Rome and the Republic Final Exam

Livy (58 BCE-17 CE)

"Chapters from the foundation of the city"

Polybius (200-117 BCE)

"The Histories," Greek historian, Roman domination is inevitable, checks and balances, Senate

Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

Athen's lyceum, Institute of scientific learning

68-69, Year of 4 Emperors

Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian (who begins Flavian Dynasty)

Concordia Ordium

Harmony of the social orders, lead by a strong Senate -Govern by law, with checks and balances -Executive power to the magistrates, authority to the Senate, liberty to the people -Traditional ways to be upheld by Optimates -New men to respect old ways

Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE)

Hero of the Roman Empire.

"The First Settlement" 27 BCE

January 13, 27 BCE, Octavian surrendered all Dictatorial powers Remained consul, purged senate of enemies as Censor Senate gave Proconsular imperium for Near Spain, Gaul, Syria and Egypt, along lines of marius imperium Imperial provinces governed through legates, rest of provinces ran by the senate January 16, 27 BCE: Octavian given two new titles (by Senate, legal on surface): 1. Augustus (revered, Holy) 2. Imperator (victorious military)

Dionysus of Halicarnassus (60-7 BCE)

"Roman Antiquities"

Around what year was the Revolution against the Monarchy?

509 BCE

Mythical founding of Rome

700 BCE, birth of Remus and Romulus (killed his brother and became the first king of Rome)

Conquest of Gaul, 58-51 BCE

A defensive preemptive strike, strategic importance. Caesar's record: Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Nature of the enemy: Wealthy (via Roman trade). Oppidum at Entremont, above Aix-en-Provence, urban spaces with shops, metal working, furnaces and defensive wall (NOT primitive people) (See stage worksheet for notes on campaigns)

Marcus Aurelius, 161-180 CE

A famous scholar-emperor and stoic author of "Mediations" Man of peace, but opposed to Christians Parthian (Eastern front) pressures, plagues, and population drops Marcomanni and other tribes invaded to Adriatic; temporary settlement Vindobona (Vienna) base developed, with plans to take Hungary Germanic tribes resettled into Dacia First of Antonines to have male heir (Commodus) and select him as his blood heir

Caesar's New Campaign

A) Caesar and loyal forces take Italy B) Macedonian battles: 1. Dyrrachium (Caesar has issues landing troops) 2. Pharsalia (Pompey fled) Pompey in Egypt: Executed in 48 BCE (to please Caesar) C) Caesar in Egypt

Marius vs. Sulla: Rise of Military Dictatorship

Background war with Mithridates VI of Pontus-Stage one, 88-84 BCE Rise of Sulla (138-78 BCE) Optimate Consul: 88 and 80 BCE Hero of War in Africa, Gaul, Italy, and Asia Opponent of populares Marius

The Problem with the German Frontier

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, 9 CE: Leader of Legio XVII, Publius Quinctilius Varus (46 BCE-9 CE) vs Arminius "Give me back my legions" -Augustus -Never able to push into the Elba Winning Hearts and Minds: -Propaganda, Culture & Religion "The Golden Age" Historian: P. Vergilles, Aeneid Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace) (65-8 BCE) -Governmental career "Carpe diem" -Roman odes Livy, Rome: A divinely ordered march to world conquest. Success from virtues and Patriotism drawback for histories. Moral Reform Augustus concerned about low birth rate. He encouraged Upper Class to have more children. More kids, more rights. Pressure on widows to remarry. Literature censored.

Third Phase, 23 BCE and Thereafter

Absent on campaign, unrest resulted 21 BCE, Senate expanded his powers, became informal 3rd consul 12 BCE, became pontifex maximus on death of Lepidus (title retained by emperor until 375 CE) 9 CE, dedication of the Altar of Peace, celebrating Augustus bringing peace after campaigns in Spain and Gaul

Diocletian's Reforms

Absolutist Rule: Influence of Hellenistic East Created an autocratic state with huge bureaucracy: the Tetrarchy Ruled jointly with comrade-in-arms. Maximian as Co-Augustus (West). Diocletian concentrated in East. By 293 CE, created four-man ruling committee: Tetrarchy Two Caesars as junior emperors-in-training, adopted by and serving an Augustus in the East and one in the West Maximilian in West, Constantius Chlorus his Caesar Diocletian in East, with Galerius as his Caesar West in firm hands, suppressing revolts and rivals East and Danube frontier got attention

Agricola and Benefits of Peace

Active in Britannia, 60s and 70s CE Appointed governor, 77 CE Roman amenities (baths, theaters, education). Seen by Tacitus as enslaving natives Recalled 85 CE, died 93 CE

Clean Up Operations

After Egypt 46 BCE, detoured to Pontus, rebellions of Mithridates (came, saw...) To Africa, Cato the Younger, Caesar's victory at Traspus and annexation of Numidia, suicide of Cato To Spain, 45 BCE, victory over Pompey's sons of Nunda

The Later Severi (218 CE - 235 CE)

After brief reign of Macrinus, Elagabalus (218-222), grandson of Julia Maesa, thrust on thrown Called self Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus "Priest of Baal" from sun worshipping cult built temple of Palatine -Worshipped a black stone Actions and favoritism shocked even the Romans -Allowed convicted felons to pay a fee to free themselves -Julia Maesa and mother put in Senate -He married women and chariot driver (male) Praetorian Guard assassinated him and mother (Julia Maesa planned this!) Praetorian Guard raised the cousin of Elagabalus, Severus Alexander (who was 14 at the time) -Prosperous reign, lower taxes -Advisors included jurist Ulpian, and historian Cassius Dio -Protected rights of soldiers and their heirs -Renewed Sassanian threat quelled -Began instruction in Christianity; extended tolerance to Jews and Christians -Germanic tribes invaded 234 CE; diplomatic efforts despised by Army -Severus assassinated 235 CE; start of Crisis of the third century -Army loses discipline and invaders threaten frontiers

The Influence of Eastern Monarchy

Alexander's claim to divinity Diadochi as gods Caesar as god and savior while in Egypt

Forum Romanorum

Arch of Titus from Northeast 82 CE by Domitian to commemorate brother's success Southwest interior, Jerusalem Temple booty and candelabra Northwest interior, end of triumphant procession with Titus Roof of archway showing apotheosis (being made divine) of Titus

The End of Cicero

Attacks Antony in his Philippic (Macedonian) Orations Tried to rouse Rome to war; but treasury was emptied Octavian rebuffed by Senate, joined Antony and Lepidus Everybody needed everybody else! Triumvirate prescribed 130 senators and 2000 equestrians; murder with impunity Cicero killed in Campanian villa: December 7, 43 BCE (63 years old) Evaluation of a man of great contradictions -Some people believe the Republic died at this stage

Augustan Reforms in Provinces

Augustus had many physical reforms (beautification) More and rapid changes in imperial provinces, not senatorial Curtailing powers of provincial governors and actions of publicani Power decentralized, given to local upper class (curiales) Role of the Procurator: Financial manager in imperial provinces Building the network of roads The cursus publicus, transporting messages to officials

Erasthenes (275 BCE-198)

Father of geography. Chief librarian at Alexandria. Applied geometry to solve a theoretical problem in cartography. Founder of scientific chronology (dating of Troy). Writings on geography, studied the tides via Alexander's information.

Thales (580s BCE)

Father of western philosophy: rejected myth for rational explanations and physical cause. Origin of matter, water (gas, steam, mist, etc.)

Consul (366 BCE)

Gained and divided King's Executive Power. (2-Replace 3-8 Military tribunes), one could be a Plebeian (wealthier one). Retained King's power and regalia (robes, seats, etc). Army (1 legion each). Summoned assemblies and proposed bills. One year term, extension possible. (Pro-Consular power).

Gaius' Tragic End, 121 BCE

Gaius re-elected in 122 (re-elected as tribune now legal), committed to new Carthage Colony. 121, Senatorial support of Drusus (The Promiser) who undermined Gaius's support Public riot and unrest persuaded Senate to pass Senatus Consultum Ultimum, creating martial law. Gaius and followers died in ensuing bloodbath (Gaius by suicide)

Pompey by 62 BCE

Hailing Cicero, Senate has no regard for newly returned Pompey His plans for Syria-Palestine are ignored; wanted land for his soldiers New voice in the Senate, with old idea; Cato the Younger (95-46 BCE)

Roles of Ancestors + Mos Maiorum

Highly respected and praised. Public rooms have 100s of years old death masks. ROMANS NEVER THROW ANYTHING AWAY!

Structure of Briton Society

Learned Men: Bards, druids, musicians, doctors King/War Leader: Great estates and hillforts Warrior Class: Equestrian skills with chariots Commoners- Agriculturists Slaves- Prisoners mostly Caesar's invasion path, and the Iron Age hillforts he encountered (roundhouses/huts)

Between 54 BCE and 43 CE (Caesar and continued Roman contacts with British)

Natives split between cooperation with Rome and resistance Period of Civil War; establishment of new capital at camulodunum (Colchester) Some native kings brought tribute to Colchester Other leaders, like Caratacus of the Catubeliauni tribe, expanding territory Caratacus's rivals complained to Rome Invasion by Emperor Claudius, 43 CE: leader and governor Aulus Plautius with four legions Road system of Roman Britain Founding of London after 43 CE on River Thames (Londium, port for trade mainly, and center for civil, financial and religious activity)

Where does most evidence of Etruscan life come from?

Necropoli, cities of the dead. Dominican friar Giovanni Nanni (1432-1502): Author of "Seventeen Books of Extracts from Ancient Authors." Pyrgi Tablets- 3 slides, 1 Phoenician, 2 Etruscan. Etruscans most likely came from the Anatolian Peninsula (Modern Turkey). Cattle and human DNA came from the same area. Etruscans were a part of a city-state organization loose federation. They were a working class people involved in metal trading. Looseness and freedom of women in Etruscan society was greater than those of Roman women engaged with men (read and spoke).

Triumph of the 2nd Triumvirate, 43-32 BCE

Octavian formally took office, January 1st, 42 BCE Senate packed with loyal clients Divinity of Julius Caesar (Divus Julius) and his son (Divi Fillus) Victory funeral games for Caesar, sponsored by Octavian (July 44 BCE) Mop-up operations against Brutus+Cassius at Battle of Philippi Marc Antony went East; vast tributes, Cleopatra calling... -Gets longer barge ride than he thinks! Octavian gains all of West Peace with Sextus Pompey; ended grain blockade, Octavian pleased Advantageous marriages: Antony married Octavia (sister of Octavian), Octavian married Livia Drusilla (older family) Octavian's friends: Arts patron/Macanas: General Agrippa Pruning of the Triumvirate, retirement for Lepidus, 37 BCE Octavian welcomed in Italy as defender of the seas, restorer of res publica -Given sancrosanct nature of a Tribune, honors and statues in Rome Antony in Egypt, seeking Cleopatra's to attack Parthia -Ruled with Cleopatra as Isis and Osiris in Egypt and Dionysus and Aphrodite in Greece, divorced Octavia in 32 BCE -Drawn to the richer Eastern Empire, will plan to divide up Empire among self, Cleopatra, and their children -Antony and Cleopatra are living in Alexandria, Egypt

Augustan Reform Creates Imperial Age

Octavian's Basic Options, 30 BCE: 1. Sullan Option (set reforms in place and quietly retired) 2. Caesar Option (push forward reforms) Octavian's Strategy: The Creation of the Principate (First Among Equals) -Peace, Respect and the Pseudo-Republic Evolution of Coins (Caesar one side, Brow of Ship) -Well thought out Propaganda because it includes lineage and military strength -Hailed as savior of Republic (customs, tradition, family)

Foundation of Contributing Authority

Octavian's friendly relations with Senate, as censor manipulated its members Maintained as much of the Old Republic as possible For his personal title, he used Princips Civium Romanorum Looked like Republic on surface, but Augustus had control of all important duties: foreign policy, war recruitment, patronage Asserted that his powers were legall voted

Antony consolidates the West

Octavian's image: Defender of law, order and prosperity Octavian spreads stories of Antony and Cleopatra's immorality, greed, commitment to East Vesta Temple violation to publish Antony's will (may not have actually been his will) -Romans disgusted by contents Octavian got personal oath of allegiance from Italy and western provinces Declared war on Cleopatra (rather than fellow Rome Antony), Agrippa leads Army Actium campaign decides the Republic's fate, 32-31 BCE Fall of Antony 32 BCE, Antony gathered his Egyptian fleet and army; planned to attack Italy. Agrippa blocked it; and Antony settled into Ambracian Gulf for Winter. Surrounded Antony by sealing off north of Gulf at Actium, taking north side of strait

Review of Praetors

Office created by Licinian-Sextian Rogations (367 BCE) Junior colleague to the consuls-first one, then more (16 under Caesar, the most), (12 under Augustus) Had imperium led legion: although concentrated on urban affairs Heads of civic justice At start of them, issued edict to state how they would govern and legislate

Senex

Old Man

The Crucial Century

Death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE, to succession of Diocletian in 285 CE Stress between 235 and 285 Frequent civil wars and assassinations Rise and fall of 26 emperors and pretenders

Concilium Plebs (494 BCE)

Debt slavery, fate of lower classes that realized their military value.

Caesar's Divinity

Decent from Aeneas and Venus (Venus Genetrix as clan goddess) Evidence: -Month Quintilis renamed Julius -Birthday a public festival -Caesar's statue next to Rome's ancient kings (monarchy: bad, worse than claiming divinity) -Image on coins

Criminal Law (Republic and Early Empire)

Early Rome: Pater familias; mirror magistrates for poor; higher magistrates and assembly hearings for rich. 3rd c. BCE: Praetors dealing with criminal justice as well Praetors' standing courts: Quaestiones Perpetuae (9) 1. Treason 2. Violence 3. Assassination 4. Poisoning 5. Bribery 6. Forgery 7. Extortion 8. Embezzlement 9. Parricide (killing father, most infamous case was Sextus Roscius in 80 BCE, Cicero's first case) Procedure: How does a criminal case get started? -Private initiative (prior to imperial period) to praetor -Praetor's choice of cases -Use of prisons (hold, not punishment) -Juries chosen by lot -Power of attorney: Process of procurator with mandatum (taking on the persona, mask, of another) -Penalties (capital or financial), enforcement of penalties by winner

Jugurthine War, 105 BCE

Problems inside Numidia with illegitimate prince Jugurtha (attacks city and kills Roman citizens). Marius and Sulla Senate's reluctant declaration of war after attack on city of Cirtia (118 BCE), led by consul-general Matellus. His senior officer; Gaius Marius

End of the Monarchy

Rape of Lucretia Story Lucius Junius Brutus, nephew of the last King, founder of the Republic, one of the first consuls; 509 BCE

Pompeii

Region of luxury vacation homes; mixed population in city Wine and garum exports; many small industries 62 CE, earthquake damaged most buildings so repairs were still in progress by 79 CE Pompeii's Excavations: 22 of the 66 hectare site remains covered by debris for tomorrow's archaeology First discovery of remains in 16th c. CE Serious excavations began in 18th c CE Easier to excavate than Herculaneum's rock hard remains -Porta Maria (major gate in walls leading to sea) Charles III of Spain, King of Naples and Sicily (1716-1768 CE) Enlightened rule; reformed Naples and southern Italy Sponsored excavation of Pompeii by Spanish military engineers Displayed antiquities found on site House of Faun and House of the Vettii Pompeii's excavations 1750s, and influence on Neoclassical art Giuseppe Fiorelli (19th c. CE) realized voids in ash layer had held human remain (injected plaster to create casts). Conserved humans.

Diocletian's Religious Reforms

Reinforced old religion, saw self as protégé of Jupiter Capitolinus With urging of his Caesar Galerius, persecution of Christian leaders from 302 CE, burning of books and churches 303 CE, edict against the Christians

Redistribution of Power:

Remaining: -Senate -Comitia Curiata -Comitia Centuriata New: -Rule by Magistrates: gain and divide the King's executive power, elected annually -Consuls -Dictator [under exceptional circumstances, 6-Month term] -Praetor(s) -Asdlies -Quaestors -Cursus Honorum Result: Balanced Constitution of consults, Senate and People (Polybius discusses)

End of the Republic: Whom or What to Blame?

Roman people: Contemporary authors and moral reasons, too much wealth Modern Authors: Julius Caesar, Institutional Causes, an unhappy accident (stubborn leaders like Caesar, Sulla and Pompey)

Tribunes

Sacrosanct (punishable by Gods if touched). Power of intercession to help poorer residents. Often bribed. Held veto powers. Could convene meetings of concilium plebis (plebs only). Elected only the plebeian magistrates (tribunes).

Imperium

Power of the King. Power also held by Magistrate and senate.

Quaestors (Around 509 BCE)

4-8. Financiers. Cursus Honorum (ladder). NOT chosen by Praetor nor Consul.

Seleucus Nicator

358-281 BCE, The Victor of Asia Minor

Plato (428-328 BCE)

Academy in Athens

Vespasian, 69-79 CE

Flavian Dynasty

Historical Factors of the End of the Roman Monarchy

Social, economic, and military changes

68-69 CE

The Year of Four Emperors

Dictators

Under exceptional circumstances, six-month term

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus

-Aristocrat, father was censor and consul; elected Tribune in 133 BCE. -Enforcement of Licinian-Sextian Rogations of 367 BCE. (300 acres max on ager publicus) and distribute excess to make small farms -Presentation of land bill to Plebeian Council (133 BCE) "The wild beasts the room over Italy have their dens and holes to lurk in, but the men who fight and die for our country enjoy the common light and air, and nothing else." -Saempornian Law: Land commission to limit holders to 500 acres (350 for self, up to 150 additional for two sons) rest to peasants for token rent -Comitia Tributa and tribune Octavius's vetoes -Not usually preventing legislation to be brought forward -Tiberius demands Octavius (tribune) be thrown out, which occurs -Shocking because it's considered sacrosanct to throw out a tribune

The Battle of Alesia

-Caesar's campaign -Rebellion led by Vercingetorix 52 BC -Retreat to Alesia -Vercingetorix had 50,000 men, stores for 30 days -Caesar had about 40,000 -Located on a hill (Gallic hill fort) -Rivers on two sides -3 mile plain in front of Alesia -Hills surrounding the rest -~6 foot high wall around city -Siegeworks included 23 forts, 7 camps, constructed in around 30 days -Outer siegeworks about 14 miles -Inner siegeworks about 9.5 miles -Earthworks and ramparts -Defences included 'gravestones,' 'lilies,' and 'spurs' -Cavalry battle on the plain, Gauls retreat -Reinforcements, about 100,000 foot soldiers and 8,000 cavalry -Attacked internal and external Roman lines, failed -Roman camp on hill in North was vulnerable, lacked sufficient siegeworks -Cassivelaunus led assault with ~60,000 men on hill, Vercingetorix attacked internal lines, entire system under extreme stress -Caesar ended up going in person to lead the defence in hard-hit area -Vercingetorix surrenders -Taken to Rome and executed -Caesar shows some politically savvy restraint -Thanksgiving celebrated in Rome for 20 days -Conquest of Gaul complete

New CT Scan Revelations

-Everyone had great teeth (no sugar, water supply with lots of fluoride) -Head injuries Villa of the Mysteries: Frescoes of Initiation Rites -Rites of Dionysus? -Rites of marriage? -Surviving brother, lots of erotica, large collection kept in gabinetto segreto Issues of Conservation: -House of the Gladiators, collapsed in November of 2010, should one reconstruct it?

Change is in the Air! (500s BCE)

-Romans becoming a soldier-people intent on fighting and expanding -Neighboring Etruscans losing battles and territories -Time of big public buildings by conscript labor -Result: Monarchy unpopular and Impractical

Troubled History of the Land Commission

-Senate's refusal of funds to compensate owner's losses -Attalus III of Pergamum gift to Rome -132 BCE, Tiberius's run for re-election as tribune, leading to his death -Senate has contanenced violence -Work of the land commission, and its slowdown -Defining "What's up for grabs?"

Revisions after Second Punic War

-Slaves had small impact; small farms still the norm -Change to cash crops, wine, meat, vegetables, eggs -Population growing, but mostly migrating to towns, especially Rome -Same conclusion: Growing proletarii ("The Mob"), a social problem and an economic drain

Expansion on Rome's Expansion

-Sources on its expansion come from later periods. If we don't conquer our neighbors, they will destroy us. Livy and Plutarch: Role of warfare is central in Roman society (gives lower class a voice) -Etruscan heritage of expansion -Diplomatic ties and active warfare -Relations with Rome, stories of the rape of Lucretia and Horatius at the Bridge -Rome and Latin League; treaty of 493 BCE

New Social Classes (140s BCE and late 100s BCE)

-Upper class of nobiles emerged amongst the ordo senatorius -Romans figures dislike "Greek figures (no army, stoicism) -Equites: Wealth equal to cavalrymen, but non-aristocratic background -Women became involved in politics -Helped by tax-farming, equites controlled long-distance trade, public works, mines and tax contracts (publicani of the New Testament) -Egyptian+Greek Gods/Goddesses brought into Rome -Greek models for architecture introduced (Basilica=Government offices)

Socio-Economic Pressures (509-400 BCE)

-Warfare; legend of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (458) as farmer-turned-dictator-turned-farmer. Humility was recognized and praised (George Washington was compared to him) -Wars added land, but sale of Ager publicus went to the wealthy

The Public Law: Emperors Make Laws (as detours around Senate)

1. Imperial Edict, Emperor making up law to fulfill need 2. Imperial Decreta, Response to the appeal to the emperor someone has written to Emperor and they must reply 3. Imperial Rescripta, Re-writing (writing back) 4. Imperial Mandata, Instructions written by Emperor to someone who must go through with them in the role of Emperor 5. Imperial Epistulae, Emperor replies to request on procedure (NOT THE SAME AS SENATE) 6. Imperial Subscriptiones, Emperor's roles on bottom of petition Juris prudentes and Juris consules acquire formal positions by time of Augustu; members of privy council The Grand Synthesis of the 2nd and 3rd Centuries: -Lack of formal law code 1. Aemilius Papinanus (Papinian), 142-212 CE, Syrian friend of Septimius Severus, executed by Caracalla 2. Domitius Ulpianus (Ulpian) 142-228 CE, the most cited in later period, from Tyre Borrowed heavily for Theodosian Code, Corpus Juris Civilis of Justinian and Germanic law codes

Seven Hills of Rome

1. Palatine 2. Capitoline 3. Aventine 4. Esquiline 5. Caelian 6. Quirinal 7. Viminal

The Gens (naming customs)

1. Praenomen (Given Name) 2. Nomen (Father's Gens) 3. Cognomen (Branch of Gens)

Seven Kings of Rome

1. Romulus, 753-715 BCE 2. Numa Pompilius 715-673 BCE 3. Tullus Hostilius 673-642 BCE 4. Ancus Martius 642-617 BCE 5. L. Tarquinius Priscus 616-579 BCE 6. Servius Tullius 578-535 BCE 7. Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) 534-510 BCE

Rome's Provinces by 133 BCE

1. Sicily (241 BCE) 2. Corsica and Sardinia (237) 3. Cisalpine Gaul (203) 4. Hispania Citerior and Vulterior (197) 5. Illyricum (167) 6. Macedonia and Greece (146) 7. Asia (133)

Aediles (Patrician, 500 BCE)

10% older, powerful, privileged members of Republican government.

Regalia

12 Lictors with faces. Ivory chair, purple logs

The Gracchan Revolution

133-121 BCE

Censors (443 BCE)

2. Drawn from ex-Consuls. Kept census, listed citizens and property (who can/cannot be in senate). Collected taxes, gave out state contracts for public works and further reforms after warfare with Etruscans, Gauls, and others.

Samnite Wars (334-280 BCE)

336 BCE, King of Macedonia assassinated _ 334 BCE: Strategy- Isolating Western Persia and Asia Minor, leading at Troy. Alexander worshipped Achilles and other Iliad Warriors. Local government decides to take on Alexander. _ 334 BCE, Battle of Granicus. Persia's response. Alexander used heavy cavalry and confused the Persian (ideas of Aristotle, one of Alexander's teachers, helped the warrior be more flexible) _ Battle of Issus, 333 BCE: Use of heavy cavalry to break up Persian force. Darius II fleeds to Babylon, but leaves behind royal females. Alexander takes females, but is chivalrous with them. Proceeding down Eastern Mediterranean coast, Alexander goes to capture an island fortress, Tyre (for seven months), via a land bridge. Due to people holding out, they were either killed or sold into slavery. _ Alexander captured Egypt, and was even put into Egyptian art. From Egypt, he crossed into Asia Minor to find Darius II _ Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BCE: Alexander arrayed his forces in a left-eshalon formation, then rode parallel to the battle. This created "the mouse trap" (a "u" shape of men used to trap horses and cut them down. Used on scythe chariots on Darius II). After pacing right, Alexander suddenly moved his men to close the gap created by the Persians, Darius II retreated again, but was not caught by Alexander _ Destruction of Persepolis, January 330 BCE: Spiritual center of Persian Empire, Assassination of Darius by courtiers in 330 BCE. Alexander continues on. (Alexander buries Darius with honors and adopts Persian mannerisms) _ Battle of Hydaspes River, 326 BCE: Elephants used by Darius's army, but Roman cavalry outflanked them. _ 325 BCE: Return to Susa, satrap's revolt in Persian policies: multicultural mixing? _ 10 June 323 BCE: Death of Alexander the Great. Royal journals (now lost) have an account of Alexander's last days. Ptolemy may have had access to Alexander's journals and wrote his accounts. Roxanna was pregnant when Alexander died and she gave birth to Alexander IV in August. Philip II (Alexander's half brother) ruled, but was killed by the hand of Roxanna. Alexander was buried at the Oasis of Siwa (where he discovered his divinity), but his body was later hijacked by a successor and moved after to Memphis, Egypt. But then, in the 15th c. CE, his body was mistaken for St. Mark's and moved to Venice.

Aediles (Plebeians, 500 BCE)

90%. Could be wealthy or ex-slaves, oversaw public works, grain (roads and bridges, bread). Not chosen by Consul or Praetors.

The Five Good Emperors and the Antonine Age

96-180 CE

Augur

A religious official who observed natural signs, especially the behavior of birds, interpreting these as an indication of divine approval or disapproval of a proposed action.

Diocletian's Economic Reforms

All individuals frozen into jobs and status New taxes based on census of land (lugum) and labor (animal and human) (caput) Curiales (city councillors) collected taxes- or else! Purification of debased coinage with issuing of solidus aureus Edict of Maximium of Prices of 301 CE -Edict of Prices still exists in Ephesus Diocletian called this traditional, says ancestors would have approved New role for spies-black market developed

Hadrian 117-38 CE

Also born in Boetica, Spain: Ward of Trajan (took on orphan and raised him). Admirer of Greek culture. Hardened the frontier "limes," Wall in northern Britannia, fences of south German frontier Mesopotamia and Armenia now held only as client kingdoms Devoted to army; marched with his men - Improved use of traditional Macedonian phalanx Auxilia took first blow; phalanx delivered final blow Rewards to provincial elites - Not yet at point of universal citizenship (200s CE) - Expanded imperial administration Improved tax and postal systems Legal Reforms: Salvius Julianus, 129 CE- the standardized Praetor's Edict Pantheon completed during Hadrian's reign -First Pantheon built in 29 BCE after Actium victory: inscription of Agrippa remains Started 110s by Trajan, finished by Hadrian 126 CE - World's largest unreinforced concrete dome 145' wide dome, building 145' high (=150 Roman feet) 7 step rings of dome to handle compression Proportion of tufa and porous volcanic slab Hadrian's villa at Tivoli (countryside) on the Tiber, 18 miles from Rome Became ill with heart disease Adopted rich and virtuous senator, Titus Aurelius Antoninus -Antoninus adopted two sons of his own succession setup for two generations Hadrian buried in special mausoleum

Roman Forum

Arch of Septimius Severus, commemorating the wars in Parthia and the military triumph celebrated afterwards, 197-198 CE Campus Martius, Piazza Navona, site of the stadium of Domitian (Circus), 86 CE. North side of Piazza.

Diocletian's Military Reforms

Army nearly doubled in size, grew to over 500,000, c. 53 legions (Classical army had c. 20 legions) Growing importance of heavy cavalry Tetrarchs commanded four large reserve armies Based in prefectorial capitals to meet emergencies: the comitanesis Problem of recruitment: conscription disliked hiring of foreign mercenaries

Changes to Roman Military

Army put on professional basis; oath of loyalty to Augustus Legions reduced to 28, backed up by equal number of auxilia (total of 300000) Legionaries must be citizens, have 20-year enlistment Auxilia have 25-year enlistment, can get citizenship and land Leadership, Rewards, Praetorian Guard (protect Emperor, can threaten Emperor too), Informers (delatores) and spies Small but permanent navy

The Barracks Emperors, 235 - 285 CE

Army raising (and destroying) 26 emperors in 50 years No second Septimius Severus to take control Defensive nature of frontier presence met match with stronger barbarian penetrations Goth invasions of Dacia (gone from Romans by 270s CE) Needed more men and money, technology has recorded limits East-west trade broke down, piracy reappeared Coinage debased and untrustworthy, leading to runaway initiation First empire-wide persecution of Christians, 251 CE under Decius, creating later problem of "lapsi" (Those who have lapsed in their piety)

Early Roman Empire

Around 650 BCE- Roma Quadrada (inside Promerium) 625 BCE, Regia, by 500 BCE, Vesta temple with sacred hearth of the city. 600 BCE- Development of Forum Romanum (evidence of pavement, drainage and sewer systems, early temple remains, large argentine. Buildings include Comitium and Curia Hostilia)

Comitia Tributa (471 BCE)

Assembly of all citizens (patrician and plebeian. Voting by 35-geographic tribes) NOT centuries of curiae. Orders of tribes in voting settled by lot; majority ruled.

Rome's Periods of Expansion:

Background: Etruscan heritage Phase One: 509-390s BCE, Etruria and Apennine neighbors -Focus on Southern Etruria and Apennine neighbors -Hostilities against Etruscan city of Veii, 396 BCE Phase Two: 390-387 BCE, Celtic Gauls -Invasion of Celtic Gauls -Sack of Rome, and the tale of Juno's sacred Geese -Gaul's heavy weaponry inspire Roman warfare and army structure -Rebuilding under dictator Marcus Furius Camillus -New walls, the Servian Walls, stone quarried from Etruscan Veii, accomplished by deep ditch, 12' thick at base, 32' high, 16 main gates (protected Rome until 480 CE when the Visigoths attacked) Phase Three: 387-334 BCE: Umbrians, Sabines, Gauls, Samnites; 1st Samnite War 343-341; Latin War 341-338 BCE -Renewed conflict with Umbrians and Sabines -Conquest of Latins' town of Tusculum: Rome's first municipium (381 BCE) -Time period of the Licinian-Sextian Rogations (367 BCE), limiting land ownership, establishing consuls - 349 BCE, Renewed attacks by Gauls -Samnites: Tough mountain tribesmen. Capua asked for Rome's help against Samnite forces; hard fighting, no clear victory. -Rome attacked by Latin League, Rome Victory. Phase Four: 338-280 BCE: Cisalpine Gaul; 2nd Samnite War 326-304; 3rd Samnite War 289-290 BCE -Etruscan cities taken -Expansion of Cisalpine Gauls -Reorganization of army from 328-304 BCE -Role of the Appian Way: Tome to Capua (via Appia, of Appius Claudius) Phase Five: 280-265 BCE: Greek south, Pyrrhus -Rome's treaty violation with city of Tarentum -Role of Pyrrhus (Descendant of Alexander), Commander of the Epirote League. Used elephants to distract enemy's horses. -"Pyrrhic Victories": Of 280-279 BCE, lose to Rome and Beneventum, 275 BCE (win with many internal losses). -Roman colonization of Greek and Southern Italy

Comitia Curiata (Monarchy)

Based on 30 units (curique), representing 30 most important clans and families. Granted kings the imperium and declared war. Adults, arms-bearing men (wealthy). War aged men, 18-48 y/o eligible. 1st Assembly never goes away, but is adoption of wills.

Roman Provincial Life: Gifts of Law and Order

Basic Components: The provincial system- who governs them Colonization- in search of a better life The Civitas: civilization begins with urban life Army- from first founder to keeper of order Augustan Reforms- The Provinces: -More and more rapid changes in imperial provinces, not Senatorial -Curtailing power of provincial governors, and actions of publicani -Role of the Procurator: Governors Manager in imperial provinces -Oversaw imperial resources and collected, reported directly to Augustus -Building the network of roads -Cursus publicus, transporting messages Settlements: Coloniae: New settlement; residents were citizens, often retired legionaries. Earliest in Spain: Itálica (near Seville) 206 BCE for wounded veterans. Late in Corduba (Córdoba) 150 BCE.

Characteristics of Silver Age

Best Principate System; succession of able and experienced men Senate consulted, but Privy Council still ruled Italy steadily declining in significance as provinces rise to near equality Eastern culture flowing in, being passed to the western provinces Army becoming steadily provincialized and somewhat barbarized, but officers still Roman

Characteristics of the Age (End of the Pax Romana)

Best of the Principate System; succession of able and experiences men Senate consulted, but Privy Council still ruled Italy steadily declining in significance as provinces rise to hear equality Eastern culture flowing in, being passed to the western provinces Army becoming steadily provincialized and somewhat barbarized, but officers were still Roman

Pomuerium

Boundaries and power, religious uses on land. No bodies allowed on territories.

The Formation of Doctrine: Early Heresies

Breadth of appeal (narrowing=Heresies) Clerical characteristics (moral? literate? no, but would be nice) Issues of doctrine (what is the nature of Christ?) Social Issues: Wealth and charity Relations with the state Sexuality, morality, and the role of women Successors of Constantine: Constantine II (337-340) Constantius II (337-361) Constans (337-350) -3 sons jointly succeeded him, as co-Augusti Julian the Apostate (361-363)- Raised a Christian, but denied it by 351. Drawn to Greek culture, wanted neo-Platonic synthesis based on Sol Invictus. Hoped Christians would divide over Arian heresy; denied Churches imperial aid. Killed on Mesopatamia expedition. Empire divided again between Valentinian (364-375), for Western half, and brother Valens (364-378), Arian, in the East. Major challenge were barbarian tribes on frontiers, plus new factor of pressure from Huns. Goths settle in Eastern Empire.

Domitian, 81 CE-96 CE

Brother of Titus, last Flavian, worst 1st c. tyrant (made Tiberius look nice!) Age of spies, stealing of goods, etc. Quarrels with senate and aristocracy, demanded his rights Agricola (T's father-in-law) and Tacitus (historian) and judgement of history Plotted deaths of people near him Domitian's wife and praetorian guard conspired to kill him Flavian dynasty ended abruptly with no successor chosen But general acceptance of absolute rule of an emperor

Britannia and its Rebels

Caesar and Northern Campaigns, 58-51 BCE: -Part of four-stage campaign against Gallic and Celtic tribes -Followed campaigns against Belgae and Britons -British celts helping tribes across Channel Eastern France, Switzerland and Germany expanded into British Isles (6th c. BCE) Sources of our knowledge, through Greco-Roman lens: Polybius, Caesar, Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, Dio Cassius

Caesar vs. Pompey

Caesar and loyal forces take Italy Pompey's limited choices: flight to Greece Caesar's clemency: grudging gratitude Caesar's governmental arrangements Praetor, makes Caesar dictator to conduct elections

Caesar's Downfall

Caesar as king? The Lupercalia festival, February 15, 44 BCE Antony kept pushing crown on Caesar (who refused it, but appalled others in the audience) Parthian campaign being planned: permanent: relocation of Egypt or Troy?

Caesar by 49 BCE

Caesar at Rubicon River, January (apx. January 10). Frontier of Cisalpine Gaul and Italy Rome is helpless Let the "die" be cast (Roman dice, singular) Declaration of Civil War, just defending Roman Constitution (lies!)

Importance of the Imperium

Caesar's vulnerable, required imperium for protection as term of office ended As proconsul, given 5-year imperium as governor of Illyricum, Cisalpine Gail and then Transalpine Gaul, commanded over four legions, 58 BCE Given him time to conquer Gaul (or equivalent), henceforth to escape prosecution.

Welsh Campaigns, 47-51 CE

Caratacus joined the Silures and Ordivices of Wales Great strategist and tactician - drew legions into mountains of Wales, difficult terrain Caratacus captured and brought to Rome, 51 CE. Supposedly gave speech (according to Tacitus who is infamous for making up speeches). Romans pardons Caratacus.

Nerva, 96-98 CE

Caretaker figure, 60 year old, put up by Senate and agreed to by army Established constitutional government, restored some powers to Senate, ended hated treason law (maiestas) Selected Trajan as successor-age of "Adoptive Emperors" (4/5 Emperors had no children)

Effects of the Diocletian-Constantine Reforms

Center of Empire now in East; West weaker industrially and strategically Rome as backwater; aristocracy remained Pagan Middle class weakening, especially in West; rural landowners becoming dominant Christianity repositioned, with new power, and new problems

Overhauls of Samnite Wars

Centuries replaces by maniples One maniple=unit of 120 men (two centuries of 60 men), let by a centurion Smaller than phalanx- a handful (manus=hand) 30 Maniples=One legion Each maniple had three lines operating independently: 1st Rank: Hastati (gladius, scutum, pilum); remnants of 2nd class pikemen of earlier centuires 2nd Rank: Principes (gladius, scutum); more experienced; remnants of 1st class heavy infantry of earlier centuries 3rd Rank: Triarii (hoplite weapons and armor); veteran soldiers How to Gain Experience: Units of Inexperienced men behind the triarii The Velites: youths out in front, hurling javelins and retreating

Redesign of the Army

Change from maniples to cohorts and legions identically armed 1 Century=80-100 Men 6 Centuries=480-6000 Men=1 Cohort 10 Cohorts=4800-6000 Men=1 Legion All armed identically with gladii, scuta, pila. More cohesive structure; standardized equipment and training

Augustan Reforms, Personality of Rule

Chief Source: Suetonius, "Lives of the 12 Caesars" Monumentum Ancyranum in Ankara, Turkey (bronze tables) Self-View: Conservative looking to early Republic. Loss of freedoms, in exchange for order. Lord Acton's Dictum, all power tends to corrupt, and all absolute power corrupts absolutely.

Rise of Gnaeus Pompey, 106-48 BCE and Marcus Licinius Crassus, 112-53 BCE

Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I?" Recurring themes in the 70s and 60s BCE Foreign and domestic crises, needing men of exceptional skill internal threats; slave revolts Foreign threats: Mithridates VI of Pontus issues not solves New men of great ambition in command- can they become consuls too? Government abroad an opportunity for the graft

The End of the Pax Romana

Commodus (180-192) shared responsibilities with father; kept Rome's loyalty with games No personal in military; retreated to Rome, leaving generals on frontiers Preferred to be a gladiator, devoted to Hercules No heir; assassinated December 31, 192 Wife tried to poison him, but didn't give him enough. Strangled in bathhouse. Pertinax and Didius Julianus (brought the throne, murdered 66 days) followed with brief reigns The army's choice: Lucius Septimius Severus

Civil War Among the Caesari and Contenders

Conflict ensued when two relatives of new Augusti are named Caesari: Constantine and Maximinus Daia New Contenders rose: -Maxentius: Son of reluctantly resigning Maximian, contested in the West and controlled Rome -General Licinius bid for control of the East Constantius died suddenly in 306 CE; son Constantine acclaimed Augustus in Britannia, but could not hold it 308, Diocletian urged to resume power; refused

Triumph of Constantine (312-324-337 CE)

Constantine's birth and background: -Raised at Diocletian's court, married Maximian's daughter -Backed down from Augustus acclamation, 306 CE -Bided time as Prefect of Gaul, them moved into Italy spring of 312 CE -Defeated troops of Maxentius (son of Maximian) at Verona; moved on Rome October 28, 312

Who made War?

Consuls make war (leaders), and people decide if they will or will not go to war. Divine Guidance. Principles of Warfare: Attack enemy's food supply. Surrender Terms: Better the more quickly one surrenders. Triumph: Cleanses army from the pollution of warfare and awarding soldiers.

12 Tables (450 BCE)

Created by committee of ten men (Decemviral Commision), Record of pre-existing custom; equal to Draconic Law of Athens

Cimbri-Teutons Menace

Destruction of the Roman Army at Arausia (Orange, Southern France) 105 BCE Military crises see Marius elected Consul six times: -107, then 104-100 BCE Marius's changes in army recruitment, creating career soldiers

Impact of Sullan Reforms

Did not solve the Republic's problems; ranks of the frustrated growth Senate could not prevail without army control Land and proletarian problems continued to destabilize Republic Success achieved by ruthless pursuit of self-interest; no more restraints on power and profit Success more important than res publica Wrong kind of lesson for next generation (Crassus, Pompey, Julius Caesar)

Diocletian's Legal Reforms

Diocletian awash in paperwork Attempting to show centralized control Over 1,200 rescripts in his name surviving Use of legal experts (jurists) to collect precedents Official books of precedents, from reign of Hadrian to Diocletian Judicial records now verbatim accounts of what was said in trial Keeps lighter control

Empire Gets Second Wind

Diocletian takes control (284-305 CE, born 244 CE died 312 CE) District General of Dalmatia acclaimed by troops, 284 CE Fights against Sassanid Persians Change of emphasis from direct warfare of Barracks Emperors, to reform of administration Imperial Needs: -Strengthen central government -Defend frontiers -Recover rebellious provinces -Prevent frequent changes of leadership -Diocletian styled self as Dominus (Lord inviolate) -The Domitian, with elaborate etiquette -Gave empire 20 more years of stable rule

Process of Christianization

Edict of Milan, 312 (Tolerance of all religions, including mention of Christianity) Removal of Altar of Victory from Senate, 382 CE Prescription of pagan sacrifices, 392 CE

Constantine's Religious Policy

Edict of Toleration, 313 CE, restoration of Church property Defense of pagan's rights; retention of pontifex maximus title; imagery of Arch of Constantinople Granting of privileges to the Church: Financial, Personnel, Judicial Privileges preserved in law code 438 as Emperor Theodosius II

Marcus Vipsannius Agrippa (63-12 BCE)

Educated with Octavian, raised troops to help create 2nd Triumvirate; married Octavian's daughter Julia Sewed as Tribune; Consul three times, Governor of Transalpine Gaul and of eastern provinces, started conquest of Upper Danube Active in beautifying Rome: Aqueducts, sewer system, baths, gardens First Pantheon built (3rd one is one that remains today, one and two burnt down) after Actium victory: Inscription remains on later building: "Marcus Agrippa son of Lucius, Consul for 2nd time, built this."

Hellenistic Civilization (4th c. BCE until 1st c. BCE)

Education valued: -7-14 y/o learned reading, writing, and physical education -14-18 y/o=Grammatikos -Future leaders, gymanism -Most learned geography, biology, astronomy and astrology -Much learned from Egyptian and Eastern Middle land that had become Roman territories

Augustan Legislation

Elevate morals, increase fertility: 1. Locus Julia, 18 CE: -Penalized the unmarried but restricted partners -Rapid remarriage, no long engagements -Penalties for female adultery, homosexuality, seduction of virgins and widows 2. Lex -Rewards larger families -Emperor could confer privilege

Role of Cicero's Letters and Speeches

Eloquence as a reflection of inner moral strength Belief in sanctity of the law "He wants to 'drain the swamp,'" believes he can fix everything

Gaius Marius, 157-86 BCE

Equestrian family, soldier, tribune, praetor -Victory in North Africa (105 BCE), with help from quaestor, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (SULLA GETS ALL CREDIT, PUSHES HIMSELF FORWARD)

Pompey the Great/Gnaeus Pompeius, 106-48 BCE

Equestrian family; large landowner, NO government officers. The "teenaged butcher" for his victories in Sicily and Africa, "The Great One", ["More people worship the rising than the setting sun"] Victories in Spain over supporters of Marius; demanded triumph (first ever over fellow Romans), 81 BCE After Sulla, helped Optimates put down Populares' reaction Given military command to deal with Eastern problems and Mithridates VI of Pontus (3rd Mithridatic War)

Bronze Age into Iron Age (Villanovan Culture, 1000-700 BCE)

Etruscans' ancestors or Precursors? Iron working, 890s-730 BCE _ PHOENICIANS! 10-8 c. BCE: Spread of Phoenician Influence, Mediterranean Basin. Trade in glass, copper ore, ivory, wood, textiles, dyes. Colonization begins before 8th c., 750 capital is established. Spreading of alphabet begins, communication transition. Nile Valley into Italy. _ GREEK! 800-500 BCE: Greek colonies, Emigration of Greeks throughout Mediterranean from 750 BCE. Arable, metals, adventure? Escape from economic pressure? Sparta: Undesirables in one colony, Tara (Tarentum) Process: Mother-city and a founder Western Italy, Naples: 750 BCE Southern Italy, Sybaris: 720 BCE Sicily (East Side): 734 BCE Hellensport and Black Sea: 650 BCE Marseilles Emporion: 600-575 BCE First Greek Colony on Italian mainland, Cumae, founded in 750 BCE Other Italian mainland Greek sites, Sybaris (Reputation for luxury, founded 720 BCE. Wealth due to arable land and ports). Greek colonial town, Roman Ampurius, Modern Empúries, Iberian Peninsula, 575 BCE.

Theater of Pompey, constructed 55-52 BCE

Extensive use of concrete, first permanent structure Greated template of all further Roman theater construction Held 25-40000 people, incorporating three temples and reading rooms Rebellions for theater, sports, gladiators Caesar's assassination in the Porticus Pompeius, March 15th 44 BCE, Allegedly at statue of Pompey (Cicero was there, supposedly had no idea what was going to happen and was horrified along with Marcus Antonius 105-30 BCE)

Praetors (Around 509 BCE)

First 1, then 2-8. Assistants to Consuls. Consuls and Praetors have Imperium.

Rome's Foreign Involvements:

First Punic War, 264-241 BCE Second Punic War, 218-201 BCE First Macedonian War, 215-205 BCE Second Macedonian War, 200-196 BCE Third Macedonian War, 171-167 BCE Fourth Macedonian War, 149-146 BCE Third Punic War, 149-146 BCE

Trajan, 98-117 CE

First emperor born in provinces (Italica, outside Sevilla, Hispania) Favored provincials in Senate (40% of total) Princeps identity (first among many) Alimenta: Food relief program for support of children in Italy - populations shrinking, small farmer needed help Last great conqueror-emperor with Dacia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia added. Areas in East put under client-Kings Trajan's Arch, Benevento, Italy (114-117 CE) Shows distribution of Alimento Forum of Trajan with Column of Trajan - Commemorated Trajan's victories in Dacian wars (101-102 CE and 105-106 CE) - Sacrifices to God of River Danube shown in middle of column (human sacrifice) Column and forum in general had been painted with striking colors 98' tall, 29, 32 ton drums Centerpiece for buildings and gatherings Sacrifices to RIver and Danube Gods Right: Carroballista: Cart-mounted mobile field artillery, shooting bolts Left: Testudo formation 16th c. CE- Trajan on top of column replaces with St. Peter

Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 BCE)

First heliocentric model of the solar system, calculated sun's diameter.

Vespasian: 69-79, dies of fever/"hard work"

First rural Italian, military careerists- raised by army, appointed by Senate Earned Senate support and good will: frugal government, balanced budgets (fiscus aka "fig-basket") alway bill. Taxed urine because it was used for as a bleaching and tanning agent. Military Reforms: -Troops no longer served where they were raised -Increased regions along Rhine and Danube -Annexed the Agri Decumates between Rhine and Danube Incorporated caravan city of Palmyra into Syria; reinforced Mesopotamia; naval stations on Black Sea Broadened citizenship (Iberian towns in Hispania, Dalmatia, colonia) - Result: People turn up in Senate and Imperial government (Spanish governors) - More provincials Large-scale building: - New Forum of Vespasian (aka Forum of Peace) - Flavian Amphitheater (colosseum)

Caesar by 60 BCE

Follow Marius's patterns: get victories and army loyalty 70 BCE: Victories in Asia, Quaestor in Spain 60 BCE: Chief pontifex, one of the college of priests responsible for sacred cults, festivals and rituals (bribery) Spanish Campaigns, 61-60 BCE: Attacked independent tribes in Lusitania, acquired huge plunder to clear debts 60 BCE: Conflict of interest between triumph and announcement of candidacy for consulship: chose latter

Antoninus Pius, 138-161 CE

Former circuit judge, family from Gaul, adopted by Hadrian Senate granted him title Pius, dutiful in religion and patriotism Empire at height of peace and prosperity, expanded holdings in Britannia with Antonine wall in Scotland Period of law reform and expansion-wider protections for slaves and minors Maintenance of administrative gains, but army stands

Zeno of Citium (335-263 BCE)

Founder of stoicism. Death returns its origins, don't be afraid of it. Temperance and justice. Avoid all extremes. Connects back to former Hellenistic ideals of balance.

Themes

Frontier provinces demanded more attention and finances in order to defend against invaders Almost all emperors were generals of provincial birth, usually from Danube provinces Regionalism meant that certain parts of the emperors would support own candidates for emperor Principate had to change, to become an absolute monarchy resting in military power Mobilizing state resources for defense caused suffering for citizens

Assimilation Process:

Full Roman citizenship and new colonia (levels of citizenship): 1. Partial Roman citizenship (Latin rights) and the municipal (serve in the army) -Provocatia: Right to appeal to Centuriata -Connubium: Right to many Roman citizens -Commercium: Right to buy and sell in Rome 2. Associated rights or partnership (Socii) 3. Federated Rights (Foederati), Foedus=Treaty

The Cursus Honorum

Further recognition/rising up the ladder

Weapons

Gladius (sword) and hispaniensis The Scutum (shield), inspired by Samnites and cylindrical version Pilum, Throwing or jabbing, 6-7 feet long Lancea, Heavier, required more training to use Use of Roman cavalry at battle of Heracles, 280 BCE against Pyrrhus. Hannibal and his Numidian light cavalry. Army Camp Development: Each legionary carried digging tools and two 4' stakes (ditches and gates and trackways).

Procedure: Lost of legis actiones

Gnaeus Flavius's account of legal procedures 300 BCE, exact wording you need to bring your case and win! -But too confining: Praetors wanted more freedom to decide cases and create law-hence: -Lex Aebutia, 3 c. BCE -Defined praetor's powers, role of his annual edict Different kinds of praetors by 346 BCE: 1. Praetor Urbanus- Original pronouncer of edicts; resident in Rome 2. Praetor Peregrinus- Dealing with cases of Romans vs. non-Romans created to deal with growing empire Durist Salvius Julianas, 129 CE - The standardized Praetor's edict Gaius (160s CE)- Institutiones, collecting all Roman law, explaining formulae (directions given by praetor to judges) -"The law is what the people order and establish" Advocates and Experts: -Law a hobby more than a business/profession -Advocates not paid fees; could accept fees -Speaking experience and success could translate into political influence -Those dedicated to law known as juris prudentes or juris consules -Consulted by praetors and governors -Later tapped by Augustus for his council Annual edict of Praetor explained how judicial decisions would be made during this term of law When case brought by afflicted, praetor arranged for a judge Judge considered all evidence Could consult experts (jurists) Could make a decision, or determine insufficient evidence No trial by jury as such: groups of judges or senators and equite, could sit in judgements Resemble supreme court

Marital Behavior

Goal of harmony, concord, true affection. Marriage as duty to state and family, raising the next generation. Divorce and return to dowry were common. Infertility could be cause of divorce. only female adultery is punished. Remarriage, step-children, half-siblings Procreation praised, but contraception practiced (alum and condoms used). Low birth rates in first and second century BCE.

Women and Religion

Good Women: Silent, poised, child-bearing Bad Women: Dido Queen of Carthage, Lucretia, Cleopatra Variety of religious activities, inside and outside of the home Social benefits of religious worship Lares: Guardian deities Penates: Household deities, spirits of ancestors Vestal Virgins: Public and religious lives. Vesta assures security security of Rome. Enrolled as girls between ages of six and ten. Career term of 30 years. Rites of the Bona Dea (Good Goddess): Hosted by senior magistrate's wife. 62 BCE, Caesar's wife's turn. Presence of Clodius; divorce "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion." Cybele, or Magna Mater: Earth mother figure brought to Ostia during Second Punic War. Her and her son Attis were well known. Exotic, temple restored by Augustus. Christian basilica built over one of Cybele's temples. Fortuna Primigenia: Patroness of mother and childbirth. Ceres: For women only. Incorporated Greek Demeter, agriculture, fertility, prosperity. Isis: Creator, happy times, good business deals. Lover of Osiris. Egyptian, 3rd Millennium BCE. Augustus and Christians disliked her. Women's Vital Role and the Writings of Juvenal (last 1st c. CE): -Quiet women, good ones | Weak minded -Satire of marriage and modern women -Marriage does not equal affection, but GREED

Gaius' Expanded Program, 122-121 BCE

Granaries built to assure supply and stabilize gram prices: basis of the grain dole for poorer. Road building, with contracts for equites and proletarians. Equites able to bid for tax contracts. Equites put on Court of Recovery of Moneys. New colonies for Capua and Carthage, to settle poor outside of Rome. Military reforms raise morale; soldiers clothed at public expense. Citizenship for Italian allies moved.

Nero, 54-68 CE

Grandson of Germanicus; has seneca as tutor Assets of the first 5 years Dark Side: Murdered mother, half-brother, first wife; evil influence of mistress-wife Poppaea Fire in Rome, 64 CE: The testimony of Tacitus, written 120 CE (blamed on Christians and Nero) Nero's later reign devoted to fine arts and imperial buildings: The Golden House (complex of 125 acres, early use of concrete). Octagonal room, dome (falling apart) 65 CE, attempt on his life failed, Seneca and Petronius blamed, they took their own lives 66 CE, Rebellion erupted in Judaea (client kingdom or province since Pompey's time in 63 CE); account of Josephus. Vespasian and Titus sent in. 68 CE, saw second plot and revolt; Nero ordered freedman to execute him END OF JULIO-CLAUDIAN DYNASTY

Cato the Younger, 95-46 BCE

Great grandson of Cato the Elder; agreed with Cicero; fierce traditionalist Disliked both Pompey and Cicero, blocked proposals that favored them A voice for what remained of Sulla's followers: extremely traditional

"Second Settlement" 23 BCE and Thereafter

Grumbling from traditionalist In response to criticisms, gave up consulship; Senate granted him Tribunicia potestas Later will get control of fiscus, nomination of jurors, calling of Senate, 1st vote, initiation of proposals, power of war and peace Proconsul imperium expanded (maius imperium) could retain one city

Paulinus and the Rising of the Iceni and Boudicca, 60s CE

Guerrilla attacks continued; Nero contemplated withdrawal from Britannia, but put in new commander Gaius Suetonius Paulinus Client kingdoms like Iceni resentful of Roman rule 60 CE, Rome terminated client relations with Iceni tribe Procurator annexed kingdom, flogged Queen Boudicca, raped daughters -Boudicca prepared for war Paulinus in Anglesey, for grain supplies Iceni allied with neighbors, the Trinovantes 1st Target: Camulodunum (Colchester) Boudicca moved to London, destroyed center: deliberately burned and leveled housing Britons moved north, destroyed Verulamium British forces met Romans in West Midlands: 14th Legion of Paulinus plus detachments from 20th legions Boudicca gave speech, all went with her Defeat of Britons, death of Boudicca; ravaging of British lands and crops (upset because all the destruction affected Rome's economy)

Sulla Constitution: Succeeding Where Drusus Failed

Increased Senate to 600 with rich equites Expanded Senatorial powers over laws, provincial governors, juries Cut power of equites, especially of juries Cut power of Tribunes Enforced the cursus honorum, raised age limits on offices; restored 10-year gap before re-election Consuls and praetors to serve as provincial governors after leaving office Governors' power to wage war cut Eliminated grain dole, but have land to soldiers Increased Senate to 600 with rich equites Expanded senatorial powers over laws, provincial governors, juries Cut power of equites, especially on juries Cut power of Tribunes; Plebeian Council needed Senate approval of law Enforced the cursus honorum, raised age limits on offices; restored 10-year gap before re-election Consuls and praetors to serve as provincial governors Redesigned dictatorship (81 BCE); ruled as Consul one year; retired to country estates, died 78 BCE

Constantine's Government

Increased taxes, and size of army, more Germans in hand command, including personal guard (disbanded Praetorian Guard 312) Final decay of traditional "republican" offices Senate swelled to 2500! No political power, but wealthy landowners Decision to build new capital in East on Bosporus -Based on commercial center in Byzantium; deep water in harbor, easy to defend -Known simply as the Polis in his time, later "Constantine's Polis" or "Constantinople" -Ransacked imperial samples and treasure to furnish new capital -Center of power shifts East, West begins to stagnate

Where things stand by 400 CE

Increased use of barbarians as federati, a vast bureaucracy grew, with high taxes to support it Population drops accompanied by general economic decline and localization of the economy Cities shrink; targets for barbarian attack so people flee; also too expensive to live in West as trade deficit area: had little to export to east except bullion and meri, decline in technology Decline in slavery Romulus Augustulus and his "resignation," 476 CE, into the hands of Germanic Heruli Chief Octavian Odovacar (Odoacer). Fall of the Roman Empire, 476 CE, a favored "endpoint" for many historians. Watchful waiting begins to see what barbarians will do, nature of government they impose.

The Challenge of Conservation

Interpretation and reconstruction Climate change (water levels rising)

Constantine's Governmental Encounters with Christianity

Intervened judicially in 317 on Donatist appeal from North Africa regarding the lapso and spiritual purity of clergy Again in 325 against Egyptian priest Arius and nature of Christ controversy; called for the 1st Ecumentical Council at Nicaea Raised important questions about role secular ruler should play in Church matters

Ótizo, the Iceman (5300 years old)

Italy's copper to Bronze age. Discovered in Ótzal Alps (Italy) on 19th September 1991. Discovered he was shot in the back of a shoulder, 40-45 years old when he was killed. Tattooed on his back (Medicinal reasons).

Marcellus, "Sword of Rome"

Killed by Carthaginians in 208 BCE.

Caracalla (211 CE - 217 CE)

Killed joint-ruler brother Gaeta and took power in 211 CE Universal citizenship decree in 212 CE Public building on a grand scale (Baths of Caracalla) -Place to network, hang out, study and unwind -Mithraeum found underneath Baths of Caracalla -Mystery cult of Mithraeus -Men only, sculpture imported from Persia, 1st c. CE -Met in underground temples -Initiation (seven levels), ritual feasting -Sol invictus is another important deity Good military commander: campaigns along German and Parthian frontiers Assassinated, succeeded by Praetorian Prefect Macrinus in 217 CE Women in household become dominant (Julia Domna and her sister Julia Maesa, JM's daughters)

Comitia Centuriata (570s BCE)

King Servius Titilust, NOT 100 Men. Can vote for magistrates and laws. Can pass a bill (lex), but needs final senate approval to become law. Organize basic military unit.

Economic Revival Under Augustus

Latifundia in West to trade with industrial East Created market for land: veterans turned into small farmer (restored tradition base of Republic) Roads and provincial towns help to distribute food and goods Creation of curiales class, serving in local governing councils (curiae) of cities Continuing Problems: Slaves, panem et circenses and small farmers hurt by latifundes Big City Life: -Recovery of Population -Rome=1 million -Alexandria=500000 -Ostia=30000 -Supported and refounded Corinth and Carthage Fiscal System: Treasury subsidized by Augustus's son wealth Imposed taxes (on inheritances, slave sales, imports, slave manumissions) Reform of provincial tax system with census and poll tax: fisci Consolidation of all fisci into Central Fiscus (main treasury) Reform of coinage: purity of metal and images Local Reforms/Administration: -Give Rome word government -Police and fire organized along military lines -Cohortes urbanae: urban cohorts, first police force in Rome's history, commanded by prefect of the city (7 cohorts, 1000 men in each)

Marriage Ceremonies

Legal position: Men and women, public ceremony of marriage, control of pater familias. The issue of women's infirmitas sexus and Lavitusanium: Marriage for the free: a private act- the transfer of control. Cum manu- Women totally under control of husband. Sine manu- Less control for husband, pater familia of daughter involved. Males, 14+ | Females, 12+ Both parties had to consent (carried on into Christian Church), but females could not refused (because they were considered "light-minded"). Can be arranged before these ages (optional). Gift or ring exchange. Dowry. Auspices and picking the date. Bride's ceremonies (gives away toys, emotional). Ceremony: Conferratio (sharing of a grain cake), contemptuous. Procession to new home (bride stumbling into home is unlucky, so she was lifted over threshold). Wive's Advantages: In charge of servants and slaves, model academic values to children. Can testify in court. Could be praiser after death by Rostra.

The Goal of "Natural Frontiers" - What Empire Ought to Have

Legions: Spain- 3 Rhine- 8 Danube- 7 Syria- 4 Egypt- 2 Macedonia- 1 North Africa- 1

Paterfamilias

Life and death powers. Priest of home, performs religious duties. Head of household. Source of all law and order of all property (even sons, who don't have rights until they're also married).

The Severi Dynasty (193-235)

Lucius Septimius Severus (193-211) -From Leptis Magna in North Africa -Wife Julia Domna, 2 sons -Put down men in Praetorian Guard -Senate uncooperative: dislike for a provincial? -Stocked senate with loyal provincials -Abolished its 9 standing judicial courts staffed by senators -Imperial council ran government Great interest in law and legal treaties Age of Ulpian and Papinian, Syrian friends of Julia Domna Greater legal distinction between humiliates (freedmen and poor) and honestories (senators, equites, urban officers, ALL soldiers) Harsh punishments for humiliates- hard labor in mines, thrown to beasts Began to be called "Dominus" (Lord) - period known as the Dominate

The Influence of Eastern Philosphy

Lucretius, epicureanism, and the world soul The Genius: essential spirit and generative power

Claudius, ruled 41-54 CE

Man and scholar (period of poor health) studied Etruscan and put together dictionary (which is now missing) Claudius and the Senate -Administration, increased use of freedmen -Warfare and foreign policy (aggressive) Dark and Murderous Royal Family Life: -Troublesome last 2 (of 4) wives: Messalina and Julia Agrippina -Execution of Messalina for plotting to kill him -Tales of Nero and Agrippina poisoning Claudius in 54 CE (mushrooms) -Praetorian Guard steps in to name Nero emperor

Sulla's Chief Supporters

Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius (nicknamed "Magnus")

Family Composition

Marietal, clients, slaves, children

Lex Canuleia (445 BCE)

Marriage between Patricians and Plebeians. Pleb Woman+Patrician Man= Man's Status | Pleb Man+Patrician Woman= Woman's Status

Birth of Child

Medical Wisdom from the writings of Soranus (early 2 c. CE): -Physicians experts in combat injuries with Gladiators and soldiers -Aristotle also wrote (women were "defective males") Roman Medicine: Theory and mysticism- The Greek Legacy: 1. Hippocrates (460-370 BCE), Father of Medicine, -First physician to reject superstition and supernatural forces in diagnosis -Believed health the product of the environmental factors: diet, living habits -Blood, black bile, yellow bile, phlegm (If one of four factors out of sync, it meant you were -Religion was also important to your health, "Do no harm" 2. Galen of Pergamum (129-200 or 216 CE) -Gained knowledge by animal dissection -Treated wounds in a gladiator school -Insisted on rational systemic approach to medicine -Surgical tools used Cesarean Section Birth: -Described as the method of birth of one of Caesar's ancestors Roman Health and Hygiene: -Aqueducts -Baths -Sewer System Birth of a Child, The Wanted and Unwanted: -The paterfamilias and the patria potestas -Could reject a child is unwanted or deformed -It would be exposed and either die or survive and be taken into slavery -Abortion legal, high use of contraceptives (lower birth rates) Expectations of Life: -Female: 34 years | Male: 40 years -If you get through childhood and infancy, age expectancy increased Highest Death Rates: -Women, 19-25 (in Childbirth) | Men: 40 - Skewed by number of tombstones commemorating beloved spouses? -Evidence of elderly, in 80s+

Battle of Milvian Bridge: October 28, 312; The Faither and Violence Connection

Met Maxentius in battle at the Milvian Bridge Use of Chi-Rho symbol (in hoc signo vinces) Death of Maxentius, Tetrarchy in shambles Who is left? Constantine and General Licinius

Earliest Roman Army

Modeled on Greek hoplite and phalanx from. Effective on broad, flat, terrain. Legio- First meaning of all troops effectively Later: Unit of 9000 soldiers, 16-45 years old

Caesar's Reform Program, 46-44 BCE

Moderation: Pardon, no proscriptions: a fatal mistake Citizenship to Cisalpine Gaul and other provincials Model constitutions for Italian cities Social and economic readjustments: -Debts scaled down, interest payment cancelled -Coined lots of money -Public works projects give employment -Grain dole cut and poor settled in colonies -New colonies in Spain, southern Gaul, Carthage, Corinth, Black Sea (small farming plots, going back to core values) City of Rome Refurbished: -Forum Julium (north of original). Basilica, temples -Senate house (because old one burnt down) -Venus Genetrix Temple (Because Caesar's family line claimed they originated from Venus) -Libraries (inspired by Alexandria) Plans for Italian Improvements: -Ostia harbor -Road to Adriatic -Drain Pontine marshes Calendar Reform: -Originally, not lined up with movements of sun and earth. Lined up with religious ceremonies. -Pontifex maximus changed every couple of years (Caesar changed the calendar as a mark of his divinity/power/radicalness) -Cicero joked that Caesar had celestial power over solar system when he suggested things about a constellation -Creates "Julian Calendar", controlling time in a way it had never been before -Fits ceremonies with religious and family holidays -All people had their own calendar (Mesopotamia and Babylon aren't interested), not pushed on other societies -Army adopts the calendar, settlers and conquerors of Empire. So, it travels with them and has an impact on locals. -Greek's original calendar - how far away from certain war/event is adopted into Caesar's calendar (Hellenized, every four years=Olympiad). Older/higher level of culture) which shows his level of intelligence and acceptance. Suddenly makes Romans realize the mortality of their own Empire (Troy fell, so can they)

Childhood and Child-Rearing

Mother breast fed (expectation), mothers hired wet nurses (reality). Introduced child to society. As mortality rate of women at childbirth was so high, men would remarry quickly. First gifts and toys: Necklaces (crepundia and bulla), dolls, carts, balls, board games Transition from (female) nurse (private care) to (male) nutritores, educators, paedagog (with public duties) Chaperones, bodyguards, instructors of academic and moral subjects Emotions and affection on children's tombstone (parents and nurses) Work and Position: Childhood a preparatory stage for adulthood Girls: Prepared for marriage and household work. Given female version of father's name (all daughters will have same name). Basics of numeracy and literacy. Schooling for Boys: Learning Greek, sign of cultivation. Speaking well and convincingly, rhetoric (oral to written). Travel, achieving manhood: public ceremony, private actions (took off necklace, sacrifices to Gods), transition from sleeved toga to sleeveless toga (toga virilis).

Suspended in time, Pompeii and Herculaneum, Roman Cities Recaptured from the Past

Mount Vesuvius Eruption, 79 CE, 1631 CE, 1777 CE, March 1944 CE (well recorded) Saturday, 17th March 1944 -Lava began flowing down sides, earthquakes began -Wednesday, smoke boiled from the crater for miles into the sky -Thursday, lightning. Fabric and plexiglass began to simmer off planes -Friday, began to abate -Monday, 26th, back to normal

Diogenes the Cynic (400-325 BCE)

Never bathed, rejected citizenship of Greece ("citizen of the world"). Very controversial philosopher.

Marcus Licinius Crassus (115-53 BCE)

Optimate family of high nobility. Concern over building his wealth (investments "arson") and acquiring supporters. Ran the Cursus Honorum; aimed at consulship Took on Spartacus slave revolts of 72-71 BCE; Pompey sent in and claimed credit

Comitia Centuriata

Organized on basis of military unit (the century): 18 Cavalry/Equestrians: Weapons and horse (hippeis in Greece) 80 First Class: armor, aristocratic 98 In Ruling Class 20 2nd Class: pikemen 20 3rd Class: scouts and footsoldiers 20 4th Class: javelins 30 5th Class: slingers 05 Miscellaneous (engineers, carpenters, trumpets) 95 in Lower Classes Total centuries: 193; majority is 97; first two classes create majority if they vote together Payment to Centuriata in 401 BCE is in the form of salt

Evolution of Roman Law

Original; long evolving; widely applicable Types of Law; Romans had all: 1. Common Law 2. Statute Law 3. Administrative Law 4. Judicial Law Evolution of the Depiction of Law: -Themes: Greek goddess of divine order, law justice -Dice: Daughter of Themis, executor of justice with scale -Modern Justice Common Law, or Private Law- Civil Cases: -Earliest law administered by priests (pontifices) -Law of 12 Tables, 490 BCE -Created by committee of ten men (Decemvirate Commission) -Record of pre-existing custom; equal to Draconic law of Athens Sections on: -Civil Procedure -Debt -Real estate -Torts and crimes -Parents and children -Constitution Issues -Inheritance -Funeral Regulations -Property -Marriage Start of involvement by Praetors by 367 BCE

Senate

Originally advisors to the King (wise old men), power of senatus concilium. After monarchy, remained. Originally known as the "curia hostilia (7th c. BCE)."

Septimius Severus and Leptis Magna

Origins as Phoenician port of Lgpy, 1000 BCE populated by the Garamantes peoples Controlled by Carthage until Roman conquest in 146 BCE Incorporated into province of Africa, 46 BCE Port dug under Nero, market developed under Augustus colonia by Trajan (colonia) Birthplace of Septimius Severus; remodeled Augustus's city Severan Basilica off the forum at Leptis with decoration Gladiator mosaic at villa - Execution of criminal-brought in tied on small wheeled chariot, to be attacked by the panther -Possibly one of the Garamantes -Music played -Ostriches fighting (exotic bird)

Crimes Against Civilization and Culture

Palmyra, Syria Origins in 2nd Millenium BCE Conquered by Marc Antony in 43 BCE and annexed under Emperor Tiberius in 34 CE 2015, Destroyed by ISIS

The strange case of Marcus Publius Clodius

Patrician gang leader: Impiety, status change, tribune, free grain, and attack on Cicero During trial, Caesar divorces wife ("Caesar's wife must remain above suspicion")

Problems of the Third Century

Persecution of Christians on political grounds, especially in Africa and Alexandria. Christians were seen as disloyal. Didn't agree with government or paying taxes. Financial problems arose because of military expenses. Decline in mined silver-devalued the currency, dropped weight of silver in coins Buildings larger than ever- to cover up issues? Recognized growing power of provinces- divided larger ones to restrict power of governors Septimius Severus died of fever at Eboracum (Yorit) while of Scottish campaign, 211 CE Deathbed advice Gaeta and Caracalla: "Agree with each other, enrich the soldiers, and despise the rest"

Battle of Actium

Phase One, Summer 31 BCE: Antony undermanned because of sickness (malaria via water journey) and quinqueremes. Octavian has bigger army and smaller ships. Antony commits suicide before Octavian gets him and Cleopatra has her snake eat out her heart (more dramatic suicide). Octavian takes Antony's twins and gives them to Octavian, who raises them (they become quite successful!). Phase two, September, 31 BCE: Fall of Antony's troops ENDING OF ROMAN REPUBLIC, PTOLEMAIC AND HELLENISTIC ERA, 30 BCE

The Good Emperors of the Barracks Period

Philip the Arab (244-249 CE), presides over melancholic 1000-year anniversary Lucius Domitius Aureuliuanus (Aurelian) 270-279 CE, Drove barbarian (franks) out of Hispania and Gaul. "Hand on Hilt," "Restorer of the World." Put baking industry under state control to freeze price of bread, stabilized gold coinage. In 271 CE, built wall around Rome. Assassinated in 275 CE.

Hipparchus of Alexandria (190-120 BCE)

Prefered geocentric model of universe. Contributions to practical and theoretical astronomy. Trapped mathematical themes of ancient Babylonians. Investigated motions of sun and moon. Created star catalogue.

Epicurus (340-270 BCE)

Philosopher, Death should not be feared

Pompey's Status Enhanced, 70 BCE

Pirate problem in the Mediterranean, threatening food imports Tribute Gabinius bill: granting commander the maius imperium to deal with pirates 3-year term of supreme commanded in Mediterranean 50 miles inland Consular rate and authority, superior to all provincial governors Huge financial resources from Treasury 500 ships, 12000 infantry and huge staff No other men capable of handling the job other than Pompey (gets it) Resettlement of the pirates in Asia Minor, within two months, Pompey off to deal with Pontus again Pompey off east vs. Mithridates VI of Pontus "Stop quoting the laws to us. We carry swords." Supreme command of Pompey in Asia Minor Final dispatch of Mithridates, 63 BCE Pompey's seizure of Palestine and Syria Continued problems of how to rule in the East Fears of Pompey following Sulla's path to power

The London Province, 43-47 CE

Plautius held south; made Colchester his center; fort at Verulamium (St. Albans) Caratacus and Catuvellauni; lost territory to Rome, retreated to far Rome Ostorius takes Plautius's position (tough guy)

Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 BCE)

Plutarch write about Archimedes in "Life of Marcellus." Created Sambuca/harp, pulley and "Iron Hand." Romans are pushed back. Killed by Roman soldier when he refused to retreat because he was making theorems in the dust). Given a grand funeral, killer was executed. Also used mirrors/polished metals to reflect sunlight onto boats and set them on fire (Possible, but highly unlikely).

Pompey's Growing Strengthens

Pompey's rising star attracts friends: 1. "New man" in politics, equestrian stock, educated in Greece. Wealth as a slum landlord. Renown through work in the law courts. Supported Optimates, to restore glory days of Republic. 2. Tribunes Gaius Cornelius and Auius Gabinia Gaius Verres case, 70 BCE, attracted Pompey's attention.

Pompeii Statistics

Population in 79 CE: 20,000 people Founded 7th c. BCE by Oscan peoples Conquered by Etruscans-Greeks-Samnites-Romans Sulla took it over for own veterans Made a colonia corrula veneria pompeianorum

Social Problems by 60 BCE

Population of Rome over 1 million Poor crowded into squalid apartment biocis (insulae) Substitinence of grain from public doles Crimes in the streets- no formal police form Bust in property values followed Cicero hailed as Pater Patriae for saving Rome from Catilline (Back and Better than ever!)

Rome's Growth

Population: 350 BCE=30,000 300 BCE=60,000 275 BCE=90,000 Hellenizing Influence, Greek educating via slaves, art and philosophy

Augustan Reforms, Central Administration

Problems of inexperience, graft, communications (slow) Changes in the Senate: the steering committee (Consilium Principis) Privy counselors Increased vote for equites Equites as Prefects: of the Praetorian Guard of the grain supply, of the vigiles Slaves and freedmen provided expertise in government: the familia Caesaris (Caesar's family) Popular assemblies still exist and are filled with Augustus's friends Changes to the Centuriata's voting pattern by lex Valeria Cornelia, 5 CE

The Rise of Christianity

Problems of study Philosophical setting: Greek, Roman, Judaic contributions Accounting for Christianity's Rapid Spread: -Linguistic, Commercial, Cultural and Political unity of the Mediterranean Basin -Hellenistic Intellectual unity and the Greekness of the early Church -Roman Receptiveness to Religious ideas from the East -The genius of borrowing Roman and Greek formats Sheer Numbers: -Possibly 50,000 Christians by the end of the 1st c. CE in an Empire of c. 70 million -By the time of Constantine in early 4th c. CE, 1 in 10 in Eastern Empire

The Sullan Dictatorship (not time limit), 82-81 BCE

Program: Sallust: End of Old Rome, Sulla: The restoration of Old Rome (pre-133 BCE), ran by Senate, empowered by law and not just custom. Laying the Groundwork: Makes friends by distributing land demanded of the Italian allies. Reign of terror through prescriptions, use of spies and informers Upshot: Made Dictator by compliant Centuriata

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus

Promoted brother's program, with differences. Dramatic personality (Greek education); master of rhetoric. Ran for Tribunate in 123 BCE; constructed coalition with politically insulated equites.

Other Social Problems (150s BCE)

Provincials resentful over loss of freedom; Italian allies felt mistreated; slaves so badly treated they rose in revolt 140s and 130s BCE (Kebric reading 40-45)

Three Major Powers

Ptolemies (Egypt), Seleucid Dynasty (land from inland Asia Minor through Syria and Mesopotamia in Iran) and the Parthian (rose from Iran from 247 BCE on, and maintained independence into the middle second century

Effects of Diocletian's Policies

Pulled Empire out of crisis; temporary stabilization Ruined local self-government of civitas Crippled the middle class, hurt artisans, injured towns especially in West Peasants legally bound to labor services: foundation for manors and serfs of the Middle Ages Tight control of all aspects of life shows a society out of control The succession problem not solved despite this complex formula Diocletian retired in 305 CE to new palace in Spalatum Ordered co-Augustus Maximian to reign Two new Augusti: Constantius Chlorus of the West and Galerius of the East

Cicero's Positions

Quaestor in Sicily, 75 BCE Aedile 69 BCE Praetor 66 BCE Consul 63 BCE Proconsular governor of Cilicias 51-50 BCE

Timeline of Marius

Quits government, 98 BCE, pursued war in East Social unrest continued: Optimates ruled harshly, social reform needed

Lex Hortensia (287 BCE)

Resolutions passed by plebeians binding all citizens, regardless of prior approval by Senate. Lasting importance of the Senate.

Arbitrary Rule

Respect, "A balanced constitution," Polybius

The Return of Octavian from Egypt, 28 BCE

Returned enriched with wealth Rewarded soldiers; cut legions from 70 to 30 Becomes consul with Agrippa, January 1, 28 BCE Opened new senate house (curia Julia with victory statue taken out in 4th c. BCE because of Christians); statue of the Divus Julius in Forum Senate reduced from 1000 to 800 (later to 600) Purged of provincials; repeated by Italian equites Expanded senatorial powers (coinage, juries) Called himself Princeps Senatus: first man of the Senate

Characteristics of Mystery Religions (Mithras, Eleusinian Mysteries, Dionysian Cults)

Ritual entry Exclusivity Meetings and feasts Ethical conduct required Judgement after death Reward of afterlife

Draconic Law of Athens

Sections on: 1. Civil Procedure 2. Real Estate 3. Debt 4. Torts and Crimes 5. Parents and Children 6. Constitutional Issues 7. Inheritance 8. Property 9. Funeral Regulations 10. Marriage

Feelings of Sorrow and Relief

Senatorial conformational of all of Caesar's will, amnesty for conspirators Emergences of Marcus Antonius, comrade in arms, legionary leader Naming of heir: the surprise of Caesar's will, Octavian. Question of if he was allotted Caesar's goods or position. Formation of the Second Triumvirate, 43 BCE 1. Marc Antony (needs Octavian for family tradition element) 2. Octavian (Family legitimacy) 3. Lepidus (Second rate General with loyal troops)

Downfall of Caesar

Senatorial plots start to brew, Caesar drops the bodyguard Conspirators almost all came from those pardoned (Crassus and Pompey's camps) Marcus Julius Brutus - Pompey; married to Cato the Younger's daughter Cassius Longoria (Epicurean) and Decimus Junius Brutus Convened at Theater of Pompey in Campus Martius

Pontifex Maximus (Post-Monarchy)

Shared Kind's religious power [bridge to the gods]. Colleges of priests, augurs, organizers of festivals and processions.

Titus: 79-81 CE (Also died young of fever)

Shared consulship and censorship with father, popular ruler after wild youth Calamities of First Year: -79 CE, Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius (Pompeii), Bad fire in Rome -Malaria-like illness in Campania -Arch of Titus built the next year (82 CE); celebrating his earlier defeat of the Jewish revolt and sacking Temple in Jerusalem (Jewish Diaspora in Mediterranean) - Consequences for Christianity

The Severi and the Army

Showered favors on army Increased legions from 30 to 33; more mobility in the ranks Allowed army to declare policy; such as succession; Emperor's adoption into family and Marcus Aurelius, and deification of Commodus Praetorian Prefect now controlled most branches of Imperial government, and headed Imperial Council Praetorian Prefect Plautianus favored by S. Severus until downfall in 205 CE Military campaigns in 190s CE initiated Trajan's: annexed Mesopotamia (again): sacked Parthian capital Chesiphon (again) Pressed deeper into Africa to safeguard food supplies Recognized Antonine Wall; pressed into Scotland (208-210) Militarization of the State military command titles entered government Coin of Septimius Severus (207 CE). Jupiter in galloping quadriga right, holding sceptre and Triumphal Arches (202 CE)

Herculaneum: Vital Statistics

Small town, 5000 residents Founded 6th c. BCE by Samnites, then under Greek control (returned to Samnites in 4th c. BCE) until they were defeated in Social Wars by Sulla 1709 CE someone digging a well discovered Herculaneum Theater 1738 CE, tunnels drilled through site to extract luxury items Influence Neoclassical design (pottery, plates, and furniture extracted) Edges of old city are on modern location 1981 CE, finds in the Boat Houses on the shore Archaeological Analysis: -Evidence of rib lesions: Pleural inflammation from burning organic oils and wood inside houses -Skull depressions, from excess scratching from head lice - 1/3 of females had given birth: generally in 2nd decade of life -Great teeth Carbonized furniture and food stuffs Remains of multi-storey housing Insulae and painted advertisements Street drainage Neighborhood food sales: Containers for food Wine shop House of the Relief of Telephus -Carbonized baby crib Caesar's father in-law had a villa of the Papyri, Papyrus scrolls, ones with Epicurean philosophy (Reconstruction of villa is the Getty Museum in California)

Caesar's Northern Campaigns

Stage One: The Helvetti, 58 BCE: -Switzerland -Plans for a mass migration -Caesar's +5 legions -Settlement in old homeland Stage Two: The Belgae, 57 BCE: -Fiercest battle in north, against Belgae and Nervii -Worn down by Caesar's auxiliary troops and projective weapons Stage Three: Brittany, 56 BCE: -Moved into the northwest, to Armorica, against the Veneti tribes -Fierce Stage Four: Britannia, 55-54 BCE -After campaign against the suebi of Germania, crossed into Britannia -Reconnaissance mission; viewed hillforts and weaponry -frightened off by storms, returned 54 BCE -Defeated southern tribes, tribute payments to Rome Time of Troubles, 53-52 BCE: -Tables turned, natives attacked Battle of Alesia, September-October 52 BCE: Caesar vs. Vercingetorix

Crassus on the Defensive to Counter Pompey

Suggestions overruled; felt ignored Turned to influential friends: 1. Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) -Noble roots, but cultivated the Populares; attacked Senatorial privileges -Ran the Cursus Honorum, served as quaestor in Spain; aedile chores left him in debt, but popular Match made in heaven: Caesar's connections and Crassus's money 2. Lucius Sartorius Catalina (Catilline, 52 BCE) -Immoral, or victim of hostile sources? -Consul election, 63 BCE vs. Cicero: -Pushed to violence and threats. -Information comes from Cicero and other hostile sources when defeated by Cicero. -Cicero had Gauls trap Catiline and his conspirators -Backed by rich, calls for Martial Law and execution of Catilline

Rivalry with Marius over Command in Mithridatic War (Marius vs. Sulla)

Sulla and six legions march on Rome (even though he was a fellow Roman?) Civil war brought into Rome: Sulla enter pomerium with army Marius and friends declared enemies of the state, forced to flee city Restored Centuriata as major legislative body, cutting tribunes' powers-seen as defending tradition! Sulla as defender of mas maiorum (tradition, of the ancestors): strengthened Senate and Centuriata, then departed for Mithridatic War (87 BCE) Marius and allies returned to Rome, initiated own bloodbath Marius died, during 7th consulship (85 BCE) Power vacuum in Rome persuaded Sulla to return; opposed by Semnited but entered Rome by force on November 1, 82 BCE

Silver Age of Latin Writers

Tacitus, 56-117 CE: Annals, Histories, Agricola, Germania Juvenal, 55-127 CE: Satirist and Poet Quintilian, 35-100 CE: Rhetorician and Grammarian Martial (Spaniard), 38-104 CE: Satirist Poet, 12 Books of Epigrams Columella, 1st c. CE: Important writer on agriculture, Spaniard

Rex Sacrorum

Temple Maintenance

Organization at the Local Community Level

The Ecclesia, Parish Church The Collegia, organizes Ecclesia Presbyters (elders; later priests) and Deacons (assistants) At the Regional Level: -Roman civitas (urban and rural) becomes diocese -Epidcapus (bishop, overseer) and his cathedra and sedes -Countryside (Pagus and Pagani) Trans-Regional Future: 3rd c. will evolve gubernatorial parallel with the Archbishop and Archdiocese=The Province

Patrons and Clients

The Patrocinium. Warm hospitality to those in home.

Gaius Caligula, ruled 37-41 CE

The generous prince: Son of Germanicus and Agrippina, "Bootykins" (little boots) Plans and finances (spender, games, festivals) Wants to take Britain and German territories The Living God The Praetorian Guard's revenge, assassinate Caligula The Senate's fatal delay (what should we do?) -While debating who should be next leader, the Praetorian Guard raises a candidate

Philosophy

The love of knowledge, its pursuit by reasoning, origins in 6th c. BCE (Ionian Greek)

The Social Wars, 91-88 BCE

The uprisings of the Socii (Rome's old enemies) Against Rome: The Marsi (to Rome's east) and Samnites Rival capital of Italia 75 miles east of Rome -Minted own coins; showing 8 warriors taking on oath Loyal to Rome: Parts of Etruria, Umbria, Latins, Camponions, Greek cities in far South 90-88 BCE, 3 laws passed to grant citizenship to freedmen south of Po River and Latin rights to free north of river Romans took tremendous losses; military successors for Marius and Sulla (later against the Samnites)

Licinian-Sextian Rogations (367 BCE)

The work of two plebeian tribunes (Galus Licinius stolo and Lucius Sextius Laxteranus. Established the Consuls (later, one consul office could be help by a Plebeian). Office of praetor added; patrician aedlies added to plebeian aediles. Land reform, limits of ownership of "ager publicus." Debt reform. Assure co-existence of Comitia Curiata, Centuriata, Concilium Plebis and Comitia Tributa.

Anaximander (580s BCE)

Theory of the first cause- the indefinite infinite, external, ageless. All life came from the sea. First to draw a world map (with his hometown of Miletus at its heart).

Formation of the "First" Triumvirate, 60 BCE

Three niffed politicians- generals join forces 1. Pompey's plans for Syria- Palestine and lands for his veterans, ignored 2. Crassus refused aid 3. Caesar refused military triumph and ran for consulship: had to be satisfied with latter only Result: Caesar elected consul, 58 BCE. 2nd Consul is Cato's son-in-law Bibulus. -Caesar's proposals endlessly delayed or vetoed by Cato and Tribunes, including land bill to settle Pompey's veterans -Bibulus and the auspices: Everyday is a bad day! -Hence: Caesar's "doubtful" legislation, taken to Comitia Tributa

Julio-Claudian Dynasty, 31 BCE - 68 CE

Tiberius (ruled 14-37 CE) - Adopted by Augustus in 4 CE: get the succession by default. Resentful and uninterested in governing. Augustus selected, but army and senate gave appropriate powers and titles. -Public preferences for Drusus and son Germanicus -Rise of Sejanus (friend), prefect of Praetorian Guard -Retreated to the Villa Jovis (Capri), Sejanus given powers -Expansion of law of treason (maiestas- hence later crime to lèse-majesté, any treat to ruler) -Astrologer Thrasyllus of Rhodes (friend) gave Tiberius fairly good advice -Frustration with the Senate -Administration and Finance -The Succession (his children died before Tiberius) -Roman Question: How do you choose the next Emperor? Death of Augustus, 14 CE (age 75) Unprecedented period of peace in the Mediterranean basin: The Pax Romana (Roman Peace, 200 years, prosperous time) -The role of the Senate and aristocracy of Rome? -Size of Empire, nature of its inhabitants? -The Dark Side: Testimonies of Tacitus (upper class, Republican) and Suetonius (Gossipy) -Nostalgia for the Republic, but only its ideas remained Tacitus, "Germania" work-praised the Germans

Impact of Gracchan Conflicts

Too conservative or too radical? Too late or too soon? Opportunities for equestrian (equite) corruption Senate triumphed, but revealed its corruption Introduced violence and revenge into policy making (Caesar is good at this) Formation of Populares (popular with people) and Optimates (Wealthy, predominance of Senate) groups 120 BCE: The creation of Transalpine Gaul: Gallia Narbonensis, fierce tribes (meant to be a buffer zone). Continued unrest in Asia even amongst client kings.

Rome between 59 and 49 BCE

Tribune Clodius and gang rule the streets, intimidating even Pompey Pompey allied with Tribune Milo and his gang (retired gladiators) for protection Triumvirates re-convened at Lucca in 56 BCE; Caesar's imperium renewed: Pompey and Crassus to stand for consulship of 55 BCE The rewards after office: governorship of the two Spains for Pompey; of Syria for Crassus; second 5-year imperium for Caesar Pompey's decision to stay in Rome (sends lesions on to Spain without him) Crassus killed in Carrhae in 53 BCE fighting Parthians and his two legions lost Death of Julia in childbirth (Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife), 54 BCE. Ends Caesar's ties with Pompey 53 BCE, so violent, no elections held (gang warfare, burning of Senate house) Cicero and Senate back Pompey as sole consul, 52 BCE Pompey waffled on Caesar's bid for extended imperium and consulship in 49 BCE, wants to slow down Caesar's rise Caesar MUST have imperium and immunity, no matter what Tribune and Senate demanded both leaders lay down commands Neither complied; threatened by SCU Cicero returned from exile, deparied (killed Catilinia without uprising permission) because "Who still cared about the Republic?" Caesar's money purchased some friendly tribunes; Marc Antony and Scribonius Curio Friendly tribunes thus veto the Senatus Consultum Ultimum Who will blink first, Crassus or Pompey?

A Radical Plan for a Coalition, 91 BCE

Tribune Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger and his Concorda Ordium: Something for everyone Favored the Senate by removing equites from Court of Moneys Favored the equites by doubling the Senate with their numbers Favored the plebeians by reducing price of grain and promising land settlement Favored the Italian allies by offering to extend citizenship throughout the Peninsula Drusus assassinated for his "radical" program; Italian allies soon rise up against Rome

Met Co-Augustus Licinius at Milan in 313 CE, authorized famous edict for religious tolerance in West and restoration of Church property

Two agreed to share emperorship 324 CE, Constantine marched East, Licinius protested and was defeated: Tetrarchy terminated

Anaximenes (540s BCE)

Underlying element is air. Air became fire is rarefied, when condensed, became solid (stone). Earth's a flat table which is floating in the air.

Crassus and Pompey

Used threat of armies outside Rome to pressure senate to allow them to run for consul (illegally) Both men elected consuls, 70 BCE, running on Populares platform Restored power to Tribunes and Tribute; restructured Court of Moneys (stage III)

The Flavian Dynasty, 69-96 CE

Vespasian, Titus (son of Vespasian), Domitian (son of Vespasian)

Imperial Provincial Organization

Vicus: Civilian residences beyond fort; unplanned, had no public administration functions or buildings. Pagus, countryside (pergari).

Battle of Adrianople, 378 CE

Visigoth cavalry chase away Roman cavalry and Eastern Emperor is killed. Rise of General Theodosius 378, reunited Empire for last night.

Caesar in Rome

Welcomed home with four triumphs in: Gaul, Rome, Pontus, Numidia. Praised for the Gonzaga family of Numidia 11 days. Elephants and captives: from the African triumph. Over 1 million, 20000 tables of food Caesar given dictatorship for 10 years, annually removed Made prefect of morals (powers of censor) and pontifex maximus Given powers of tribunes (to monopolize vetoes). Caesar's ideas of centralization. 44 BCE, Dictator for life -Controlled all magistracies; filled in advance -Senate of 900 men, increase in other offices Calendar changed, upsetting to some Cicero tired to work with Caesar, but Cicero refused certain policies (up until his exile when he wrote a biography about Cato the Younger and called him the "martyr" of the Republic

Augustus and North Africa

Western regions of Numidia given to Mauretania. Restored Carthage, founded nine other colonies for veterans. Vast areas for growing grain. Parthia handled through diplomacy: regaining of Crassus' lost standards. Death in battle of heir Gaius 4 CE. Use of client kingdoms

Plutarch, 100 CE

Writer and Philosophy lecturer from 48-120 CE. "Parallel," every Roman biography is paired with a Greek biography. Compared the characteristics of both individuals. His sources could have been missing while he was researching, but also had others which are not present today.

Arian, 160 CE

Writer of military exploits and used writings Ptolemy's works

Quintus Curtius, 1st Century

Wrote and used the 10 Books of Aristotle (8 survived)