Roman World Final Exam

M. Antonius

Marcus Antonius, better known today as Mark Antony, was a Roman general and politician. He was Caesar's right-hand man while he was alive, thereby bringing him into conflict with Octavian in the power vacuum that resulted from Caesar's assassination. Antony and Octavian tried to work together several times and were two of the members of the Second Triumvirate, but ultimately they ended up fighting against each other in a civil war. Antony famously had a relationship with Cleopatra, who used Egypt's vast wealth and resources to back him in the war. However, in the end Octavian was victorious and Antony and Cleopatra both committed suicide in 30 BC.

Duumviri

Meaning two men, the Duumviri were two annual magistrates that were appointed or elected in the provincial cities of Ancient Rome. They were highest role in the local magistrate and were the local equivalent to Consuls. There primary purpose was to overlook the city council.

Vesvuvius

Mount Vesuvius is a volcano situated in close proximity to the ancient city of Pompeii, in the Bay of Naples. On August 24th, A.D. 79, Vesuvius erupted. As a result, the majority of the citizens of Pompeii were buried under volcanic ash. Excavations of Pompeii began in the 18th century. While the eruption of Vesuvius was terrible for the citizens of Pompeii, it created a moment in history that was basically frozen in time.

Theater of Pompey

The Theater of Pompey was built to celebrate Pompey's victories. The theater could fit around 20,000 people, and was massive compared to the small temples that were previously built to honor and celebrate military victories. It was able to be so big because Pompey brought back so many riches from his campaigns. After it was built, often times triumphs would utilize it and walk through it, while Romans could sit in the stands and watch the triumph pass by.

Sasanids or Sasanid Empire

was a Neo-Persian empire that bordered the Byzantium Empire to the East. The Sasanids were one of the major world powers from 224-651 AD and served as a primary influencer of Roman Culture. From the period of 498-622 AD, considered to the Second Golden Era of the Sasanid Empire, the Sasanids and Byzantium engaging in many territorial wars. From 603 to 619 the Sasanids made a push westward with an invasion lead by Khosrau II, the empire taking Jerusalem, Alexandria, and the rest of Egypt, leaving the Byzantium Empire extremely weakened. The Sasanid Empire was the last great Persian Empire before the rise of Islam.

Vespasian

Titus Flavius Vespasianus was an unpretentious military man who belonged to a family of tax gatherers in which none of the members advanced to the senate before him and his older brother. He governed the Roman Empire from 69 A.D. to 79 A.D. He ruled under the Flavian Dynasty, as did his sons Titus (A.D. 79-81) and Domitian (A.D. 81-96), and worked to restore law and order to the Roman Empire after the civil war. Nero sent Vespasian to Judaea in order to take command of the First Jewish Revolt that broke out in 66. His successful military victories helped him procure the position of emperor, for he was well liked by his troops and by the people. He also established the lex de imperio Vespasiani which specified the various powers and rights that belonged to the emperor. The Roman people ratified this law which signified the popular support for the Princeps as well as the concern for the Roman government.

Mussolini

A Fascist dictator of Italy who resided as prime minister of Italy for around 20-25 years from 1919-1945. He aspired to become a modern Caesar Augustus with his actions and mission objective. His rise to power was linked to his Nationalist political agenda in which he spearheaded the partie's policies eventually becoming the one at the top. In his mind Mussolini wanted to bring about a progression in Italy in the modern world, and move the country forward. He attempted to do so via the same spheres of civilization Augustus had success with: government, military, the economy as well as moral standards. Augustus, in addition to his positions in Rome listed below enacted a bunch of new rules including but not limited to, building programs which sparked job growth, marriage laws, and others restricting immoral acts such as bribery and adultery. Given Augustus was able to unify or stabilize Rome in all of these respects, he was referred to as an emperor or "Imperator." One of the main reasons this title was given to Augustus meaning ultimate rule and control was because he occupied the highest position in the three most important sectors of Roman society: The Consul seat, Proconsul governor and Tribune of the Plebs. While in this position, nothing was vetoed or fought over logistically because Augustus had total control of all law and decision making bodies. This brought about unprecedented peace and prosperity, and an end to civil conflict for the time being. Mussolini, in hopes to achieve an all encompassing position of authority made similar changes to Italy during his rise to and time in power. His changes, were not as thought out and more for himself than the betterment of the Italian nation. This is why he was unsuccessful or at least much less so than Augustus. One last important tie in with the two is their mastery of public image. Augustus was on every coin made during his time in power, his identity is always the same when depicted in statues young and good-looking, lastly the multitude of buildings, friezes and other works of architecture his name or figure are on is countless. Mussolini attempted to have his image positively forced onto everything in Italy as well. He created posters, plays, buildings and even erected an obelisk which mirrored one captured and brought to Rome by Augustus in Ancient Rome. Despite his lack of success, Mussolini did try to follow in the footsteps of Rome which is commendable. His execution was way off, and too demanding for the modern world, furthermore it is clear he did not fully understand why Augustus did everything he did. It was for something greater and bigger than himself or any individual for that matter, it was all for Rome. Mussolini was too greedy, and self absorbed to see that.

Constantine

A.D. 312-337 Son of the great Roman Army Officer, Flavius Valerius Constantius, Constantine moved up through the Cursus Honorum ranks to finally become emperor of both West and East Roman territories after winning several civil wars against Maxentius and Licinius. Constantine is most famous for his roles in the Edict of Toleration A.D. 311, and in the Edict of Milan A.D. 313. The Edict of Milan was set in place to claim that Christianity would be tolerated throughout the Roman Empire. This brought a lot of attention back to Rome's foundation and previous religious practices; it doesn't matter whether it's your belief or not, what matters is what is best for Rome and what will make Rome stronger.

Alimenta

Alimenta was a charity put in place to support children. Alimenta was developed by Nerva and Trajan and was put in place in 50 cities in Italy, Egypt and Greece. Through this charity over 100,000 children were helped. Originally established by emperors, setting up alimenta funds were done by members of the elite as an example of evergetism. Once these funds were set up, land owners would borrow money from the fund through a loan of up to 8% of the lands value. Each year, landowners had to pay a 5% interest forever, which was a way of generating ongoing funds.

Mithras

Another Eastern Mystery cult, this one exclusively male and very popular with soldiers. Members met in underground dining rooms called Mithraeum where they would perform some religious offerings and feast together. Spread from the east throughout the empire. There were different levels of initiation and knowledge of explanations, which was very appealing to the deep- set Roman sense of hierarchy.

Edicta

In the 2nd century AD., the process for forming laws had changed considerably since the days of the Roman Republic. One of these changes was the introduction of the Edicta. The Edicta was a pronouncement by the Emperor that had the force of law. The Edicta gave the Roman Emperor the power to declare law without Congressional approval. This change in the passage of law marked a clear shift of power, in which the Emperor was awarded more control of Roman law. As a result of the Edicta and Decreta, there were more Roman laws and they were passed faster and they were more stable than they had been in the Republic.

Religious Syncretism

Occurs with the blending of two religious systems. Each religion may borrow aspects of the other as they combine to form a different religion all together. Led to the conflation of deities and was facilitated by increased travel across the Mediterranean. Syncretism led to the spread of the Cult of Isis. Isis became the embodiment many different goddesses and became a familiar image for travelers throughout the empire.

Forum of Augustus

Imperial forum built in 42 BCE Built/ financed by Augustus Served as a place for public discussions and legal matters The temple of Mars was located here Augustus promised to build a temple to Mars if he won the battle of Philippi

Alaric

King of the Ostrogoths of modern-day Ukraine. Sacked Rome in AD 410: this was the first time in 800 years Rome had been sacked/invaded by a foreign power.

Septimius Severus

(145-211 AD) He was born into a wealthy family in Roman North Africa. He ascended along the cursus honorum as a young man. In 191 he was made Governor of Pannonia Superior by the Emperor Commodus, who's assassination the following year created a power vacuum that allowed Severus to assume the control of the empire after the turbulent "Year of the Five Emperors". The same military might that secured him the throne was put to use expanding the Empire's borders in the East to the Tigris River, and to the south in Mauretania. He died in Scotland, on an expedition to secure Roman influence in Brittania. Upon his death, the emperorship passed to his sons Caracalla and Geta, establishing the Severan Dynasty. Septimus Severus transformed the Roman government into a "Military Monarchy", the power and status of the senate became that of an honorific title under his reign.

Vindex

(Gaius Julius Vindex) A Roman governor of Gallic provinces in Eastern and norther Gaul. One province he occupied had many names including Lugdunensis, or Celtica. VIndex led a revolt in Gaul against emperor Nero in an attempt to bring back the Augustan model for emperors and Rome in general. He received support from the governor of Spain in his revolt. Despite his efforts he committed suicide when met with the Roman army of the Rhine, who made him unable to continue his plan. Records show that he was allied with Rome even though he revolted against Nero. His revolt set the precedent for other nations or provinces to withdraw support for Rome. Egypt, Spain and Africa notably followed in Vindex's footsteps rebelling against Roman Rule. This is important as Nero's rule was filled with discontent, and social mobility and it showed even outside of Rome. An interesting final note is that some scholars think that his move to rebel against Rome was made in an attempt to achieve Gaul's independence!

Princeps

(Latin for "leading figure") Originally, in the Republic, was an official title of leading senate members who were the most influential in decision-making. Augustus, once he took power, saw this as a fitting title for himself: he was THE leading figure of Rome and wanted every citizen and member of the senate to see him as such. So, he adopted the unofficial title for himself. It is important to remember that this title was the title of senators and Augustus took it from them, symbolically showing the movement of power within Rome. This title was used to describe the emperors of Rome and this period became known a the "Principate."

Munera

(pl), from the Latin munus, were public works and events funded and provided by wealthy elite members of Roman society for the sake of the people. Although they were works that benefitted the general populace, the true goal of munera was not to necessarily better Rome but to bring attention to one's wealth and status within the community. Unlike ludi, games for the people that were sponsored by the state or the emperor, munera relied completely on the wealth of one individual citizen. Putting on munera in Rome was commonplace in the Roman empire at this time, as personal power and individual wealth became ever more important in the Roman elite psyche.

Julian Laws

18-17 B.C. These laws dealt with the moral social issues of Ancient Rome. They were the first time Rome issued public laws that managed things like families and adultery. The laws restricted who senators could marry which reinforced class restrictions. They made adultery a public crime that was publicly prosecuted. They criminalized bribery in elections. They dealt with inheritance matters to keep wealth within the family. They passed laws that encouraged citizens to have more children; you had to have a certain amount of children to claim inheritance from outside your family.

Second Triumvirate

43 B.C. Lex Titia was passed gave the Second Triumvirate power, legally granted this power had imperium maius, more power than consuls 3 men tasked with restoring the republic Octavian, Mark Antony, Marcus Lepidus Went after senators who killed or plotted against Caesar and trying to bring unity to Rome (proscriptions) Serves two 5 year terms 43 BC. to 33 BC. Gets split up over internal conflict Mark Antony commits suicide after military defeat, Lepidus had his power stripped by Octavian only Octavian is left, becomes sole ruler

Christogram

A combination of the Greek letters chi (χ) and rho (ρ), usually representative of Christianity--chi and rho are the first two letters in the Greek word for Jesus (χριστός). The emperor Constantine reportedly saw this symbol in the sky before the Battle of Milvian Bridge (AD 312) along with the phrase "in hoc signo vinces"="in this sign you will conquer". This event caused Constantine to start becoming more and more tolerant of Christians, until he eventually became one himself.

Denarius

A denarius was a silver coin used in the singular monetary economy of the Roman empire. The denarius' value was based off the percentage of silver it contained. The Denarius was the main payment of soldiers. In basic exchange rates, 25 denarius roughly equaled 1 aureus (gold coin) and contained 4x the worth of the sestertius (bronze coin).

Quadriga

A quadriga is a chariot drawn by four horses. It represents military victory because in triumphal parades the victorious commander would ride in a quadriga. Depictions of quadriga can be found on military monuments such as the Arch of Titus as well as coins that depict the Arch of Augustus.

Imperial Cult

After Julius Caesar is assassinated in 44BC, Augustus holds the Ludi Victoriae Caesaris (The games of the victory of Caesar). On this day, a comet appeared in the sky which some started to associate with Caesar himself. This turns into a movement to recognize the divinity of Caesar, and two years later the Senate votes to deify Caesar as Divus Iulius, although the Divine Julius and Julius Caesar are not the same person. It becomes a sort of tradition to deify dead emperors, although it is really the Genius of the emperor, not proclaiming the man himself divine. In this way, people sort of/ kind of start to worship the emperors, although there is no state cult of a living emperor in Rome- they do NOT worship the living emperor in the city, but in surrounding provinces and cities, they might be doing so. The Romans end up worshipping the collective Genius of the previous emperors, and this becomes the state cult. There were a lot of temples to the imperial/ state cult found in Asia Minor. Some explanations include a way to justify subordination to the Roman Empire (we used to be free, but if we say Rome is some cosmic force, it makes sense that we aren't free anymore), municipal competition, or a unifying element in the empire (VERY large empire, but we if have imperial cult we're unified).

Constitutio Antoniniana

Also known as the Antonine Constitution, this was the legal enactment (constitutio) of A.D. 212 by which Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) extended Roman citizenship to almost all of the free inhabitants of the empire. Caracalla followed his father's (Septimius Severus') deathbed advice to show special concern for the military, and he did this by raising legionary pay from two to three thousand sesterces a year. This substantial increase in pay and the ability to fund it may have caused him to create the constitutio Antoniniana. One account says that Caracalla enacted the decree to gain revenue, and various other motives have been advanced too. If the goal of it was to raise money, it failed.

Hadrian

As the successor of Trajan, Hadrian was emperor from 117-138 AD. Contrary to Trajan's focus on expansion, Hadrian targeted his work on consolidation and unification of the Roman empire. His philosophy was to better the empire internally, primarily by allocating a ton of resources to construction of buildings and roads throughout Italy. One of the first things Hadrian did in power was withdraw troops from Trajan's eastern conquests in Dacia and Armenia respectively. Later on in his rule, Hadrian decided to create a veteran colony in Jerusalem, where one of the laws prohibited the act of circumcision. This act set off a fiery revolt between the Romans and the Jews, marring the mostly peaceful 20 years as emperor. He brought the beard into fashion, so if there is a bearded bust, they are Hadrian or later.

Atrium

Atrium style homes were owned by the elite members of the Roman society. Sewage and waste were abundant throughout the streets, so it made little architectural sense to build many windows on the sides of homes. Instead, Romans used open ceilings to circulate fresh air, provide natural light, and collect rainwater. When looking at city blocks from a bird's eye view, you can distinguish between separate houses based on the atria (most homes had one atria).

Claudius

Claudius succeeded Caligula to become emperor from the years 41 CE - 54 CE. He was the uncle of Caligula as well as being Livia's grandson and Tiberius' nephew. Claudius had a scholar's mind and training with the historian Livy being one of his tutors. After Caligula was assassinated, Claudius hid in the Imperial palace where he was accidentally discovered by a praetorian guardsman who hailed him as Princeps. As deliberations in the Senate dragged on people started to demand Claudius be named the Princeps. Once he had gained power he loosened his reliance on the Praetorian guard by appointing two Praetorian Prefects. Claudius alienated the senate by increasing the Praetorian's pay as well as relying on imperial freedmen rather than equites or senators. Claudius was somewhat susceptible towards women and was greatly influenced by them. For example, his second wife (he denounce the first for being unfaithful) was his niece and she manipulated him to secure the succession of her own son Nero. Claudius was active militarily and shared Augustus' desire to expand the empire. His military achievements included the invasion of Britain, and the annexation of Mauretania and Thrace. Claudius greatly enjoyed races, gaming, dicing, all of which he shared with the majority of Rome's inhabitants. His public buildings tended to be utilitarian such as new aqueducts and he was particularly alert to Rome's grain supply and even came up with certain inducements for merchants to import grain during the winter. Claudius rarely traveled far from Rome but was popular with many of Rome's population because of his widespread military activity. However he never managed to overcome the senators dislike of him. Claudius died in 54 CE.

Coloni

Coloni were Roman sharecroppers who were indebted to latifundia and therefore tied to the land. This practice of tying farmers to large estates continued into the Middle Ages, and was the beginning of the feudal system and serfdom.

Apologists

From around A.D. 120 to 220, Christians were misunderstood and often were the victims of violent outbreaks instigated by non-Christians, though not yet by the Roman state. Due to the monotheistic nature of Christianity clashing with the polytheistic state cult, Christians became at odds with those who saw Christians actively reject the rituals of the state that were expected of Roman citizens. In response, authors, known as "apologists", defended their religion through logical and complex philosophical arguments. They did not seek to convert any non-Christians through this writing but merely explain that there is no cause to fear the religion or its people.

Trajan

He was a Roman emperor eager to expand the empire and possessed an iron will when it came to civil matters. Trajan helped spread the alimenta schemes throughout Italy and appointed people, such as Pliny the Younger, to oversee various regional cities in times of local difficulties. He was also responsible for initiating the construction of roads and opulent buildings in Italy. After his success in the Dacian Wars, Trajan desired to expand beyond Armenia, for he believed annexing Mesopotamia would provide the Romans with access to the Persian Gulf as well as a rich province. He headed East to command the Parthian War, but ended up losing men from his troops due to harsh desert conditions and other geographic obstacles. This over expenditure of energy and military resources resulted in neglect towards other Roman provinces which essentially lead to the increase in revolts and foreign invasions. Trajan also adopted Hadrian as his heir before he died, and Hadrian's rule marked the turn from expansion to consolidation.

Pax Romana

It is a long period of relative peacefulness in the history of the Roman Empire, in which the Roman military force made minimal attempts to expand, and therefore less warfare occurred. During this peaceful period, the Roman population experienced major growth, and the economy largely prospered and reached its peak. The Pax Romana was began when Augustus defeated Marc Anthony and assumed the power of an Roman emperor. Augustus combined a series of administrative magnates, and therefore largely eliminated the possibility of civil wars. Moreover, Augustus utilized means of propaganda to persuade the Roman people that peacefulness and prosperity were better for the Empire than warfare. For example, he issued coins with the word "Pax" on the reverse.

Auctoritas

It is where we get out word "Authority" from in English. It is one of many ideals which governed Roman social mobility and status Rome's history. It could be interpreted as a visible amount of personal clout or recognition in public if you had a lot of "Auctoritas". It was measured by how many people were following you around the city, down to the Forum or into the courtroom on a given day. If only a few people are in your corner so to speak, you had less authority or "Auctoritas" when weighing in on issues, voting assemblies and or general discussion. It was always apparent who had more "Auctoritas" because you could simply count how many people seemed to be following your opposition or the person of interest. This consequently made it a very powerful element of Roman political culture, you could easily mark out if anyone else was a threat to you in number of supporters.

Liberti

Liberti were freed slaves in Ancient Rome. Claudius used liberti (his own slaves who he had freed) as advisors/ cabinet secretaries to his administration. This was the first inkling of a democracy in Ancient Rome. Hadrian, however, criticized the use of liberti as advisors, so he abolished that and turned to equites instead (Roman knights).

Isis

One of the Eastern "Mystery" cults that were coming into existence around the same time as Christianity was becoming popular was centered around the goddess Isis. She was originally an Egyptian goddess, but her cult spread to Greece and then to Rome. She was the wife and sister of Osiris. She was able to be associated with the goddess' of Venus, Ceres, Pax etc. This made it accessible for others to worship someone that felt familiar while they were away from home.

Decreta

One of the ways Romans approved formal measures. Decreta were judicial decisions, and were the first time Romans used precedent to make decisions. Decreta was another way of making policy in Ancient Rome.

Pompeii

Pompeii was a Roman town that was buried in ash when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE. It was a Samnite town in the 5th century BCE and was brought into the roman federation as one of the Socii. Pompeii joined Italia during the social war and as a result it was used a Veteran settlement in circa 80 BCE. The population of Pompeii before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius was around ten thousand people and many of them perished when the volcano erupted. The eruption of Vesuvius completely buried the city of Pompeii and also preserved it under many feet of ash. Excavations of Pompeii began in the eighteenth century and have continued to this day. While these early excavations were focused on treasure hunting, later excavations targeted on preserving the city as an important cultural and historical landmark. Pompeii gives us a wonderful glimpse into ancient Roman life as the inhabitants left everything behind as they fled and because of how well Pompeii was preserved.

Praetorian Prefect

Role in government available to those who rose to power through bureaucracy one of the most important positions in the bureaucracy (Praetorian Prefect, Prefect of Egypt) In charge of the troops inside of Rome specifically the soldiers who were guards to the emperor, the praetorian guards Highest honor in military service, highest rank in military bureaucracy Served as on of the emperors key 'cabinet' members

Triumph

Roman Triumphs celebrated military culture after major victories. This event was the only time a military leader could march through Rome in his military outfit. After defeating new peoples and seizing land, the soldiers would bring back the booty from the conquest, specifically showing off the wealth and exotic animals specific to the land. Triumphs required there to be captives in the march. First there were enemy chieftains (like Cleopatra), followed by prisoners and their weapons in the shape of a trophy. Last followed the chained prisoners. Not only did members of the militia march in this parade, but also present were the magistrates and senators. Often following a triumph was a public feast to continue the festivities. A celebration this large taught people that this was the top honor and the position to aspire to.

Salutatio

Salutation was a daily ritual in the Roman World. Every morning, a patron (higher tier) would pay a visit to their client (lower tier) in the client's home. Traditionally, when the client arrived the patron would be waiting in the part of the atrium farthest from the front entrance, which displayed their grandeur of status and forced the client to walk around the impluvium to greet their patron, a power play enforced by the architecture of Roman homes.

Scipio l'Aficano (film)

Scipione L'Africano, or Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal in English, is an Italian film made in 1937 about the dictatorship of Publius Cornelius Scipio (known as Scipio Africanus). The film details his time as dictator and his defeat of the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the second Punic War. The film was funded by Mussolini, and functioned as a propaganda piece for his goals, which at the time were to invade northern Africa and install fascism. By connecting the Italian people with the Roman empire and connecting himself with Scipio Africanus, he made it seem as if it were the historical right of Italy to invade Africa and defeat foes they might find there in the name of empire.

Plancia Magna

She was an aristocratic woman who was born in the city of Perge and lived between the 1st century and the 2nd century A.D. Plancia Magna has been actively practicing evergetism deeds through constructing public facilities in Perge, such as the renovation of the city gate. She was very proud of her city and the city's Hellenistic culture, which partially motivated her public constructions. In addition, the sophistication and refinement of Plancia Magna's constructions revealed her intention to display her wealth. Moreover, she attempted to reinforce the role played by women in her constructions through depicting proportionally more female figures than male figures.

Fortuna Huiusce Diei

Temples were built as victory monuments for Roman's triumph in battle under Augustus and the Emperors that followed. The Votive Temple (Temple B) was built in dedication of the Goddess Fortuna Huiusce Diei, the goddess of fortune. Her temple is the second in a line of temples built from the 4th-2nd centuries B.C., known as the Largo Argentinia. In the Largo Argentinia are 4 temples all celebrating different military victories. Fortuna Huiusce Diei's temple was built after Q Lucatius Catulus' military victory in 101 B.C. Q Lucatius Catulus had vowed to build the temple if the goddess of fortune led him to victory and when she did he had the temple built immediately upon his victorious return to Rome.

Edict of Milan

The 313 agreement to give Christians legal status in the Roman World. The act resulted from a meeting between the Emperors Constantine and Licinius in the city of Milan.

Bureaucracy (and names of the "departments")

The Emperor Hadrian criticized the role of liberti (freedmen) as professional advisors to the Emperor. Therefore Hadrian established a civil bureaucracy with equites (Roman knights) as professional administrators. There were 4 departments/branches within Hadrian's civil bureaucracy: 1. Ab Epistulis- the correspondence department, included a professional writing staff to answer letters from all governors, governments, etc. 2. A Libellis- the justice department, which dealt with judicial matters and allowed people to now specialize in judicial cases (development of precedent) 3. A Rationbilis- the treasury, included the people who handled taxes within Rome and Roman money. 4. A Studiis- research department, provided documents and proof of past treaties, agreements, etc. (meant all records were kept) Within these 4 departments, there were administrative ranks with set salaries. Hadrian's system meant a civil bureaucracy had developed within Rome (not unlike the system within the US now) and Romans could now advance socially through imperial bureaucracy without having to use the Cursus Honorum to climb the social ladder.

Lex Titia

The Lex Titia established in 43 B.C established a board of three people who were in charge of bringing order to the state. This law legalized the second Triumvirate which consisted of Marcus Antonius, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Augustus. This law allowed them to make and pass laws without the approval of the senate or of the people.

Lex de Imperio Vespasiani

The Lex de Imperio Vespasiani is a law passed by the Senate that officially conferred imperial power to Vespasian. It was the first time that an emperor was legally granted power over the entire empire. The law was written on a bronze tablet.

Praetorian Guard

The Praetorian Guard was a set of nine cohorts (about 4,500 men) created by Augustus in 27 BC to become the personal bodyguards who protect both the emperor and his family. These men were well-paid and well-trained soldiers. Eventually, the Praetorian Guard was led by two prefects who commanded the nine cohorts. The role of the Praetorian Guards did expand to become a secret police force within the city of Rome, acting on behalf of the emperor and occasionally against him.

Prefect of Egypt

The Prefect of Egypt was one of the highest ranks one could hold within the bureaucratic system that existed within Rome under the Emperors Hadrian and Trajan. As the Prefect of Egypt one held the position of governor of Egypt. While Egypt was not governed through a Senator the governor of Egypt/Prefect of Egypt was a personal representative (and advisor) of the Emperor. The Prefect of Egypt is the perfect example of someone who rose through the ranks of the civil bureaucracy to hold a high-ranking position in government without the aid of the Cursus Honorum.

Philippi

The battle of Philippi in 42 BC was the final battle in the civil war between the Second Triumvirate and Caesar's assassins. Brutus and Cassius were the two main conspirators and leaders of the Republican forces. In the first engagement, Antony defeated the troops led by Cassius, who committed suicide because he mistakenly believed that Brutus' troops had been defeated by Octavian. The second engagement took place a few weeks later, and Brutus also committed suicide after his forces were defeated. The Second Triumvirate thereby avenged Caesar's death and solidified their control over Rome.

Matidia the Younger

The daughter of Diva Matidia Augusta. She never married and had no children, therefore she never inherited the name Augusta. Matidia was a humanitarian and perhaps even an early feminist: she set up an alimenta fund just for girls, restored a theatre in Campagna that was damaged in an earthquake, and left all of her inheritance to her nieces.

Genius

The divine spark that the Roman believed were in all people and were liberated from their human bodies when they die. Although everyone had this Genius, only the that of the emperors' were worth worshipping. This was important distinction so that the people in Rome weren't worshipping the human emperors, but this Genius that was inside them.

Evergetism

The word derived from a Greek word meaning "doing good deeds". Evergetism is an ancient Roman practice of high-status and wealthy elites spending their wealth on public use, such as constructing public facilities. The wealthy elites practiced this tradition not only because it was a moral duty, but also because the public constructions could help show off their wealth and glorify their names. One example is Plancia Magna who commissioned the renovation of the gate of Perge.

Augustales

These were priests (usually freedmen) who took responsibility for the imperial cult in municipalities. Augustales often consisted of a group of six, which is evident with the title seviri (or sexviri) Augustales. They maintained a cult of Augustus' genius or "vital spark," and thus, they enjoyed a specific public role that their slave origin otherwise denied them. The Augustales' worship of Augustus is an example of Augustus utilizing religion as a means of strengthening his own position as a ruler in Rome. This type of devotion to cults of Roman commanders was common after Rome became involved in the Greek world from the second century B.C.

Constantinople

This city was founded by Constantine the great in 324 A.D. The capital city of the Eastern Roman empire, Constantinople, was the first place to practice Christianity as its main religion. The churches were built inside the city walls rather than outside of them like in Rome. The government was set up exactly the same as Rome. The city played an important role in establishing Christianity as one of the main religions in the Roman Empire.

Divus Iulius

This is the divine spark of Julius Caesar that was liberated from his body when he died. This divine spark was in Julius Caesar during his life and went up into the heavens when he died. This is what the people of Rome worshipped when they worshipped Divus Iulius, not the human Julius Caesar. This idea was cemented by a comet that appeared in the sky during the games celebrating Julius Caesar's life.

Obelisk of Axum

This was an obelisk from Ethiopia which was taken from Ethiopia in 1935 during the fascist dictatorship of Mussolini. It was built sometime during the 4th century A.D. In 2005 the obelisk was repatriated back to Ethiopia where it still stands today.

Tribunicia Potestas

This was one of the three foundations of the Principate. It was granted in 23 B.C., and in addition to being consul and pro consul, the tribunicia potestas gave Augusts the power tribunes had. Augustus was allowed to introduce legislations to the Senate and veto proposed legislations. As a result, the people didn't propose laws that Augustus wouldn't agree with because he could simply veto it. This allowed him to take control over the people without establishing an official position in office.

Imperator

This was originally a title for successful military commanders in Rome (a connection to the term "imperium" meaning the power to command is obvious). However, Augustus was given the title of Imperator and from then on it was used to denote the emperor of Rome. "Imperator" became part of the cognomen of the emperors. For example: Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.

Aerarium Militare

This was the "military treasury" established by Augustus in A.D. 6. Ex-praetors were in charge of administering the aerarium militare. The purpose of the military treasury was to pay for the substantial bounties that Augustus bestowed upon his loyal legionaries after being discharged from military service. In cash, the bounty was roughly equivalent to thirteen years' pay in order to support most veterans for the rest of their lives. At first, a legionary's term of service was set at fifteen years with a further four as reservist, but various setbacks required Augustus to increase their terms to twenty and five respectively. Thus, Augustus was compelled to create the aerarium militare in order to pay for the bounties. He funded it himself initially, and for the future, he made the proceeds of a sales tax and an inheritance tax payable to it.

Caligula (Gaius)

Was Tiberius' grandson and nephew, and became his heir after he had died. Suffered from epilepsy throughout his life and had erratic behavior as emperor, as he ruled from 37 - 41. He was the son of the very well regarded Germanicus. He gave the senate the power to make all final decisions and introduced an imperial budget. He tried to have his favorite racehorse given consulship and deified his sister. He became ill after only about a year as emperor. He was assassinated on January 24, 41, and no one really mourned his death.

M. Aemilius Lepidus

Was an aristocrat and a former consul, who as magister equitum commanded the troops in Rome. He is known best for being a close ally of Julius Caesar and later, the third member of the Second Triumvirate alongside Octavius and Antony. During the formation of the Second Triumvirate, Lepidus also assumed the title of Pontifex Maximus, saving a very small niche for him in western history. After victory at Philippi, Octavian and Antony granted Lepidus authority over territories in Numidia and Africa. In 36 BC, he raised an army to subdue the Sicilian revolt against Sextus Pompey, but made the mistake of asserting that the defeated territories in Sicily be given to him and not Octavian. This gave Octavian an excuse to send Lepidus into exile and claim sole power over the then Roman Republic. Lepidus died in 13 or 12 BC.

Vir Egregius

Was one of the Administrative ranks of the civil bureaucracy developed under Hadrian. It meant "outstanding man" and this title was put on the tomb stones of those who achieved this rank.

Antoninus Pius

Was the successor of Hadrian, whose rule as emperor is remembered for its uneventfulness, which actually reflects both the accomplishments of the preceding half century and his own capability. Harmony between emperor and senate was a hallmark of Antoninus' Principate. Another characteristic of the time is the firm stress on family and the Imperial Dynasty, which has meant that his era is often called the "Antonine" Age. Thus, his time seems to mark the empire's climax as an organized, benevolent, and self assured form of rule.

Sextus Pompey

Was the youngest son of Pompey the Great, known for being part of the group who opposed Julius Caesar and eventually, being one of the greatest rivals of the Second Triumvirate. When his father was defeated in the Battle of Pharsalus, Sextus fled with him to Egypt where he watched him get killed. After this he joined the resistance against Caesar and Caesar's army. Caesar defeated the Pompeius brothers in the Battle of Munda, after which Sextus fled to Sicily. He would stay in Sicily and build a large army and navy during the time in which Caesar was assassinated, a civil war broke out, the Second Triumvirate was formed, and in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated in the Battle of Philippi. This immense time gave him the chance to develop a very strong army and navy. The Second Triumvirate and Sextus's forces would meet at war multiple times until when in 38, Sextus won two clashes with Octavian's fleet - off Cumae and in the Straits of Messina - after which he did not capitalize upon his advantage. As a result, Octavius was able to gather 120 warships which, under the consulship of Agrippa, defeated Sextus's naval forces in 36. Sextus then fled to Asia Minor, where he was pursued and executed in 35.

Nero

When Nero was seventeen years old he succeeded Claudius to become the Emperor. Early in his reign as emperor Nero generally listened to the advice of his mother as well as his two tutors. However, as Nero got older he became more headstrong, brash, and somewhat unhinged. He had his mother killed in a staged shipwreck, forced one of his tutors to commit suicide and supposedly had the other one poisoned. Nero's main areas of interests lay in arts and showmanship and was not much bothered by the government or military. He devalued coinage with extravagant spending as well as with protracted military campaigns in the outer reaches of the empire. Under Nero the Roman government was largely inefficient and corrupt. He was generally hated by senators and other members of the upper classes because of his revival of treason laws and his mismanagement and apathy of the Roman government and military. Nero was the first emperor to specifically persecute Christians when he blamed them for the great fire of 64 CE. In 68 CE, when reports of revolts in Gual and Germany reached Rome Nero did nothing and teetered from apathy to panic. The senate then declared him a public enemy causing Nero to commit suicide thus ending the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero served as Emperor from the years 54 CE to 68 CE.

Annona

a law created by Gaius Gracchus (Tribune of the Plebs) in 123 BC. Essentially, this piece of legislature regulated grain prices for all of Rome's citizens. What it did specifically, however, was grant free grain to about 100-200 thousand citizens every year. Obviously, this became a huge predicament for the Populares. Later, it would be administered by Augustus who would appoint a prefect to oversee the supply.

Ostia

a port improved by Claudius and later by Trajan. The idea of the port was to ensure that Rome's population was able to be fed by means of trade. Claudius came up with the idea to create this "artificial port" by filling up ships with concrete. This act sunk the ships, creating barriers that would protect against the seas and the tides. While a port at the mouth of the Tiber might be the most efficient for transporting goods to Rome, there was a problem with that location. Where the river meets the ocean is a place of silting, which would require constant maintenance to support a deep enough channel for ships. Ostia provided a solution to this potential problem.

Christianity (early development)

developed in the Eastern part of the Empire (Judea), spreading to the Eastern/Greek parts of the empire and then to Rome and other urban centers. Christianity was able to spread because of peace in the Roman empire. Overtime it became a religion of urban people. Christianity provided a community for its followers and was open to both men and women. Christianity fulfilled needs that were not being met by the state cult. The Roman Empire saw Christians as problematic because they seemed to be stubborn and would only exclusively worship the Christian God. Christians refused to worship the Roman gods. In AD 64 Nero carried out the first persecutions of Christians.

Tetrarchy

means the rule of four people. During Diocletian's rule from AD 284-305, he established the tetrarchy. Within the tetrarchy, there were 2 leaders who were Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, and 2 junior leaders who were Caesares, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. The Tetrarchy was put in place for multiple reasons. Through having 4 leaders, they were able to split the empire into 4 regional capitals, Trier, Nicomedia, Sirmium and Milan. By dividing into these 4 capitals, it allowed for the leaders to be close to the frontier where the threat was in order to regain Roman stability. The tetrarchy also aimed at establishing succession within the empire. When Diocletian and Maximian retired, the junior leaders were promoted. While this was good in theory, there was an issue with succession when a conflict between Maxentius and Constantine broke out leading to civil war over the battle for power.

Actium

naval battle, september 31 BC.

Great Persecution

refers to Diocletian's empire-wide mass persecution of Christians in the third century. Christians had caused problems for Diocletian, since the exclusivity of their religion kept them from participating in the military and civic life, which had connections to the Roman state cult. Many famous Christian martyrs died during this persecution--their stories made Christianity more appealing to people around the empire.

Diolectian

ruled from AD 284-305. During his rule, Diocletian aimed at making reforms to solve problems in the 3rd century. He put in place a price edict to establish fixed prices for certain goods in hopes of improving the economy. He also made provincial reform by dividing the Roman empire into 101 provinces. Each of these units would have local military commanders who would deal with problems locally. While this seemed like a good idea, it led to the empire no longer being unified. Another reform Diocletian made was the persecution of Christians. While this persecution was partially successful, it also helped strengthen Christian faith through martyr stories. The final reform Diocletian made was establishing the tetrarchy and dividing the empire into 4 capitals. The goal of having four emperors was to create easier lines of correspondence, but eventually the battle over power led to civil war.

Marcus Aurelius

served as Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 alongside Lucius Versus until Versus's death in 169 and was part of the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty. During his reign he defeated the Parthian Empire and defeated Germanic tribes in the Marcomannic Wars. Marcus Aurelius was known for his Meditations, inscriptions in which he describes his philosophy on service to the empire, and was representational of stoic figure.

Byzantine Empire

should actually be called the Eastern Roman Empire because Byzantium was the building place of the new capital city, Constantinople. The Eastern Roman Empire continued to thrive as the Wester Roman Empire fell in 5th century A.D. and existed for 1000 years after the Western fall until taken over by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Martyrs

stemming from the Greek word for "witness", were a group of Christians who had been persecuted by the Roman State during the mid-third and early fourth century. Christians were easily identifiable by their lack of devotion to the state cult, which prevented them from serving in the military and taking state and municipial positions. Those who were persecuted and did not renounce their faith were punished with seizure of property, exile, and execution. Though the persecutions were intended to hurt Christianity, martyrdom actually strengthened the religion as it provided examples of devout Christians whose faith was unshaken.

Dux

was a commander of a province, after the re-ordering of the provinces under Diocletian, with control over the regional garrison so that they could deal with local incursions of enemy soldiers with relatively high autonomy. Dux is also where the word "duke" comes from as the word was adopted for local leaders after the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Price Edict (or Maximum Price Edict)

was a decree issued by the emperor Diocletian in 301. The purpose of the edict was to combat inflation in the Roman economy and revalue coins to more accurately represent their value. Over the decades preceding this edict, coins had been increasingly debased by past emperors through dilution of the pure precious metal with other base metals that reduced a coin's true metallic value. This caused inflation, especially as more coins were introduced in attempts to fix the inflation. To deal with this issue, Diocletian revalued all coins according to the denarius, a silver coin. He also made speculation (buying risky assets in hopes of profiting from short term-market fluctuations that could raise the selling price significantly) and profiteering (profiting by means generally considered to be unethical) punishable by death, since these were thought to be the cause of inflation. The edict also set a price ceiling on a great number of items. This edict actually resulted in continuing inflation and commerce issues due to the maximum set prices being too low.

Dominate

was a despotic form of military government seen in the late Roman Empire, beginning with Diocletian's rule from 284 AD to 305 AD, following the Principate. The basis of the Dominate was Diocletian's radical reforms such as changing the military command apparatus by dissolving larger positions of power to reduce the risk of Imperial governors taking the throne by force, as well as persecuting the Christians, events that inspired a sense of Domination by the Emperor.

Pliny the Younger

was the imperial magistrate under Trajan. In AD 110-112 Pliny was appointed as governor of Bithynia. He also owned a luxurious villa at the foot of the Apennine mountains, which had advanced technologies for the time. Many of his letters survive and are an important historical resource. He corresponded with Trajan while serving as governor. In the letters of his that we read, he wrote to Trajan looking for advice as to what actions to take regarding the Christians in his province. These letters are important because they are the second mention of Christians in Roman literature and show that Pliny does not actually know much about the Christian religion.