Research methods test 3
analysis of variance
ANOVA stands for what words?
false
according to this topic (74), ethical considerations should play no role in the interpretation of the results of a study. true or false?
-1.00 to 1.00
correlation coefficients are expressed on a standard scale that always ranges from -1.00 up to what value?
95% of cases
how many cases are included in 1.96 units of standard deviation?
x axis
in figure 61.1, are the frequencies on the vertical or horizontal axis?
qualitative
is a subsection titled Data Analysis more likely to appear in reports of quantitative research or qualitative research?
Group X
on the basis of information in question 6, the scores for which group are more variable?
the original purposes
the discussion section should begin with a reference to what?
Methods
the subheading participants appears immediately under what main heading?
Abstract
the title is usually followed by what?
1
what is the base for a proportion?
descriptive
what type of statistic is a frequency distribution- descriptive or inferential?
49% (.70 *.70=.49 which is 49%
a pearson r of .70 is what percentage better than a pearson r of 0.00?
independent- race dependent- voting behavior
a researcher asks if voting behavior differs based on one's race. which of these variables is independent and which is dependent?
10-15 words
a typical title contains about how many words?
0.264
a value of d of 1.20 corresponds to what value of r^2? (in table in book)
0.40x0.40= 0.160x100= 16%
a value of r equal to 0.40 is what percentage above 0?
1.50
a value of r of 0.600 corresponds to what value of d? (in table in book)
Square it, then multiply that value by 100
a value of r should be interpreted by doing what?
large
according to Cohen, what label should be attached to a value of d of 0.80?
60
according to figure 61.1, about how many participants had a score of 16?
9
according to table 58.1 in this topic, how many participants had a score of 19?
random sampling errors (in other words, the true difference in the population is zero) the null hypothesis states that the observed difference is an illusion created by random errors introduced through random sampling
according to the null hypothesis, what created the difference in table 71.1?
yes stastic significance difference might be of little practical significance because of negative side effect
according to this topic (74), should client acceptability of a treatment be considered when determining practical significance?
Cohen's d and effect-size r, (the Pearson correlation coefficient)
according to this topic (77), what are the two measures of effect size that are very widely reported?
no it's difficult to find even one perfectly strict replication of a study
according to this topic (79), is it easy to find perfectly strict replications of previous studies?
meta-analysis
according to this topic (80), is a meta-analysis or a literature review more objective?
not always they are only required by some journals that publish research the longer the abstract, the more desirable it is to use subheadings
are bold subheadings always required in abstracts?
percentages
are percentages or proportions easier for most individuals to comprehend?
qualitative--> they deliberately select people who they think might be rich sources of info on their given topic
are qualitative or quantitative researchers more likely to use purposive sampling?
inferential
are significance tests associated with descriptive or inferential statistics?
No . The values of two sample means are not special interest to typical consumers of research because they are only substeps in the mathematical procedure use to get the probability that the null hypothesis is true
are the values of t and df of any special interest to typical consumers of research?
no, in terms of "d" an experimental group can rarely exceed a control group by more than 3.00
are there universally accepted standards for describing effect sizes?
qualitative
are verbatim quotations more likely to appear in reports of quantitative research or qualitative research?
it is important that variables are independent and can be a concern if an independent variable measures the same quantity as the dependent variable, just in another form it can also be important to think about how separate independent variables may represent the same thing
beyond significance, what is one error to look for in regression models?
statistics
by studying samples, do researchers obtain statistics or parameters?
use a measure of effect size (most popular is Cohen's d, which is expressed on a standardized scale that typically ranges from -3.00 to +3.00)
computing a mean difference across studies that used measurement scales with different possible numbers of score points is meaningless. what is suggested in this topic to overcome this problem?
qualitative
do reports of quantitative research or qualitative research tend to have shorter Results sections?
low
do researchers reject the null hypothesis when the probability of its truth is high or when the probability is low?
bivariate
do researchers use univariate or bivariate analysis to examine relationships between two nominal variables?
no they have the same mean
do the following means on a performance test indicate an interaction between type of reward and age? (chart in book- topic 70)
yes
do the following means on an achievement test indicate an interaction between the method of instruction (A vs B) and the aptitude of the students (high vs. low)?
yes
do the means for question above this indicate a main effect for type of reward?
no
do the means for the question above indicate a main effect for aptitude?
yes
do the means for the question above indicate a main effect for method of instruction?
no it can be small
does a crucial difference need to be numerically large to be of practical significance?
positive skew
does a distribution with a tail to the right have a positive or a negative skew?
no
does a typical research report have the main heading introduction?
yes construct validity
does example 1 in this topic (85) mention validity? if so, which type of validity is mentioned?
p < .05
does p < .05 or p > .05 usually lead a researcher to declare a difference statistically significant?
random errors, NOT TO BIAS
does the term sampling error refer to random errors or to bias?
explain predict
fill in the blanks: two uses of regression models are to ___ the variation in dependent variables, or to ___ the value of dependent variables based on the values of independent variables
.36 36%
for a pearson r of .60, what is the value of the coefficient of determination? (on a chart)
yes in the order in which they were introduced
for research that has more than one hypothesis, purpose, or question, is it usually best to report the results for each one separately? if so, in what order?
help
for the information in question 5, could a researcher use an ANOVA for the same purpose?
used to combine the results of previous studies
for what purpose is a set of statistical methods called meta-analysis used?
add up the scores then divide that by the number of things involved
how is the mean calculated?
difference between the highest and lowest scores
how is the range of a set of scores calculated?
one
how many dependent variables are there in regression models?
3 the research is supported bias in procedures the things being compared are the same but they are unrepresentative because of random sampling errors
how many explanations were presented for the difference between psychologists and engineers in the example in topic 66?
only to use statistics and to attribute direct quotations to their sources used sparingly
how often should writers use direct quotations in the first chapter of a dissertation?
it is widely used as a quantitative approach to data analysis it is a model of prediction that is both simple and flexible and leads to a long history of widespread use across disciplines multiple linear regression is the most common
how widely used is regression?
60%
if 600 individuals in a population of 1,000 are Democrats, what is the corresponding percentage of Democrats?
subheadings to guide the readers
if a Discussion section is long, researchers sometimes include what?
multivariate
if a descriptive statistic involves more than two variables, what is it called?
positive skew
if a distribution has some extreme scores on the right but not on the left, it is said to have what type of skew?
negative skew
if a distribution is skewed to the left, does it have a positive or a negative skew?
yes this indicates that others have found it useful also
if a measure has been widely used, should this fact be mentioned?
nominal (words)
if a researcher asks participants to name the country in which they were born, the researcher is using which scale of measurement?
yes, both tests yield exactly the same value of p and, hence lead to the same conclusion regarding significance
if a researcher compares two means for significance, will ANOVA and the t-test yield the same probability?
No. The probability that sampling error created the difference is too great for it to be rejected as a possible explanation
if a researcher fails to reject a null hypothesis, is the difference in question statistically significant?
Reject the null hypothesis. The difference observed was probably not created by random sampling errors.
if a researcher found that a chi-square test of a difference yielded p < .05, what should the researcher conclude about the null hypothesis, based on conventional wisdom?
no because a t test only compares 2 means
if a researcher has four means on an achievement test for samples of students in four states, can he or she determine whether the set of differences, overall, is statically significant by using a t-test? explain.
zero
if all individuals in a group have the same score, what is the value of the standard deviation for the scores?
yes
if an ANOVA yields p < .05, should the null hypothesis be rejected?
no
if an ANOVA yields p > .05, is/are the difference(s) statistically significant?
multiple comparisons test
if an overall ANOVA for three or more means is significant, it can be followed by what type of test to determine the significance of the differences among the individual pairs of means?
first
if background material is included, should it be the first or last element in an abstract?
There are 5 in 100 chances that the null hypothesis is correct
if p = .05 for a chi-square test, chances are how many in 100 that the null hypothesis is true?
no
if p > .05 for an interaction in an analysis of variance, should the researcher reject the null hypothesis?
yes
if researchers found that for a sample of 92 participants, r = .41, p < .001, would they reject the null hypothesis?
false
if semistructured interviews have been used, the researcher is relieved of the responsibility to describe them in detail. is this statement true or false?
yes, low cost might make the small difference of practical significance.
if the cost is low, might a very small but statistically significant difference be of practical significance?
34%
if the mean of a normal distribution equals 50 and the standard deviation equals 5, what percentage of the participants have scores between 45 and 50?
50%
if the median for a group of participants is 25.00, what is the percentage of participants with a score above 25.00?
group X has less variability
if the standard deviation for group X is 14.55 and the standard deviation for group Y is 20.99 which group has less variability in its scores?
1 standard diviation
if the value of d for the difference between two means equals 1.00, the experimental group's mean is how many standard deviation units higher than the control group's mean?
r and r^2
if there is one group of participants, and a researcher wants to determine the strength of the relationship between two sets of test scores, which measure of effect size would typically be the more appropriate?
If a distribution is normal, 68% of the participants in the distribution lie within one standard-deviation unit of the mean.
in a normal distribution, what percentage of the participants lies within one standard deviation unit of the mean (on both sides of the mean)?
moderator variable because it may moderate the results so that the results for subgroups are different from the grand combined result
in a report in which separate analyses are conducted for various subgroups, what is the variable on which the studies were divided into subgroups called?
probability, the value of p
in an ANOVA table, which statistic is of greatest interest to the typical consumer of research?
an overview of the research approach and the rationale for using it should be presented in chapter 3 (methods)
in chapter 1, after the researcher has introduced the problem area, establishing its importance and indicating its theoretical basis, what should be presented?
positive skew
in most populations, income has what type of skew?
yes but they do not describe the steps required to complete the statistical analyses
in reports on quantitative research, do researchers typically indicate how the statistical results were compared (do they name the statistical computer program used for example)?
A mathematical synthesis of the statistical results of the previous studies
in the report of a meta-analysis the main thrust of the conclusions is based on what?
standard deviation unit
in this topic (75), the raw-score differences between the means (5 for experimenter A and 10 for experimenter B) were standardized by dividing each of them by what statistic?
which treatment is superior? treatment X had a 5-point raw score difference between the two teams while treatment Y had a 10-point raw score difference between the two means but they used different measurement scales so it is unclear which treatment is superior
in this topic (75), which experimenter had the smaller range of possible raw scores? explain.
describe the severity of its impact on individuals
in this topic, two ways to establish the importance of a problem are mentioned. the first is to cite statistics. what is the second way?
direct relationship
is a relationship direct or inverse when those with high scores on one variable have high scores on the other and those with low scores on one variable have low scores on the other?
yes
is an r of -.90 stronger than an r of .50?
yes
is an r of .75 stronger than an r of -.35?
no r is also used on effect size it is expressed on a standardized scale like d, but ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 like d, r can be averaged as well
is d the only standardized measure of effect size used in meta-analysis studies? explain.
yes
is it appropriate to mention informed consent under participants?
yes things such as whether they were women, mothers, etc. could be included
is it appropriate to provide background information on the interviewer when semistructured interviews are used in the collection of data?
yes you can discuss why it's stronger and it's strengths and weaknesses
is it ever appropriate in a literature review to discuss one study in greater detail than others?
no they are only used sparingly, if at all
is it important to include specific statistical results in abstracts?
yes
is it permissible in chapter 1 to refer to the literature review in chapter 2?
yes
is it possible for a negative relationship to be strong?
yes
is it possible for a very small difference to be statistically significant?
yes
is it possible for two groups to have the same mean but different standard deviations?
yes
is it possible to use more than one independent variable in regression models?
no that can be found in the results
is it usually important to cite specific statistics when discussing research results in the Discussion section?
subheading
is participants a major heading or a subheading?
yes
is procedure an optional subheading?
qualitative
is saturation more likely to be mentioned in a report on qualitative research or quantitative research?
interquartile range
is the range or the interquartile range a more reliable statistic?
yes because that indicates that the null hypothesis has been rejected
is the value of r in question 8 statistically significant?
250
journals often require relatively short abstracts, often limiting the number of words to no more than how many?
statistically significant- that the null hypothesis has been rejected leading to that the null hypothesis is true. When this occurs the researcher is I a position to assert that the research hypothesis is probably true. yes
on the basis of the information in question 4, should you conclude that the difference between the means is statistically significant?
in the selection of studies to include in a meta-analysis
one potential weakness in meta-analysis occurs if a researcher is not careful in what aspect of designing the meta-analysis?
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
pearson r stands for what words?
100
percentages for different groups are expressed on a common scale with what base?
group X has a narrower curve than group Y. The smaller the standard deviation, the narrower the curve.
refer to the question above. does group X or group Y have a narrower curve?
they both look at the association between variables and ask if the relationship is linear
regression is similar to correlation because it looks for what type of relationship between variables?
Discussion
researchers present their interpretations of the outcomes of their research under which major heading?
no only generalizations about findings should be stated with references supporting them
should a literature review consist of a series of summaries of previously published studies?
before
should a test of statistical significance be conducted before or after computing d and interpreting its value using labels?
no the results are usually too complex
should a title describe the results of the research?
descriptive statistics are reported first followed by the results
should descriptive statistics or results of tests of statistical significance be reported first?
no it should not be mechanically done
should determining the practical significance of a study's results be a mechanical process?
specific statistics should only be cited sparingly and only cite those that are most relevant and can be easily understood out of the context of the original research reports
should statistics be cited in an introduction/literature review?
no use the median
should the mean be used for highly skewed distributions?
median
should the mean or the median be used with ordinal data?
yes
should the median be used for highly skewed distributions?
yes
should the method of recruitment be described under participants?
No, the typical consumer of research is only interested in the end result, which is the value of p.
should the typical consumer of research be concerned with the values of the degrees of freedom?
the null hypothesis
significance tests are designed to determine the probabilities regarding the truth of what hypothesis?
inference
statistics use a sample to make ___ about a population
(me-mc)/sd=d d=1.00
suppose a researcher conducted an experiment on improving algebra achievement, and the experimental posttest raw-score mean equaled 500.00 (sd = 100.00), and the control group raw-score mean equaled 400.00 (sd = 100.00). what is the value of the effect size for the experiment?
one way ANOVA
suppose a researcher drew random samples of urban, suburban, and rural children, tested them for creativity, and obtained three means, should the researcher use a one way or a two way ANOVA to test for significance? explain.
group Y
suppose a researcher has reported that for Group X, the median equals 55.1 and the IQR equals 30.0, while for Group Y, the median equals 62.9 and the IQR equals 25.0. which group has the higher average score?
it should be extremely large difference. 0.0 means no difference between means and 3.00 is the maximum difference between the means.
suppose a researcher obtained a value of d of 2.95. should this be characterized as representing a large difference? explain.
no when it is .05 or less it is rejected
suppose you read that t = 2.000, df = 20, p > .05 for the difference between two means. using conventional standards, should you conclude that the null hypothesis should be rejected?
yes when the probability that the null hypothesis is true is .05 or less the null hyp. Is REJECTED
suppose you read that t = 2.859, df = 40, p < .01 for the difference between two means. using conventional standards, should you conclude that the null hypothesis should be rejected?
no you need the standard deviation.
suppose you read that the mean for an experimental group is 20.00 and the mean for the control group is 22.00. on the basis of this information alone, can you calculate the value of d? explain.
normal distribution
the bell curve is a nickname for what?
The probability that the null hypothesis is correct is less than 5 in 100.
the expression p < .05 stands for what words?
the range between the middle two quarters
the interquartile range is the range of what?
the lower the value of p
the larger the sample,
Methods
the measurement tools are described in which subsection?
Between 85 and 115 (100-15= 85 and 100+15=115)
the middle 68% of the participants in a normal distribution have scores between what two values if the mean equals 100 and the standard deviation equals 15?
0
the null hypothesis says the true difference equals what numerical value?
5 Cost benefit analysis, crucial difference, client acceptability, public and political acceptability, and ethical and legal implications.
this topic (74) describes how many types of considerations for determining practical significance?
true
true or false: discussion is the section of the report where the researcher compares and contrasts the the results with studies that were reported in the literature review.
Random sampling errors and random errors of measurement
two types of random errors tend to be canceled out in the process of conducting a meta-analysis. what are the two types of random errors discussed in this topic (78)?
A negative is obtained when the control group's mean is higher than the experimental group's mean
under what circumstance will a negative value of d be obtained?
The second important characteristic of meta-analysis is that it typically synthesizes the results of studies conducted by independent researchers.
very briefly share the second important characteristic of meta-analysis
Reject their null hypothesis. Note that a researcher can never be certain that he/she has made the correct decision when rejecting a null hypothesis. (Type I Error)
what decision should researchers make about the null hypothesis if a chi-square test leads to the conclusion that the observed differences are unlikely to be due to random errors?
fail to reject the null hypothesis
what do researchers do with the null hypothesis if the probability is greater than .05?
perfect relationship
what does an r of 1.00 indicate?
It says there is no true difference between the means. In other words, it says the difference was created merely by the chance errors created by random sampling
what does the null hypothesis say about the difference between two sample means?
the direction of the relationship with the dependent variable
what does the sign (positive or negative) of a coefficient in a regression model indicate?
values of chi-square test that reflect significance depend on the degrees of freedom (df) which sets an important parameter in the calculations and is equal to the number of categories minus 1
what does this topic recommend the consumer of research attend to in the reported results of the chi-square test?
publication bias
what is a second weakness of meta-analyses that is not related to the individual researcher's design choices?
mean
what is a synonym for the term averages?
the difference is statistically significant
what is an alternative way of saying a researcher has rejected the null hypothesis?
confidence interval
what is another name for margin of error?
the amount by which participants vary or differ from each other
what is meant by the term variability?
NOIR
what is one easy way to remember the order of the scales of measurement?
saying you accepted the null hypothesis you should say you failed to reject the null hypothesis
what is one incorrect way of saying a researcher has failed to reject the null hypothesis?
various researchers frequently use different measures of the same variable
what is one very important way that various studies on a given topic differ?
it is only 3 on each side of the mean (-3.00 to 3.00) so an experimental group can rarely exceed a control group by more than 3.00
what is the "effective range" of standard deviation units on both sides of the mean? explain.
It refers to the magnitude or size of a difference when it is expressed on a standardized scale
what is the definition of the effect size?
identify the research problem area
what is the first function of an integrated introduction and literature review?
research hypotheses, purposes, or questions. these may need to be abbreviated or summarized if they are extensive
what is the first of the three essential elements in an abstract?
the value around which the deviations sum to zero
what is the formal definition of the mean?
highlights of the results
what is the last of the three essential elements in an abstract?
The prefix meta means occurring later and/or being later and more highly organized.
what is the meaning of the prefix meta as used in this topic?
normal curve
what is the name of the curve that is symmetrical?
type II error
what is the name of the error researchers make when they fail to reject the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is an incorrect hypothesis?
type I error
what is the name of the error researchers make when they reject the null hypothesis when. in fact, it is a correct hypothesis?
percentages
what is the name of the statistic that describes how many participants per 100 have a certain characteristic?
chi-square test
what is the name of the test of the null hypothesis used in this topic? (topic 71)
help topic 66
what is the null hypothesis in the study about the sociability of psychologists and engineers?
probability
what is the p in p-value?
the researchers explain the overarching meaning of their project
what is the primary purpose of the discussion portion of the report?
inferential statistics- indicate how unlikely it is that you could observe the numbers you did by chance alpha < or equal to .05
what is the term for the cutoff value that is commonly used in statistics to set the limit for accepting that the results from a statistical test are due to chance?
use statistical methods that weight the average value of d to take into account the varying numbers of participants, giving more weight to those studies with more participants in the final average
what is usually done when the studies to be used in a meta-analysis have different sample sizes?
it produces results based on large combined samples
what makes the sample size a strength in the meta-analysis of the 162 studies? (80)
square r and multiply by 100%
what must be done in order to convert a coefficient of determination into a percentage?
a statement of the specific research hypotheses, purposes, and/or questions when there are several of them they should be numbered or lettered and should flow logically from the introductory material
what should a combined introduction/literature review end with?
introduction- introduces the problem area and reasons why it is important -vast majority should be in the writer's own words
what should the first chapter of a dissertation (or the first section of a thesis) cover?
p-value also listed as Sig indicates if the relationship was statistically significant based on the cutoff value the author has determined to represent significance, typically .05
what value indicates significance in regression models?
confidence levels- this value refers to the percentage of all possible samples that could include the true population parameter within a suggested range
what value is 100 minus the alpha?
1.40+
what value of d is associated with the label "extremely large"?
1 in 100
when a researcher uses the .01 level, what are the odds of making a type 1 error?
yes
when comparing the results of two experiments, is it possible for the experiment with the smaller raw-score difference to have a larger difference when the differences are expressed as d?
to convert them mentally to percentages
when consumers of research encounter proportions in research reports, it is a good idea to do what?
yes it's important to discuss how they might affect interpretations of the results
when discussing limitations, is it appropriate to indicate how the limitations might affect what?
yes
when focus groups are used, should the researcher indicate how many participants were in each group?
they may construct new measures for a particular research project and because the information is not available elsewhere they should provide detailed information on the measures
when is it especially important for quantitative researchers to provide detailed information on the measures?
when there's a large number
when is it especially important to use a table to report demographics?
yes
when reporting a percentage, is it a good idea to also report the underlying number of cases?
you should pay attention to not only the tables but also the wording the author uses to describe the results when paraphrasing do not change the claim being made
when reporting on statistical results, what is one area in which the writer should be cautious?
observed results (true results are obtained is a researcher questions the entire population)
when researchers study a sample, are the results called the true results of the observed results?
less likely.
when researchers use a large sample, are they more likely or less likely to reject the null hypothesis than when a researcher uses a small sample?
B
when statistical tables are included in a Results section, which of the following is true? a. the tables should be presented without commentary b. highlights of the contents of statistical tables should be mentioned
interquartile range
when the median is reported as the measure of central tendency, it is customary to report which measure of variability?
-1.00
when the relationship between two variables is perfect and inverse, what is the value of r?
the larger the difference between means, the less likely that the difference is due to sampling errors. This the larger the difference between the two means, the lower the p.
when the size of the difference between means is large, are researchers more likely or less likely to reject the null hypothesis than when the size of the difference is small?
the mean and the median
which 2 statistics mentioned in this topic are averages?
mean
which average is defined as the balance point in a distribution (average)? you add up the scores then divide by the number of scores
median
which average is defined as the middle score? put them in order then add to the middle
mode
which average is defined as the most frequently occurring score?
mean
which average is usually reported when the standard deviation is reported?
descriptive
which branch of statistics (inferential or descriptive) helps researchers to summarize data so they can be easily comprehended?
inferential
which branch of statistics helps researchers to estimate the effects of sampling errors on their results? inferential or descriptive
chapter 2 (literature review) but it is briefly talked about in chapter 1 (intro)
which chapter should contain a detailed discussion of the literature on related theories?
alpha- 5% or .05
which is the actual computed value from the data that determines the probability that the value was a result of chance, p value or alpha?
mode
which one of the three averages is very seldom used in formal reports of research?
ratio
which scale of measurement has an absolute zero?
the range and the interquartile range
which statistics discussed in this topic are measures of variability?
interval (ex: temp) ratio (have a zero value that means a lack of a quality. ex: a person weighs 120 and another weighs 130 the difference is 10 lbs)
which two scales of measurement have equal distances between the amounts of possible responses?
bivariate analysis
which type of analysis classifies participants in terms of two variables in order to examine the relationship between two variables?
ratio or interval (continuous variables)
which variable type corresponds to the outcome being measured?
they largely determine the appropriate statistical test to carry out
why is it important to know the scale of measurement when using statistical tests?
Because random sampling is free from bias
why is random sampling desirable even though it creates errors?
