research study guide (test 2)

define a root cause analysis study (which is this most useful for?)

- Asking "why" until the true cause of a problem is understood - Once root cause is understood, can formulate a PICOT question or hypothesis - Sentinel event - an unexpected occurrence involving the death or serious physical or psychological injury or the risk thereof

define a meta-analysis (what level of evidence is this? is this primary or secondary research?)

- Looks at and ranks previous studies - Statistical look at multiple similar studies - Watch for differences and missing data when comparing - Level 1 of evidence - secondary research

define reliability

- Producing consistent results - Refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study

define a grounded theory study

- Seeks to identify a main concern or problem and then to understand the behavior designed to resolve it aka "core variable" - Symbolic interaction - Focuses on the manner in which people make sense of social interactions - Data collection, data analysis, and sampling occur simultaneously - Typically uses theoretical sampling (20-30 people)

define a narrative inquiry study

- Storytelling - participant reflects on experience to inform others - Meanings derived by participant and researcher - Narrations come from involved stakeholders -> Patients -> Providers -> Parents -> Other parties who can inform about the experience - Intended outcome- a better understanding of patients experiences

define quantitative research

- Use of the traditional scientific method to gather data in an organized, systematic, controlled manner so findings can be generalized to a broader situation or population. - The design of quantitative research is the blueprint to carry out the research. - positivist paradigm (based on the idea that one can best gain an understanding of human behavior through observation and reason.) - deductive process (top down logic) - prescribed plan that minimizes bias and is often generalizable

define qualitative research

- constructivist paradigm (It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.) - inductive process (bottom up logic) - naturalistic methodology - holistic and individualized; all inquiry is value-laden (including the research)

which types of data collection are used primarily for qualitative research?

- convenience: • Volunteer • Not a preferred approach • May not provide information rich sources • Economical - snowball: • Network sampling • Informants make referrals • Limitation - sample restricted to a small network of acquaintances • Quality of referral may be affected - purposive sampling: • Researches deliberately chose the cases or types of cases that will best contribute to the study • Often uses when selecting people who experienced the phenomenon of interest. - theoretical sampling: • Used in grounded theory studies. • Involves decisions about where to find data to develop an emerging theory. • What types of people should the researcher turn to next to further the development of an emerging conceptualization? - self-report: • Unstructured interviews - have no preconceived view of the information being gathered • Semistructured interviews - researchers have a list of topics or questions to cover • Focus group - groups of 5-10 people, opinions or experiences are solicited simultaneously • Personal diaries • Photo elicitation - photographic images (ethnography) - observation: • Social position determines what they are likely to see. • Must gain access into the social group under study • Must establish rapport and trust within that group • Researchers studied nurses' relationships with patients they regarded as being difficult. Data were collected by means of participant observation and in-depth interviews over an 18-month period.

what is statistical significance?

- p value < or equal to 0.05 - result is unlikely to have occurred by chance - likelihood that the result occurred by chance is < or equal to 5% - the study results are measured with accuracy - the results have the potential for generalization

which types of data collection are used primarily for quantitative research?

- self-report: questionnaire, open and close-ended questions - Likert scale - visual analog scale - interviews

define randomization

- the most effective way to control participants characteristics, it controls all possible sources of extraneous variation without any conscious decision about which variables should be controlled - a process of choosing the members of the experimental and control groups without bias - A powerful tool for eliminating bias for quantitative researchers. - Everyone has an equal chance of being selected. - Controls confounding variables and reduces bias. - Not used by qualitative researchers

define an ethnography study (list an example of a population for this type of study)

-collection and examination of data about groups -seeks to understand shared patterns of culture/norms/values of a group. organizational, experiential, ethnic, or geographic -A classic example of ethnographic research would be an anthropologist traveling to an island, living within the society on said island for years, and researching its people and culture through a process of sustained observation and participation.

list the steps of the research process (where does the PICOT question formation belong in this process?)

1. Assessment - Evaluate a clinical problem or concern 2. Diagnosis - find the true problem with Root-cause Analysis 3. Planning - PICOT question or hypothesis 4. Intervention - what might improve the problem - Power analysis - how many participants are needed for significant study - What response will best improve the problem? - What instrument will best measure the response to the question (Equipment, Questionnaire) 5. Evaluation - statistical significance of the effectiveness of the independent variable on the dependent variable

identify which type of research studies are qualitative

1. Case study - in-depth examination of individuals or groups of people. 2. Ethnography - collection and examination of data about groups 3. Grounded Theory - general methodology for developing new theory 4. Narrative Inquiry- seeks to understand participant meaning of experiences 5. Phenomenology - study of events and trends from a human perspective 6. Comparative Analysis - allows researcher to compare elements of interest

identify which type of research studies are quantitative

1. experimental: looks for cause and effect relationship, intervention and control group (types- pre/post test, randomized control trials) 2. nonexperimental: generate questions (observational, secondary analysis- looks at data obtained in another study and asks new questions, meta-analysis- looks at and ranks previous studies, cohort design- start with a presumed cause and go forward to the presumed effect, retrospective design- an effect observed in the present is linked to a potential cause that occurred in the past) 3. quasi-experimental: lack randomization, may not have control group (types- nonequivalent control group- comparison group, time series- longitudinal, maturation and attrition) 4. descriptive: looks at characteristics (types- comparative and correlational) 5. time-dimensional: (types- retrospective- looks at data previously collected, cross-sectional design- specific point in time, longitudinal study- various intervals over time- stronger)

explain the meaning behind the levels of evidence

A ranking system used to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study.

compare and contrast deductive vs inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning: - starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion - the scientific method uses deduction to test hypotheses and theories - detectives use deduction when using clues to solve a crime inductive reasoning: - makes broad generalizations from specific observations - basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data - we make many observations, discern a pattern, make a generalization, and infer an explanation or a theory

T/F: Validity refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study.

False Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study. Validity is a more complex concept that broadly concerns the soundness of the study's evidence.

T/F: The major methodologic challenge in designing a qualitative study is that it is reliable and valid.

False Researchers face numerous conceptual, practical, ethical, and methodologic challenges in planning a study. The major methodologic challenge is designing a study that is reliable and valid (quantitative studies) or trustworthy (qualitative studies).

T/F: Cross-sectional design involves collecting data two or more times over an extended period.

False longitudinal design involves data being collected at more than one point in time or over an extended period cross-sectional designs involves data collection being captured at a single time point

generalizability vs transferability

Generalizability - Criterion used in quantitative studies to assess the extent which findings can be applied to other groups and settings Transferability - The extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings - Aspect of a study's trustworthiness

match the types of research studies to the correct level of evidence

Level 1: meta-analysis and systematic reviews Level 2: experimental designs, randomized controlled trials Level 3: quasi-experimental design (not randomized, no control group) Level 4: non-experimental design Level 5: case studies, clinical expertise, expert opinion

which level is the most able to be generalized?

Level 1: meta-analysis and systematic reviews

compare and contrast phenomenology and narrative inquiry

Narrative Inquiry: - Storytelling - participant reflects on experience to inform others - Meanings derived by participant and researcher - Narrations come from involved stakeholders -> Patients -> Providers -> Parents -> Other parties who can inform about the experience - Intended outcome- a better understanding of patients experiences study common meaning of several individuals lived experiences and reduce to universal essence (P) vs study chronological meaning of experiences (NI) Phenomenology: - Seeks to develop understanding of lived experience - First hand account is central to understanding experience - Data collection -> Unstructured interviews -> Inductive analysis - Intended outcome- understand experiences of clients in similar situation

define the parts of PICOT questions

Patient, Population, or Problem Intervention, prognostic factor, or exposure Comparison Outcome Time frame

identify the components within a PICOT question

Patient, Population, or Problem: group of interest Intervention, prognostic factor, or exposure: treatment/intervention Comparison: used in most studies to provide context for interpreting results, explicit or implict Outcome: results Time frame: not always used

compare and contrast primary and secondary research (list an example of each)

Primary research is information gathered through self-conducted research methods, while secondary research is information gathered from previously conducted studies. Secondary research is usually where most research begins.

problem statement vs research question

Problem Statement- PICOT-idea, issue, or situation the researcher intends to examine in the study. Usually set up by paragraphs explaining "what", "so what", and "now what" which are responded to by the problem statement. Can be question or statement. (What needs to be done to address the problem) Research Question - more specific than problem statement, guides exploratory studies that describe, identify, or examine relationships. They look at, but do not test, findings. (How, specifically, is the problem going to be addressed)

random vs systematic bias

Random Bias (random error) haphazard, affects only small data segments - Example: a handful of participants might provide inaccurate information because of fatigue Systematic Bias: consistent and distorts results in a single direction - Example: if a scale consistently measured people's weights as being 2 lbs. heavier than their true weight, there would be a systematic bias in the data on weight

define validity (internal vs external)

The extent to which a measurement tool measures what it is supposed to measure (it satisfies the objectives of the study). Internal validity- the degree to which the results are attributable to the independent variable and not extraneous variables External Validity- the extent to which the study can be generalized

compare and contrast independent and dependent variables

The two main variables in an experiment are the independent and dependent variable. An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.

T/F: Confirmability refers to evidence of the researcher's objectivity.

True

T/F: It is imperative that a qualitative research study is designed to be trustworthy.

True

T/F: Self-report data are sometimes called patient-reported outcomes or PROs.

True

T/F: The major methodological challenge when designing a quantitative research study is to create one that is reliable and valid.

True

T/F: When planning for a research study, the timeline should be developed to identify when tasks should be completed.

True

define triangulation

Use of multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth, one approach to establishing credibility In a quantitative study, this might mean having multiple measures of an outcome variable to see if predicted effects are consistent. In a qualitative study, triangulation might involve trying to reveal the complexity of a phenomenon by using multiple means of data collection to converge on the truth (e.g., having in-depth discussions with study participants as well as watching their behavior in natural settings). Or, it might involve triangulating the interpretations of multiple researchers working together as a team. Nurse researchers are increasingly triangulating across paradigms—that is, integrating both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study to enhance the validity of the conclusions

Data saturation, in the context of sampling is: a. redundancy of information b. evidence that the sample size should be larger c. not a concept with relevance to sampling d. evidence that the sample has insufficient variation

a. redundancy of information

Which type of sampling is not used in qualitative research? a. stratified random sampling b. snowball sampling c. purposive sampling d. volunteer sampling

a. stratified random sampling

Which is a research question for a grounded theory study? a. what is the central process by which parents of teenagers who have committed suicide come to terms with their loss? b. what are the sources of conflict and stress among residents in inner-city Haitian immigrant neighborhoods? c. what is the meaning of risk to patients dying of cancer? d. what is the prevalence of hunger among community-dwelling elderly?

a. what is the central process by which parents of teenagers who have committed suicide come to terms with their loss? Grounded Theory studies seek to understand key social psychological and structural processes of a problem.

define a sentinel event (list an example of one)

an unexpected occurrence involving the death or serious physical or psychological injury or the risk thereof

which characteristic is achieved when a research method produces confidence in the truth of the collected research data and in the researcher's interpretations? a. bias b. credibility c. randomness d. triangulation

b. credibility

which term is used to refer to the accuracy and consistency of the information obtained in a study? a. validity b. reliability c. credibility d. reflexivity

b. reliability

Which statement is true? a. all qualitative studies have their roots in disciplinary traditions. b. qualitative content analysis is used to analyze data from grounded theory studies. c. narrative analysis is used to make sense of people's lives through analysis of their stories. d. case study research uses cross-sectional designs.

c. narrative analysis is used to make sense of people's lives through analysis of their stories. Narrative analysis focuses on story as the object of inquiry.

research control is to minimize what negative effect? a. cost overruns b. extended Timelines c. outside influences on the dependent variable d. the risk of physical or emotional harm to participants

c. outside influences on the dependent variable

Which research question could be used for ethnography? a. how is a pregnant woman's age related to her requests for pain control during childbirth? b. what is the process of fertility decision making among women who have had several miscarriage? c. what are the norms that inhibit the use of preventive health care in a Native American tribe in New Mexico? d. what is the lived experience of childbirth to women who postponed childbearing until their 40's?

c. what are the norms that inhibit the use of preventive health care in a Native American tribe in New Mexico?

which type of study can be quantitative or qualitative?

case study

which type of study examines a relationship between variables?

correlation study

what is scientific merit?

criteria used to assess the rigor of a study

what effect does the presence of a bias have on a research study? a. strengthens participant buy-in with the study b. minimizes the transferability of the findings c. maximized the credibility of the study d. distorts the results of the study

d. distorts the results of the study

what term is used to identify a study where data is collected three or more times over a very short period of time? a. cohort design b. mixed design c. between-subject design d. repeated measures design

d. repeated measures design

major methodological challenge for quantitative studies

designing studies that are reliable and valid

major methodological challenge for qualitative studies

designing studies that are trustworthy

external vs internal evidence

external evidence: - Obtained through research---what happens when you have a good research studies—the findings can be generalized to other places, and settings. internal evidence: - Comes from practice initiatives such as outcomes management of quality improvement projects—more specific to the facility and not so generalizable.

Is this cross-sectional or longitudinal? Hansen and colleagues (2015) studied the illness experiences of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma near the end of life. Data were collected through in-depth interviews once a month for up to 6 months from 14 patients.

longitudinal

define attrition (what is an example of this?)

people who leave study

what is the rationale for a small sample size in qualitative studies?

quality, not quantity, is emphasized

which type of study is the most frequent, has no randomization and no control group?

quasi-experimental

which quantitative research study is most frequent?

quasi-experimental design

what is a central feature in quantitative studies?

research control - Involves holding constant other influences on the dependent variable so that the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables can be understood - Attempts to eliminate contaminating factors that might obscure the relationship between the variables of central interest

define phenomenology

study of events and trends from a human perspective - Seeks to develop understanding of lived experience - First hand account is central to understanding experience - Data collection -> Unstructured interviews -> Inductive analysis - Intended outcome- understand experiences of clients in similar situation

Define control group

the group of participants which does not receive the intervention. The dependent variable (outcome) is compared between the participants who were subjected to the independent variable (intervention) versus the control group who did not experience the independent variable.