Rhetorical Fallacies

False Analogy

An analogy is an extended comparison. It can be valuable in clarifying a difficult point or dramatizing an abstract idea. It can never prove anything. No matter how many suggestive similarities there may be, they can never be more than suggestive since there must also be differences.

Testimonial or Argument from dubious authority

An unidentified authority can be used unfairly to shore up a quaking argument: "According to some of the most knowing scientists in America, smoking two packs a day is as harmless as eating a couple of oatmeal cookies. So let's all smoke." A reader should also doubt an authority whose expertise lies outside the subject being considered; you can take Dr. Carl Sagan's word on the composition of Saturn's rings, but the moment he starts pushing exercise machines, watch out! If the testimonial or statement comes from a recognized authority in the field, great. If it comes from a person famous in another field (sports hero, singer, actor), it can be misleading. Sports hero: "I've tried every cold medicine on the market, and—believe me— nothing works like Comptrol."

Bandwagon

Another way to avoid using logic in an argument is to appeal to everyone's sense of wanting to belong or be accepted. By suggesting that everyone else is doing this or wearing that or going there, you can avoid the real question—"Is this idea or claim a good one or not?" Examples: Everyone on the team wears high-tops. It's the only way to go or Most Americans voted for the amendment; you should too.

Half truths

Avoid building your argument with evidence or statements that contain part of the truth, but not the whole truth. These kinds of statements are called half-truths. They are especially misleading because they leave out "the rest of the story." They are true and dishonest at the same time. The new recycling law is bad because it will cost more money than it saves. (Maybe so; but it will also save the environment.)

Slanted Language

By choosing words that carry strong positive or negative feelings, a person can distract the audience, leading them away from the valid arguments being made. The philosopher Bertrand Russell once illustrated the bias involved in slanted language when he compared three synonyms for the word stubborn: "l am firm. You are obstinate. He is pigheaded." Another example: No one in his right mind would ever do anything that dumb.

Analogy Used to Clarify or Dramatize (False Analogy)

Finding a cure for economic inflation is much like finding a cure for cancer. The exact causes of the diseases are shrouded in mystery; medication carries the risk of unpredictable side effects, but without medication the illnesses grow beyond control; cures are increasingly difficult the longer they are delayed; and the experts always—always—disagree.

Hasty Generalizations

Hasty generalizations are caused by drawing conclusions from insufficient evidence. Hasty generalizations are often used to condemn a whole group of people on the basis of an inadequate sample, such as in the following statement: Let's invite Stewart to be a club member. He's Jewish, and all Jews are rich. Hasty generalization leads to stereotyping.

Reductio ad Absurdum

Meaning reducing an argument to an absurd level; usually it is used to make the other-side's argumentation appear ridiculous. An example would be... All cats have four legs; all dogs have four legs; therefore, all cats are dogs.

Appeal to Ignorance

One commits this logical fallacy by claiming that since no one has ever proved a claim, it must therefore be false. Appeals to ignorance unfairly shift the burden of proof onto someone else. Example: Show me one study that proves seat belts save lives.

Argument by Analogy: Analogy Used to Prove (False Analogy)

The Chairman has been unjustly criticized in this country for executing his political opponents in order to create a better society. Surely, one of the oldest truths is that you can't make an omelet without breaking a few eggs. It's too bad the beautiful shells have to be cracked open. There's a terrible mess for a little while. But the final result is well worth the effort, and only fools would waste tears over the sad fates of the poor little eggs. The Chairman has the right recipe for a greater tomorrow, and those who don't understand his techniques should stay out of the kitchen. The second analogy assumes that a few similarities between breaking eggs and killing political opponents mean that the two actions are alike in all other respects. The writer thus attempts to prove that because one action is justified the other must be justified, too. Argument by analogy ignores all differences. Here, for example, nonhuman things are being compared to humans, nonliving things to living, breaking to killing, and so forth.

Allness (Absolute thinking)

The allness fallacy means stating or implying that something is true of an entire class of things. There are exceptions to every rule, and your readers are likely to find them. Instead of saying "Students enjoy studying" (which implies that all students enjoy all types of studying all the time), qualify: "Some students enjoy studying math." Be wary of allness words — all, everyone, no one, always, never.

Argumentum Ad Baculum:

The fallacy committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to bring about the acceptance of a conclusion; e.g. Chairman of the Board: "All those opposed to my arguments for the opening of a new department, signify by saying, 'I resign.'" Note that the ad baculum appeal is not necessarily fallacious when the threat or the force is directly relevant to the conclusion or is, itself, the subject of the argument; e.g. "Study hard or your grades will fall."

Ad populum

The fallacy of attempting to win popular assent to a conclusion by arousing the feeling and enthusiasms of the multitude. Example: "Quick Kick is the National League thirst quencher."

Red Herring

The term red-herring is derived from the idea that a pack of dogs would be distracted from a scent if a herring with a strong odor was dragged across the trail. In argumentation, a red herring means that the writer has brought in a point that has little or nothing to do with the issue being discussed. Example: Brian should not enroll in State College because it doesn't offer a major in environmental studies. Anyway, State College places too much emphasis on sports.

Circular Reasoning:

This fallacy consists of assuming, in a definition or an argument, the very point you are trying to prove. Note how circular this sort of reasoning is: I hate Mr. Baldwin's class, because I'm never happy in there. (But what's wrong with the class?) Another example: He is a liar because he simply isn't telling the truth. Sometimes it takes the form of defining a word in terms of itself: Happiness is the state of being happy.

Ad hominem (from the Latin, "against the man")

This fallacy consists of attacking an individual's opinion by attacking his or her character. This fallacy is widespread in politics: "Sure candidate Smithers advocates this tax plan. It will put money in his pocket!" Judge the tax proposal on its merits, not on the character of its originator. Or "Carruthers may argue that we need to save the whales, but Carruthers is the kind of person who always gets excited over nothing." His characteristic of being easily excited is not relevant to the argument to save whales. Joining these two ideas implies that his attempt to save the whales is not important. A person's circumstances can also be turned against him or her: "Carruthers would have us spend millions to save whales, but I happen to know that he owns a yacht from which he selfishly enjoys watching whales." His circumstances are irrelevant to any argument he may make concerning the whales. Again, judge the proposal to save the whales on its merits, not on the proposer's character.

Either-or

This fallacy consists of reducing a solution to two possible extremes: "America: Love It or Leave It." "Put up or shut up." This fallacy of thinking eliminates every possibility in the middle. An example is as follows: Either this community votes to build a new school or the quality of education will drop dramatically.

Oversimplification

This fallacy is evident when a writer offers neat and easy solutions for large, complicated problems: "If we want to do away with drug abuse, let's get tough. Let's sentence every drug user to life imprisonment." (Even users of aspirin?) Beware of phrases like "It all boils down to..." or "It's a simple question of..." Almost no dispute among reasonably intelligent people is "a simple question of..." Anyone who feels, for example, that capital punishment "all boils down" to a matter of protecting society ought to question a doctor, an inmate on death row, the inmate's family, a sociologist, a religious leader, etc. Example: Capital punishment is a simple question of protecting society.

Non sequitur (from the Latin, "It does not follow").

This fallacy is the error of stating a claim that doesn't follow from your first premise (the statement you begin with): "In high school Jergus got all A's. Marge should marry Jergus." The concluding statement here does not logically follow the premise.

Appeal to Pity -Argumentum ad misericordiam

This fallacy may be heard in courts of law when an attorney begs for leniency because his client's mother is ill, his brother is out of work, his cat has a hair ball, and blah, blah, blah. The strong tug on the heartstrings can also be heard in the classroom when the student says to the teacher, "May I have an extension on this paper? I worked till my eyeballs fell out, but it's still not done." Another example might be something like... Imagine what it must have been like for him - If anyone deserves a break, he does.

Slippery Slope Argument

This is an argument that assumes that one action will lead to another similar action that in turn wilt lead to another and to another, ultimately resulting in something quite undesirable. An example of a slippery slope argument is the following: Doctor-assisted euthanasia will ultimately lead to mass suicide. In the beginning, only people with incurable, painful illnesses will request to die. Then others with less drastic conditions will request it. Before you know it, people with even minor illnesses will begin thinking of assisted death as a viable option. Slippery slope arguments are used quite frequently in the context of a variety of social or policy situations. "Smoking marijuana will ultimately lead to heroin addiction" is a popular version. Another is "If you forbid people to smoke in restaurants, they soon will not be able to smoke at all" The essence of a slippery slope argument is that after a first step is taken, a descent all the way down is inevitable.

Broad Generalization

A broad generalization takes in everything and everyone at once, allowing no exceptions. For example, a broad generalization about voters might be, "All voters spend too little time reading about a candidate and too much time being swayed by 30-second sound bites." It may be true that quite a few voters spend too little time reading about the candidates, but it is unfair to suggest that this is true of all voters. Here's another example of a broad generalization: All teenagers spend too much time watching television.