Research Methods Chapter Four - Searching the Scientific Literature
Who were Boolean operators named after?
George Boole
What are some good habits to have when using online sources for your research?
•Save .pdfs to your computer, or print out hard copies •Save your search history and references by registering an account with bibliographic databases •Record and manage references with research management tools such as EndNote, RefWorks, and ProCite
What are the key points to remember when doing keyword searches as discussed int he lecture?
•Starting with a broad search helps to identify specific topics and key words and to determine availability of research •Delimiters such as publication type, authors, date range, etc. narrow your search •Boolean operators, wildcard and truncation symbols, and proximity searches expand or limit your search
What are the common search operators on Google Scholar?
"" = exact phrase search + = add words in the results - = exclude words in the results Site: = restrict search to a particular website
Discuss impact factors
- Most common measure of journal reputation - Defined: average number of times a journal's articles are cited over a period of time - Values are calculated from Web of Science database - Related metrics have significant value but the importance to journals and authors now far exceeds its original intent -IF is industry relevant -Higher IF is equated to higher journal reputation
What questions should you ask when trying to judges the quality of a website for obtaining research?
- Who or what organization is sponsoring the site? - When was the site last updated? - Is the information in the site supported by peer-reviewed publications in respected journals
Discuss meta-analysis
A meta-analysis is a type of systematic review that uses statistical methods to combine the results of several individual studies to help identify patterns among study results and assess whether treatment effects are consistent. For example, a meta-analysis to determine the effect of caffeine on anaerobic exercise performance may include several independent randomized controlled trials whose results are statistically combined to help gain a better understanding of whether or not it is effective and in what range of doses.
What may be required to access full-text articles?
A password or subscription may be required to access full-text articles if the search is being performed using the internet from home or another private location that does not have a subscription to the scientific journal of interest.
What is a trial registry?
A trial registry is an official catalog for registering a clinical trial and is useful for finding unpublished or ongoing trials. Clinical trials are usually registered by a funding sponsor, pharmaceutical or biotechnology company, hospital, foundation, or contract research organization. Many clinical trial registries are easily accessed on the internetand are searchable by drug name, condition, or location. Two major registries available on the internet include www.clinicaltrials.gov and www.who.int/trialsearch.
Give the text definition for abstract
Abstract: a brief description of a research article used to help the reader determine thepurpose of the paper and the major findings
Why must you be careful about research you find using general internet searches?
Although the internet can also serve as a valuable source of information, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between credible and questionable information
What is an early decision you need to make when embarking upon a literature search?
An early step in searching the scientific literature is to determine if your search should include primary literature, secondary literature, or both.
What two things are important for an effective literature search?
An effective literature search requires a clear topic and well-chosen key words
What is an effective search of the scientific literature dependent on?
An effective search of the scientific literature is dependent on: - a clear research topic - the identification of several key words - determining which electronic bibliographic databases and other resources will be most relevant to the search.
What is the related citations feature of PubMed?
Another important feature of PubMed is the "Related Citations" link, which compares words from the title, abstract, and the assigned MeSH to other articles related to your search. Many other databases, such as Web of Science and Google Scholar, also include this feature. .
What should you be prepared for when embarking upon a literature search for research?
Be prepared for a time-consuming process
Give the text definition for Boolean operators
Boolean operators: words such as AND, OR, and NOT used to combine or exclude keywords that help produce a more focused search
What is the starting point for a scientific review of the literature?
Conducting a thorough scientific review of the literature starts with selecting the most appropriate scientific databases and is largely dependent on the topic of interest or research question
Discuss descriptive studies
Descriptive studies are sometimes referred to as "observational or correlational studies" and are those which collect data without manipulating the environment (i.e., there is no intervention of any kind). A descriptive study can involve a one-time interaction with a group of subjects (i.e., cross-sectional studies) or may track individuals over a long period of time (longitudinal studies), as in the case of a large epidemiologic study that tracks the health status of individuals over several years and then correlates death rates or disease states with risk factors such as hypertension, obesity, and smoking.
Give the text definition for descriptive studies
Descriptive studies: also referred to as observational or correlational studies; these typesof studies report naturally occurring information about a particular group such as healthstatus, behaviors, and attitudes
Despite its limitations, what are some benefits of Google Scholar?
Despite its limitations, Google Scholar may offer unique options in the scientific community by: - providing free full-text articles from various websites. -In some cases, the ability of Google Scholar for retrieving information is superior to PubMed. - a search using Google Scholar for some information may be more rapid and efficient than a PubMed query.
How can you find out which wildcard and truncation symbols the database you are using employs?
Different databases use different symbols, so use the "Help" menu to find the appropriate symbol for both truncation and wildcards as well as for other tips to help you search.
Discuss experimental studies
Experimental studies are original research studies in which subjects (humans or animals) are placed into groups, an intervention (i.e., treatment, procedure, or educational program)is applied for a period of time, and a result or outcome is then observed between the groups. Experimental studies that randomly assign participants to a group are considered the most robust and are referred to as "randomized controlled trials."
Give the text definition for experimental studies
Experimental studies: studies that manipulate the environment to determine if an intervention had a causal effect on a group of subjects
What do you want to keep in mind when using Google Scholar for your search?
Google Scholar can be accessed at http://scholar.google.com/. Google Scholar accepts up to 32 search terms; therefore, choose as many as possible because choosing too few may give poor results. Another useful strategy is to select nouns to avoid stop words (i.e., "a," "about," "the," "for," "has," etc.). If you want to customize your search, explore the search settings to set your Google Scholar preferences.
Why has Google Scholar come under criticism?
Google Scholar has come under some criticism for: - the limited advanced search features - an unclear definition of its database content - insufficient indexing - a concealed search algorithm. It also appears to have only indirect,partial access to MEDLINE; therefore, it may lack the most recent MEDLINE publications. There is an ongoing debate between clinicians and researchers about the clinical relevance of using Google Scholar.
Discuss the Google Scholar database
Google Scholar. Google is a widely used search engine, accounting for about 67% of all internet searches worldwide Google Scholar is a subset of the Google search engine for a wide range of academic fields and is simple, fast, and provides broad coverage. It searches for scholarly publications including articles in peer-reviewed journals, theses,dissertations, books, and abstracts from academic publishers, professional organizations, and universities. Within one year of its introduction as a beta version in 2004, Google Scholar surpassed PubMed in the number of referrals to many online biomedical journals.
What is the foundation for conducting an effective search of the scientific literature?
Identifying key words is the foundation for conducting an effective search of the scientific literature. Key words are also referred to as "descriptors," "identifiers," and "search terms"and represent the major concepts included in the search because they are what will pull up the most relevant articles related to your topic
What can you do to make your search more precises on Google Scholer?
If you want to make your search more precise, Google Scholar allows for the use of multiple operators. If you don't prefer using these operators,use the advanced scholar search
What role can professional organizations play in research?
Information posted by professional organizations, such as the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM; www.acsm.org) may also serve as a valuable source for research-related materials. Many organizations including the ACSM and the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly known as the "American Dietetic Association") provide links to position papers published in their official journals as well as other educational materials.
What is Intute?
Intute (www.intute.ac.uk) is another free online service that helps find the most credible websites for research in a variety of disciplines including the biologic sciences, nursing,and allied health. Intute also provides free internet tutorials as part of a Virtual Training Suite for education and research that have been developed by qualified professionals and librarians.
Why do you need a systematic approach to a literature review?
It is a time-consuming process, but a systematic approach that is also reproducible will result in high-quality scientific information to write a comprehensive review of the literature for an assignment or for developing a research question as part of a thesis.
What is important to remember when conducting a literature search?
It is also important to remember that a thorough search of the scientific literature is best achieved by incorporating more than one method (both manual and electronic) and may possibly be overlapping.
Discuss peer reviewed research versus non-peer reviewed sources in terms of quality of the resource
Journal articles that are peer reviewed are considered high-quality resources because the review process by other experts in the field helps ensure that the information is accurate and up-to-date. Articles that are not peer reviewed may also be valuable, but it is important to consider the source of the document Magazines have a different scope than do research publications.
Give the text definition for key words
Key words: also referred to as descriptors, identifiers, and search terms; words used in asearch engine or database that serve as reference points for retrieving relevant information
Discuss the MEDLINE database
MEDLINE/PubMed The U.S National Library of Medicine (NLM) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) maintains the bibliographic database MEDLINE, which contains journal citations and abstracts from over 5,400 biomedical journals and is one of the most popular database systems used by clinicians and researchers in the fields of medicine, pre-clinical sciences, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, and healthcare systems. MEDLINE was created in the 1960s and currently provides over 20 million references to biomedical and life science journals dating back to 1946.
What do you need to know about MeSH?
MeSH is the controlled vocabulary thesaurus for the NLM; therefore, familiarity with MeSH may make a PubMed search a smoother process.
Give the text definition for meta analysis
Meta-analysis: a type of systematic review that uses statistical methods to analyze theresults of several similar studies to integrate the findings and determine if treatment effectsare consistent
Discuss the roles of mobile apps in research
Mobile apps for accessing library resources are available if the mobile user is associated with the institution. Some apps are useful for searching, whereas others also allow access to abstracts and full text. For example, PubMed mobile allows for searching and abstract retrieval, whereas the American Chemical Society (ACS) mobile app provides full access to full-text articles. Although it is not recommended that handheld devices with mobile apps be used for conducting comprehensive searches, they may be convenient for looking up articles quickly while in a class or study group. Databases that are subscribed to by university libraries including ProQuest, EBSCO, and Elsevier will require authentication so that the user can be associated with the university. PubMed mobile: free index to biomedical research with links to PMC for free full texts and links to publisher's websites Google Scholar app: free application that searches a wide variety of topics and allows access to full-text articles when available. EBSCOhost mobile: allows access to full-text articles and abstracts from library databases that use the EBSCO platform ACS mobile: an indexed list of more than 35,000 research articles published annually across 40 peer-reviewed ACS journals, complete with graphical and text abstracts
What do most databases provide to help you manage the research items you are considering?
Most private and public bibliographic databases also include management software that allows you to register your own personal account where you can save and retrieve search histories, save references, organize your research into folders, create e-mail alerts and/or RSS feeds, and allows you to gain access to your saved research remotely.
What is a good method for finding additional sources once initial sources have been identified?
Once key primary and secondary literature studies relevant to the research topic have been identified, a good place to find other related studies is in the reference list of the article. In some cases, the citation in the reference list may be linked to the corresponding journal or periodical.
What is citation searching?
Once several key journal articles have been found, searching for other papers that have cited those works can result in a number of other highly related articles. This technique is referred to as "citation searching" and is becoming more and more commonly included with search indexes such as Web of Science, PubMed, GoogleScholar, CINAHL, and PsycINFO
What are ways you can narrow your search results?
Once you have identified a few key words, you can also begin narrowing your search by using delimiters such as: - publication type (e.g., journal article, monograph or government document, book review) - language (e.g., English, Spanish) - range of publication dates Searches can also be limited by using specific authors, titles of articles or words from a title, and by publication name.
Give the text definition for peer review
Peer review: process in which experts in a discipline review a scholarly work to make surethat it meets standards for publication
What are the two types of scientific literature?
Primary -Ex. Original research, conference papers, technical reports, theses, dissertations Secondary -Ex. Review articles, meta-analyses, textbooks
What is primary scientific literature?
Primary scientific literature includes original scientific research such as journal articles that contain methods, results,and discussion sections; conference papers; technical reports; theses; and dissertations.
Give the text definition for primary scientific literature
Primary scientific literature: includes original, peer-reviewed research articles that include methods, results, and discussion sections; conference papers; technical reports; theses; and dissertations
Why do yo want to print the research you locate in PDF format?
Printing using PDF is recommended over HyperText Markup Language (HTML), which is the language used to create web pages, because the PDF file will look exactly like the article as it appears in the journal and is considerably shorter in length.
What are private bibliographic databases and who maintains them?
Private bibliographic databases are maintained by private entities such as EBSCO and are available only by subscription. Most universities hold subscriptions to a wide variety of private bibliographic databases that are only available to enrolled students. A few of the commonly used private bibliographic databases in exercise science include SPORTDiscus, EMBASE, Web of Science, Annual Reviews, ScienceDirect, and Academic Search Premier.
What is the PQDT database?
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (PQDT) database is the most comprehensive collection of dissertations and theses, and it serves as the official digital dissertation archive for the Library of Congress. Because it is estimated that 95%-98% of doctoral dissertations in the United States are included in the PQDT database, it is considered the database of record for graduate research.
Discuss proximity searches
Proximity searches are also useful for searching for two or more words that appear within a specified number of words of each other, and these can be used with either a keyword or Boolean search. The most common proximity operators are the letters "N" (near) and "W" (within) and are placed between the words included in the search. For example,using the near operator with the key words "weight" and "training" (weight N3 training) finds the two words if they are within three words of each other, no matter what the order,and it would find results such as weight training, training using body weight, train with body weight, weight-bearing training, etc. However, using the within operator in the same example (weight W3 training) will find words if they are within three words of each other and in the order in which they were entered. Multiple key words can be used on either side of the near or within operators and may also include Boolean operators within parentheses (i.e., weight W2 [liftingOR training]).
What is the spellcheck feature of PubMed?
PubMed also has a feature called "spellcheck," which suggests alternative spellings for search terms that include misspellings. If the term is misspelled, the closest common word will display and, in some cases, a link to an alternative spelling is provided
What is the purpose of the filter on PubMed?
PubMed also provides a number of filters to narrow search results. Y You can easily deselect these filters if you decide not to use a specific filter
What are examples of public databases anyone can access?
PubMed and Google Scholar are examples of public databases that are free to anyone who has access to a computer.
Discuss the PUBMED database
PubMed is a free resource developed and maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the NLM, which provides access to the MEDLINE database and links to full-text articles found at publisher websites and to PubMed Central (PMC), PubMed central is a free archive for full-text biomedical and life sciences journals. A distinct feature of MEDLINE and PubMed compared to other electronic databases is that the records are indexed with Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) as opposed to subject headings (SU) or descriptors.
What are the three types of databases as presented in the lecture?
Public Databases -Free to public -Ex. PubMed and Google Scholar Private Databases -Paid access -Ex. SPORTDiscus, Academic Search Premier, EBSCO Narrow Focus Databases -Ex. Cochrane, EMBASE, Medline, CINAHL, MANTIS
What is a good source of obtaining unpublished research or research still in progress?
Research laboratories and experts in a particular discipline, as well as manufacturers, can serve as excellent resources of research and may be able to provide information about unpublished work or work in progress that would not be included on an electronic database. This method of searching is not recommended as a primary search strategy; however, topic experts can check lists of citations to determine if key resources are missing
What are the four keys to look at when evaluating the quality of scientific resources?
Review Type -Peer reviewed > not peer reviewed Design Type -Experimental > descriptive Search Type -Established databases > general web searches Impact Factors -High values > low/no values
Give the text definition for scientific database
Scientific database: electronic indexes that provide information about a particular sourcesuch as a subject, author, and title that are linked to journals, giving a full citation for eacharticle and abstract in an electronic format
What are scientific databases?
Scientific databases are electronic indexes that provide information about a particular source such as subject, author, and title that are linked to a particular set of periodicals giving a full citation for each article and an abstract in an electronic format.
Give the text definition for scientific literature
Scientific literature: collection of scholarly writings on a specific topic that can includeoriginal research articles, review articles, meta-analyses, books, conference proceedings,and abstracts
Discuss Boolean operators
Searching with the Boolean operators "AND," "OR," and "NOT" are also useful for limiting or expanding a search. - "creatine" AND "supplementation" retrieves a set of citations that includes both search terms and can occur in any order - "creatine" OR"phosphocreatine" retrieves a set of citations that includes one of the search terms and usually results in a much larger yield of resources. - To exclude terms, the Boolean operator "NOT"is used (i.e., "creatine" NOT "women" excludes the key word, "women," from the search).
What is secondary scientific literature?
Secondary scientific literature includes publications and journal articles that synthesize what is already known about a particular topic and include review articles, meta-analyses,and textbooks.
Why is secondary scientific literature sometimes a good place to start?
Secondary scientific literature sometimes serves as a good place to start because it typically provides a broader context and usually contains references to key primary literature.
Give the text definition for secondary scientific literature
Secondary scientific literature: publications that synthesize the primary scientific literature and include review articles, meta-analyses, and textbooks
When could starting with broad search terms be an advantage when searching the literature?
Starting with a broad, comprehensive search of the literature may help students identify a specific topic of interest and identify key words or help determine whether or not there is enough published research to complete the assigned project.
Where can you look if you are trying to determine if a study of interest was a RCT?
The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, which is part of the Cochrane Library (see Table 4-1), is an excellent database to search if the primary studies of interest are randomized controlled trials.
Discuss the Cochrane Library
The Cochrane Library is another excellent resource that consists of a collection of databases in the health sciences including the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, which includes review articles and meta-analyses, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The Cochrane Library is a primary resource in evidence-based medicine to make informed decisions regarding healthcare.
What is the database known as Dissertations Abstracts International?
The bibliographic database without full-text dissertations is known as "Dissertations Abstracts International," and citations include title, author name, degree granting university, and potentially the names of the dissertation advisor and committee members. Titles published since 1980 also include a 350-word abstract.
What is the library link setting?
The library link setting allows you to connect to your institution's library so you can access full-text articles. Make sure you click the save button to save all your settings.
What are the main sources for searching for both primary and secondary scientific literature?
The main sources for searching both primary and secondary scientific literature include: - online public bibliographic databases - private bibliographic databases - manual searches of cited references in articles - expert guidance
What is the definition of scientific literature?
The scientific literature may be defined as a collection of all of the scholarly writings on a specific topic and can include original research articles, review articles, meta-analyses, books,conference proceedings, and scientific abstracts.
Give the text definition for thesaurus
Thesaurus: a dictionary of terms related to each other that describe the same concept
What is HON?
To help online users identify reliable and trustworthy information, the Health on the Net (HON) Foundation (www.healthonnet.org), a non-profit organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, developed the HON Code of Conduct (HONcode) in 1996 for medical- and health-related websites. The HON site also includes a search engine for health and medical information from HON accredited sites. To become accredited, a website must meet the eight ethical principles of the HONcode and requires publishers to provide the following information: 1: the authoritative body from which the information was derived 2: the purpose of the site 3: the confidentiality policy 4: the origin of the sources 5: justification regarding benefits and performance of a specific treatment 6: transparency of authorship 7: the credibility of the health/medical-related data 8: transparency regarding sponsorship of the site and honesty in advertising. Currently, the HONcode has accredited approximately 5,000 sites representing 72 countries and includes MEDLINE and PubMed. When searching the HON site, a free "plug-in" service can be downloaded that will automatically indicate if a visited web page has been accredited by HON.
Where is a good place to start when you need help with your literature search?
University libraries typically maintain a complete list of scientific databases by subject area, which can be accessed via the web both on and off campus, so visit your university homepage to find out which databases for which your library currently has subscriptions. Librarians are very helpful in getting the right key words that can help dramatically with a search and thus are great resources to use to help conduct a scientific search of the literature. Many universities also offer research assistance from reference librarians to help guide students through the scientific review process.
What are examples of unpublished literature?
Unpublished literature may include: - grant reports from funding organizations - government documents - dissertations and master's theses.
What should you use to maximize efficiency when doing a literature search for research?
Use a systematic approach for maximum efficiency and comprehensive searching
Why is using bibliographic research management software beneficial?
Using other bibliographic research management tools such as EndNote, RefWorks, orProCite allows you to record and manage references to help document the process and will automatically generate the reference list for assignments and reports. Many university libraries subscribe to one of the previously mentioned research management tools and are therefore free for students.
Discuss wildcard and truncation symbols in searches
Using wildcard and truncation symbols creates searches where there are unknown characters, multiple spellings (i.e., pediatric vs. paediatric), or different endings. Neither the wildcard and truncation symbol can be used at the start of a word. The wildcard is usually represented by the pound sign (#) or a question mark (?). To use the "?" wildcard, replace each unknown character with a "?," and the database finds all citations of that word with the "?"replaced by a letter. For example, "Ta?k" finds all citations containing words such as talk, task,tack, and tank. Adding the "#" wildcard in places where an alternate spelling may contain an extra character results in all citations of the word that appear with or without the extra character. Typing "orthop#edic" finds all citations containing orthopedic or orthopaedic. Truncation involves searching the root of a word by replacing the end of the word with a symbol,such as an asterisk (*) to find all forms of that word. For example, "nutr*" results in records containing words such as nutrition, nutritious, nutrient, nutritional, etc.
Is study design a factor for evaluating the quality of the research?
When evaluating quality, it is also important to consider the research design of a study
Discuss the use of a database's thesaurus feature
When first beginning a comprehensive search, using a database's thesaurus can be valuable for identifying subject terms and key words, particularly if the search does not yield many results. A thesaurus includes different terms that are related to each other that describe the same concept and results in a list of subject terms that can be used in the search. You can then select one of those subject terms, and the database will perform a search on that term. In addition, most thesauruses also include an "Explode" option to search many related terms at the same time.
What are the most common databases for those searching on topics related to human healthcare?
When searching for studies related to human healthcare and interventions for prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation, MEDLINE/PubMed, EMBASE, and the CochraneDatabase of Systematic Reviews are commonly used databases.