach- Inadequate Method of Scientific Inquiry
it is inadequate if one views it as the only method for studying humans.
Qualitative research can be described in the following way: it is objective, involves multiple methods, and focuses on people in subcultures it is opinionated, involves two specific methods, and focuses on cultures, not people it is emotional, involves historical methods, and focuses on people with odd cultural practices it is interpretive, involves multiple methods, and focuses on people in their natural environment
it is interpretive, involves multiple methods, and focuses on people in their natural environment
Disadvantages of Experimental Approach- Artificiality
laboratory findings are obtained in an artificial and sterile atmosphere that precludes generalization to real-life situations. Laboratory research is very important for understanding causal relationships. But may not always apply broadly beyond the lab.
Several recent studies have found that moderate drinkers of alcohol have lowered levels of heart disease risk than non-drinkers. It has been hypothesized that moderate drinking may reduce stress which in turn may lead to a reduction in the risk of heart disease. In this example lowered stress levels would be considered a(n) __________ variable. independent dependent extraneous mediating
mediating
Quantitative research
most useful for hypothesis testing.
Qualitative research
most useful for understanding and describing local situations and for theory generation.
You want to conduct a study to determine whether single car accidents tend occur more frequently at a particular time of day (i.e. early morning hours). What kind of study would you be conducting? meta-analysis longitudinal natural manipulation phenomenological
natural manipulation
Which of the following is NOT a strength of the experimental approach? proving your hypothesis is correct inferring a causal relationship manipulating precisely one or more variables controlling extraneous variables
proving your hypothesis is correct
Complete participant
researcher becomes a full participating member of the group. In most cases, the group must be informed and permission granted.
Complete observer
researcher observes from the "outside" and, if the setting is a public one, the researcher does not inform the participants that he or she is studying them.
Observer-as-participant
researcher spends a limited amount of time "inside" the situation and obtains informed consent to observe the participants for a research study.
Participant-as-observer
researcher spends extensive time "inside" the group or situation and always informs the participants that they are being studied and obtains informed consent.
Quantitative Research- constant
something that cannot vary, such as a single value or category of a variable.
In a study designed to identify factors involved in helping behavior, a man on a crowded bus clutches his chest and falls to the floor. In one of the conditions of the study the man is clean shaven and wearing a suit; in the other condition he has a scraggly beard and is wearing a dirty t-shirt and jeans. The amount of time it takes for someone to help the man is recorded. In this example the independent variable is the amount of time it takes someone to help. the appearance of the man. the participants in the study. how crowded the bus is.
the appearance of the man.
there are three conditions for making justified claims of cause and effect. Which of the following is NOT one of these conditions: the independent and dependent variables must be related the dependent variable must be manipulated by the researcher the independent variable must precede the dependent variable no other plausible explanations between the independent and dependent variables should exist
the dependent variable must be manipulated by the researcher
Nonexperimental Quantitative Research
type of quantitative research in which the independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher- descriptive type of research in which the goal is to provide an accurate description or picture of a particular phenomenon or to describe the size and direction of relationships among variables.
Disadvantages of Experimental Approach- Does Not Test Effects of Nonmanipulated Variables
we cannot deliberately manipulate people's ages, their raw genetic material, gender, the weather, past events, or terrorists' activities. We investigate these nonmanipulable variables using nonexperimental research designs.
If we find that two variables are correlated, which of the following conclusions would be unjustified? we know that changes in one of the variables cause changes in the other we know that we can predict to some extent the value of one variable if we know the value of the other we know that the two variables covary, i.e., change in value together we know that we have quantified a relationship between the two variables
we know that changes in one of the variables cause changes in the other
