Science
radon gas
#2 for lung cancer, it comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in soil and it can seep up into buildings.
Chromosome condensation
- Conversion of a heterochromatin to a euchromatin so that genes can be expressed.
DNA Transcription(regulating Eurokaryotic gene expression)
- transcription factors present at the promoter, and transcription activators(bound to enhancers)are brought into contact and promote transcriptors.
some prokaryotes have a flagella -a long appendage that drives movement. However, prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella are structurally different.(how?)
-----The eukaryotic flagella are composed of the cytoskeletal proteins called microtubules, flagella in bacteria are made of the protein flagellin. ---Also----Bacterial flagella are also driven by motor proteins that swing the flagella around clockwise or counterclockwise, while eukaryotic flagella whip back and forth, not around.
Heat-Related problems caused by Global warming
--drier conditions and longer summers -more forest fires -more droughts
Open Ocean Biome
-nutrient poor, organic matter sinks to the bottom -occupied by Photosynthetic phytoplankton, which include cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and other similar organisms. -65% of the worlds surface area -because of the sheer size of this biome, it produces more life than any other biome.
In Gymnosperms, _____ are exposed on the surface of the cone scale.
-seeds
Carrying capacity
-the maximum stable population size that can be sustained over a long period of time. -If a population is w/o predation, enjoys a stable environment and has not been disturbed for a long time, it is probably really bad.
Niche
-the role that she plays in her ecosystem: -Organisms carve out their own unique niches that they specialize in, and it is extremely unusual to find two organisms with the same exact niche
-Silt particles
0.063 mm in size
An individual's genotype may be: _____(AA) , ______(Aa), or ____(aa)
1. Homozygous dominant 2. Heterozygous 3. Homozygous recessive
3 main goals of envio sci:
1.how nature, 2.how humans 3. interact w/it, how
Sand particles
2.0 to 0.063 mm in siz
-chem- 56,000,000 Scientific Notation
5.6 x 10^7 7 right of the decimal
Leaves are the ___ of photo sythesis
: prime organs
sepal(calyx)
A leaflike structure that encloses the bud of a flower. It protects the bud before it opens.
gymnosperms
A plant that produces seeds that are exposed rather than seeds enclosed in fruits
What are two processes that usually occur when a cell reproduces?
A.) growth B.) cell division
During what phase of mitosis are daughter chromosomes moving towards the spindle poles?
Anaphase
Acid erodes man-made structures.
Ancient structures, such as European cathedrals, are slowly being eaten away by acid deposition. -presidential monuments in Washington are similarly damaged. -the norteast is most heavily affected, cuz rust belt
certain proteins can protect us(1 例子).=
Antibodies are proteins that can recognize attach to foreign molecules in our bodies. Whether it's a cold virus that we've already had before and that the antibodies recognize or a pollen that we're allergic to and the antibodies try to attack that, antibodies are proteins that try to protect us.
somatic cells
Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg or their precursors.
Ecosystem stability & Biodiversity
Areas with high levels of species and genetic diversity are likely to have a more complex ecosystem, with a variety of food webs and biotic interactions. This 【increase in complexity makes it more likely that the ecosystem will return to a stable state after a disturbance, because the ecosystem has more ways to respond to a disturbance and fix problems. 】
Nucleosome
Bead-like structure in eukaryotic chromatin, composed of a short length of DNA wrapped around a core of histone proteins
Compare the structure of the chromosome before and after DNA replication.
Before DNA synthesis, the chromosome consists of one chromatid. After DNA synthesis, the chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, joined at the centromere.
chem Bunsen burner
Better to use a hot plate when dealing with more flammable materials
Describe how cancer relates to the cell cycle
Cancer occurs when the cell cycle is not regulated properly.
Interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1(growth/increase of organelles), S(DNA replication), and G2 phases(cell synthesizes proteins needed for mitosis).
chemicals are really
Combinations of various elemental atoms
true root
Describes any root that has vascular tissue
valence electron
Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom that are typically involved in chemical reactions by being gained, lost, or shared in the formation of chemical bonds.
terrestrial radiation
Emission of energy from the earth in the form of long-wave electromagnetic waves. Most terrestrial radiation is produced when the earth is warmed by absorption of solar radiation.
The Sierra Club
Established by Muir to help increase public awareness and preservation of the environment. Muir was very influential in preserving the Yosemite area as a National Park.
zygote
Fertilized egg, not quite a fetus
gamephyte
Gamephtye= haploid, or gamete producing, phase of an organism.
whattya call a stacks of thylakoids within chloroplasts?
Grana. thylakoids like to pile up like this.
filament
Holds up the anther
Control
In science, a control is a means of ensuring that only one factor is being tested at a time.
metastasis
Is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body via blood or lymph.
Bio Taxonomy-Order Hint: King Phillip Crossed Oceans For Good Spices
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
algaes vs. plants(1 big dif)
Land plants not only protect the zygote, but also nourish the resulting embryo.
Contact inhibition
Normal somatic cells will become growth inhibited when they encounter another cell.
vascular tissue
Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body.
nonvascular plants(bryophytes)
Plants that have neither vascular tissue nor true roots, stems, or leaves (mosses, liverworts, hornworts)
Transfer RNA, or tRNA
Proteins are made of amino acids, so the formation of any protein requires assembly of a chain of amino acids. , _______molecules ferry amino acids to the ribosome for this assembly.
The components of the scientific method
Question Hypothesis Experiment Observation Analysis Conclusion
Phenotype & Environment
Remember: Many phenotypes[visible traits], especially those governed by Polygenes, are modified by the environment.
monomer
Small, single molecules, such as hydrocarbons and amino acids.
During what stage of the cell cycle is DNA replicated?
The S stage
R Horizon
The bedrock, which lies below all of the other layers of soil, is referred to as the R horizon.
decomposers
They are responsible for eliminating dead and dying organisms, and in the process, they release nutrients into the soil. 'recycling' dead organisms and waste into non-living elements.
optimum temperature.
This temperature point of maximum function for an enzyme
Surface water
Water above the surface of the land, including lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, floodwater, and runoff.
Salinity is the amount of salt in the soil, and this also needs to be maintained for healthy soils(why?).
While some plants are adapted to very salty soils, most are not. When soils are too salty, plants die, which then increases erosion because of the loss of vegetation.
ribosomes in prokaryotes
While translation is still carried out on ribosomes, these are not membrane-bound organelles, and all ribosomes in a bacterium float free in the cytoplasm. There is no endoplasmic reticulum.
rhizome
a horizontal, underground stem that produces new leaves, shoots, and roots.
fundamental niche
all of the resources that a population is theoretically capable of using.
holoenzyme
an enzyme with any metal ions or coenzymes attached to it that is now ready to catalyze a reaction.
the law of superposition
any undisturbed sequence of layers of rock, the oldest or first-deposited layer would be on the bottom and the youngest would be on the top.
Desert biomes
are characterized by very little rainfall, so any landscape that gets less than 12 inches of rain per year can be considered desert.. -They can however have a variety of plant and animals life, albeit to a lesser extent than most other biomes.
translation is protein synthesis
by creating a chain of amino acids linked together by polypeptide bonds.
As a rule of thumb, root systems are
equal or larger in size/extent than the shoot system that they support.
Savanna
essentially grassland interspersed with trees. It is sometimes found in temperate climates, usually in areas that are transitional zones between grassland and forests a seasonal pattern: cool and dry ---> hot and dry ---> warm and wet.
Clay particles
finer than 0.004 mm in size
exponential (population) growth
growth of a population where the number of individuals multiplies with every successive generation。 rarely observed, usually for small organisms in controlled human experiments
Lamarckian inheritance
heritability of acquired characteristics: the idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring - this is not natural selection
a predator
hunts and kills other animals for food.
Dredging
is when the sediment at the bottom of an aquatic area is dug up and removed. This is done to make the water deeper and also to reduce the sediment that can eventually lead to succession of the freshwater ecosystem into a terrestrial ecosystem.
pollen grain
male gametophyte in seed plants
-chem- A balance measures:
mass
electron charge/mass
negative charge/ small mass(about 0.5% of a proton)
Cytokensis in plants
plants- vesicles attach, making new membrane which makes new cell wall
trimer
polymer composed of three monomers
sori
raised spots located on the underside of sporophyte ferns, clusters of sporangia
receptor-mediated endocytosis
receptors on the exterior of the cell membrane detect that a particular substance is outside of the cell's exterior and trigger endocytosis, consuming exclusively the detected substance.
Evergreen
retain their leaves their entire lives
This type of RNA helps form the structure of a ribosome.
ribosomal RNA
In our cells, amino acids come together to form peptide bonds at places called ___-__, which are sort of like a protein-building factory.
ribosomes
sick building syndrome(def)
something in the building is making people sick.
When the ore is found in a wide area but it's not very deep in the ground,__ mining is used.
strip mining
active site
the area of an enzyme where the substrate binds and the chemical reaction takes place
Chloroplasts, Where are they in the cell?
the cytoplasm of plant cells, They are flat, Frisbee-shaped structures filled with thylak
activation energy
the energy required for a chemical reaction to start.
simple diffusion
the unassisted passage of small, hydrophobic, nonpolar molecules from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. Very small molecules can slip through the cell membrane, too
nuclear pores(are?)(lined with?)
thousands of small openings in the nuclear envelope where the inner and outer membranes come together. -Each pore is lined with proteins, creating a nuclear basket on the nuclear side of the membrane.
As far as size is concerned, Prokaryotic cells tend__.
to be smaller than eukaryotic cells. -Becuase eukaryotic cells are bigger, and have so much going on, they need compartmentalize cell functions in organelles.
In developed nations, the two most dangerous indoor air pollutants are:
tobacco smoke and radon.
passive transport
transport across the cell membrane that does not require energy
Atoms with insufficent electrons are ___
unstable. Atoms want to have their energy levels at a max. capacity of electrons.
Only the sporophyte evolves _____ tissue
vascular.
chem Evaporating dishes are...
very shallow and provide a lot of surface area for the liquid to turn into a gas, leaving the solid behind.
Extreme weather patterns like Super-storm Sandy, Hurricane Katrina, and massive midwest tornados get their energy from....
warm water and wind, and since both of these are becoming warmer along with the earth, this gives the storms more power and the ability to cause more damage.
endocytosis
when a cell folding its cell membrane around whatever molecules or particles it wants to import.
A node is where ___:
where a leaf/leaves are attached to the stem
interspecific competition
which is when two or more species in a community are competing for resources
Deciduous: plants that lose their leaves annually due to ___ or ____
winter or dry season
Seedless Vascular plants vs seeded. Name 2 of eachs
有Seed: angiosperms &gymnosperms 木有：lycophytes and ferns
Air Pollution Control Act
1955- first legi- provided funding for research on the sources of air pollution as well as their impacts.
Clean Air Act 1963 vs. 1970
1963: in addition to funds for research, the legislation now provided funding for both monitoring and controlling pollution as well. 1970: This law set stricter standards for air quality and limited emissions from both stationary and mobile sources. For the first time, violators could be sued for damaging the environment.
Twig ecomorphs ex. anole lizard
(like this Puerto Rican Twig Anole) hunt for food by creeping along narrow branches and twigs, searching for insects hidden in crevices and underneath leaves. They have very slender bodies and long, narrow heads, suited to picking insects out of narrow spaces. However, they have short tails and the shortest relative limb length of all ecomorph - probably due to the fact that they rarely run or jump and, instead, prefer to walk at a steady pace.
Trunk ecomorphs ex. anole lizard
(like this bark anole) tend to be a somewhat small species that have flattened bodies and fairly average-sized limbs. These species reside almost exclusively on the trunks of trees and fence posts and are usually grayish in color, which serves as camouflage.
Name the 3 main components of soil texture.
(mineral) sand, silt, clay
Perrenial plants regrow every year from a variety of underground structures, like: )
(tubers, bulbs, and rhizomes)
Perrenial plants regrow every year from a variety of underground structures, like: 3 things
(tubers, bulbs, and rhizomes)
Energy Level (atoms)
-The electron clouds are also known as electron shells, and they're also known as energy levels. -it took energy to have this electron out here at this orbital- The further away that electrons are, the larger the energy cloud. The larger the cloud, the higher the energy level.
tundra
-This biome is classified as tundra or extremely cold environments with very short growing seasons that can barely support small plant growth. -arctic region/10,000-12,000 ft in elevation
Starch
-What we think of as starch is actually two complex sugars: amylopectin and amylose. -Starch is actually where we get a lot of our energy from. -starch is really great because our bodies can digest it, unlike cellulose. But, because these are really, really long sugars consisting of thousands of units, it takes our bodies awhile to break them down, so you sort of get an extended release formula of sugar using starch.
population density in ecosystems
-Within an ecosystem, we can measure the density of each population by calculating the number of individuals per unit of area. -The density of a population within an ecosystem is determined by a number of factors, including the amount of habitat, food, water and shelter that are available, as well as the rates of predation, disease and reproduction that are occurring within the population.
polynucleotide
-a long chain of nucleotides. -Nucleotides in a polynucleotide molecule are held together by the bond between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the sugar of a second nucleotide.
evolutionary fitness
-a measurement of the ability of a trait to increase or decrease the relative contribution of offspring by an individual to the next generation. - Variation within a population provides the provides the basis for the population to adapt to environmental change
niche differentiation
-a possible outcome to strong interspecific competition. -each different species becomes specialized to best exploit a small subset of resources within the fundamental niche and creates a much smaller realized niche. In this way, several different species that share a common fundamental niche can coexist together.
Shared features of glucose, fructose, ribose, & deoxyribose:
-an ether group: 1 OXYGEN atom with any 2 CARBON-CONTAINING GROUPS on either side of it. -several hydroxyl groups, or OH groups. -You'll also notice that in each of these molecules there's one carbon atom that is single-bonded to two different oxygen atoms
Lipids
-are biological molecules that are insoluble in water, but are soluble in non-polar solvents, meaning that they are non-polar molecules -Good for storing fat -triglycerides and steroids are varieties of lipids
Lactase..
-breaks down lactose disaccharide sugars into glucose and galactose. -Lactase starts its reactions by binding to its substrate -Lactase cannot break down any other disaccharide besides lactose. Sucrose, for example, simply does not fit into the active site.
Sinkholes (what, why)
-cavities in the ground, They are usually funnel-shaped and open to the sky. - usually caused by erosion of limestone, the groundwater caves in on itself, but they can also be formed from excessive groundwater removal.
Metaphase
-chromosomes line up along the middle of the dividing cell. -spindle fibers are attached to the poles, reaching to the equator, and overlapping a little.
Consumers
-consume just 1/7 of the energy stored in producers, -merely 10% of the energy that is harnessed by producers through photosynthesis - They also use energy very differently than producers, and that is largely due to the fact that consumers are usually mobile. Movement uses a lot of energy, and in addition, some consumers, like birds and mammals, also use a lot of energy specifically to create their own heat and maintain body temperature.
How does ground water carve up the land? (erosion)(abrasion)
-erosion may be caused by dissolved substances in the water that chemically erode rock material. -it may also just be caused by the force of the water. -abrasion is when rocks and other particles move along with the water, acting like sandpaper.
angiosperms(4 things)
-flowering plants which forms seeds inside a protective chamber called an ovary. -Are exceptionally abundant, 6 times all the other groups of plants combined -came onto the scene in about 160 MYA -range from duckweed to the mighty eucalyptus.
The Inner Membrane (mitochondria)
-folds in a zigzag sort of shape, providing space for cellular respiration just like booths provide dining area for good boushy cucks. Unlike the outer M, i does not have pores and is quite impermeable.
ecological diversity （biodiversity）
-the variation in the ecosystems found in a region or the variation in ecosystems over the whole planet. -An example of ecological diversity on a global scale would be the variation in ecosystems, such as deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands and oceans
During a peptide bond...
-the 【nitrogen】 on the 【amino group】 (of the alanine) forms a bond with the 【carbonyl carbon】 of the 【carboxylic】 acid on the (glycine). -The byproduct of this reaction is water, which means that this is a dehydration reaction, or loss of water reaction.
Estuaries
-they often take the form of large salt marshes where the salinity of the water can vary based on the tides and freshwater input rates. Estuaries are enriched with nutrients washed downstream by the rivers, which makes them very productive ecosystems and active breeding grounds for many types of fish, shrimp and other aquatic animals. -such places are also popular for human development
Rise in co2
-tracked since 1958 -very predictable -each year in May, a new record high is recorded -1800 about 280 ppm, 2012 395 ppm
uniform dispersion pattern
-uniform patterns are often a result of partitioning of resources among individuals resulting from intraspecific(not interspecific) competition for resources. -i.e. fish making their own individual territories in the sand.
Conservation of the environment - viewpoint on land management
-value of the environment = goods/services 4 people. -Use natural resources in a sustainable way, treat nature in a sustainable way -Gifford Pinchot, pioneer of u.s. conservationism, opposed clear-cutting, first chief of u.s. forestry service.
3 negative effects of soil erosion?
1. wrecks agricultural land, which we need. 2. destabilizes the ground such that mere thunderstorms can cause landslides 3.Soil erosion also creates water pollution, because these sediments carry with them all of the fertilizers, pesticides, leaked car fluids, and other toxins present, and then transport them into aquatic systems.
2 reasons why metapopulation theory is important to conservation biology.
1.) metapopulation theory allows for smaller patches of habitat to be considered for preservation as long as other similar patches exist within the area. 2.) highlights the importance of migration to the survival of a species in an area. As a result, wildlife corridors, or routes that animals can use to migrate between different patches of natural habitat, are now often preserved or built between natural habitats that would otherwise be isolated.
In 1974, two scientists named Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina were able to demonstrate... (political action)
1.)how ozones were being broken apart by chlorine 2.)by 1979, the U.S. and other countries had banned CFCs in aerosol sprays, but not for other uses.
flowering plant life cycle
1..[new sprout] sporophyte, development of male & female sex organs 2. Meiosis, spores are produced 3. Mitosis, microspores become pollen grain, megaspores become embryo sacs 4. Germinated pollen grain(male gam.) enters the embryo sac(female gam) 5. double fertilization produces a fertilized egg+3n endosperm nucleus. 6.. Ovule becomes Seed 7. Ovary matures into a fruit, surrounding the seed.
How many species have been identified?
1.5 million species already identified and potentially millions more awaiting discovery.
Enzymes are(3)..
1.Catalysts for reactions, but they are not consumed by reactions. 2.In lowering the activation energy of a reaction, enzymes decrease the barrier to starting a reaction. 3.if a reaction released 200 kJ of energy without an enzyme, the same reaction would still release 200 kJ of energy with some enzymatic aid. The difference would only be a lower activation energy and a faster rate of reaction.
habitat fragmentation caused by humans has raised 4 questions:
1.How big of a patch size is necessary to preserve a given natural habitat? 2. How many species does the patch contain? 3. Does it contain any threatened species? 4. If the patch is too small to support a particular population, are there other nearby patches that individuals can migrate to and from?
A ribosomes is composed of two principle parts(called)(when join)
1.Large subunit and the small subunit. Both subunits are composed of rRNA and protein. 2. These subunits usually exist separately in the cytoplasm until the small subunit recognizes and binds to a specific sequence of an mRNA message. It then recruits the large subunit to form a complete ribosome.
carbohydrates in "the fluid mosaic model" (where, what do)
1.Outside of the mebrane 2. they act as binding sites or can help cells adhere to other cells.
Coral reefs (3 things)
1.coral reefs are the most productive biomes on Earth on a per-acre basis. 2. they occur in tropical marine environments where sunlight can reach the ocean floor or any other solid structure that corals can attach to 3. There is an absence of plant life. most of the producers in coral reefs are symbiotic dinoflagellates that live within the corals themselves.
nitrogen cycle
1.nitro gas 2. nitro fixing -> ammonia NH3 (used by plant/bact or) 3. ammonia nh3 then undergoes nitrification to make no3 nitrite & no4 nitrate by some bact, 4.The nitrite and nitrate can also be used by plants. 5. plants are eat by herbivores, who are in turn eaten by others. 6. plant and animal waste goes into the soil. 7. If there is an abundance of nitrate in the soil, denitrifying bacteria can convert some of it back to atmospheric nitrogen.
Cholesterol in cells(3 points)
1.since it is a hydrophobic molecule, it hangs out in the hydrophopic ring contained within the phosholipids. 2. There: It both provides structure and keeps the membrane from freezing 3. Additionally, it help the membranee act as a protective barrier to unwanted molecules.
Dinoflagellates
1.single-celled organisms that are capable of photosynthesis. 2.Dinoflagellates are fairly unique among organisms because they can thrive either as free-swimming ocean dwellers or as intracellular symbionts, while most other species have only one type of life cycle.
Seed plants have two kinds of ____ and produce two kinds of _____, male &female.
1.spores 2. gametophytes
Solvents= solution= solute=
1.the substance that dissolves other substances in it. 2. mixtures of solvent & solutes 3.substances that are dissolved in solvent
Sickle cell anemia
A mutation of beta-level hemoglobin. This single change in the primary structure causes changes in the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures that result in a change in the overall shape of the protein. -ultimately, when oxygen is not bound to cells containing such hemoglobin, all the hemolobin animo acids come to togher into an ultra long polymer. It looks kinda like a sickle
Chromosomes
A single piece of coiled DNA and associated proteins found in linear forms in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and circular forms in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells; contains genes that encode traits. Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes.
isotonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is essentially equal to that of the (cell/body/whatever) which resides in the solution.
hypertonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is greater than that of the cell that resides in the solution
hypotonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is less than that of the (cell/body/whatever) that resides in the solution
telomere
A specialized region at the ends of eukaryotic chromosmes that contains several repeats of a particular DNA sequence. These ends are maintained (in some cells) with the help of a special DNA poymerase called telomerase. In cells that lack telomerase, the telomeres slowly degrade with each round of DNA replication (as the RNA primer, is not replaced and the 5' of the new DNA would not exist); this is thought to contribute to the eventual death of the cell.
Coenzymes
A specific type of cofactor, they are organic molecules that bind to enzymes and help them function. - sit at the active site of an enzyme and aid in recognizing, attracting, or repulsing a substrate or product. -Coenzymes can also shuttle chemical groups from one enzyme to another enzyme. Coenzymes bind loosely to enzymes, while another group of cofactors do not.
enzyme-substrate complex
A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s). -
Sex linked inheritance
A trait is controlled by a gene located on the X or Y chromosome. Note: THe Y chromosome carries very few genes. A male therefore only needs to inherit one recessive allele on the X to end up with a ressesive genetic disorder. Genetic disorders are usually passed down by the X.
Carcinogenesis
A two-step process for the formation of cancer. 1 Initiation causes an alteration in the genetic structure of the cell. Is associated with exposure to a carcinogen. Cellular changes get the cell "ready" to become cancerous. 2 Promotion occurs with repeated exposure to carcinogens and causes tumor formation
Steroids
A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached. Remember, Lipids can also serve as chemical messengers, or hormones. Most of them are steroids.
Bacteriophages(defintion)
A type of virus that infects a particular kind of bacteria, but cannot infect human cells.
dipeptide
2 amino acids joined by a peptide bond
Describe what is meant by a tetrad
2 duplicated chromosomes, 4 altogether
Indoor air pollution is dangerous, killing how many per year?
2.2 mil only 500,00 for outdoor air pollution
-chem- 2,400 Scientific Notation
2.4X10^3 3 right of the decimal
Chem Convert 2.75 hours into minutes
2.75hours * 60 mins/1hour(60) = 165 mins
haploid (n) number
23, the number of chomosome pairs in normal humans.
524- How many Siggy Figgys?
3: 5,2,4. -all non-zero numbers are considered significant
Common Autosomal Genetic Crosses I.)Aa x Aa II.)Aa x aa III.)AaBb x AaBb IV.)AaBb x aabb
3:1 phenotypic ratio I.) 3:1 phenotypic ratio II.) 1:1 phenotypic ratio III.) 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio IV.) 1:1:1:1 phenotypic ratio
9.201-How many Siggy Figgys?
4- All zeros between two non-zero numbers are sig fig.
7.500- how many siggy figgys?
4- Trailing zeros are only significant in numbers with a decimal point. The measurement came to exactly 7.500, not 7.499, nor 7.501
-chem- 0.0045 Scientific Notation
4.5x10^-3 3 left of the decimal
-chem- measurements 40 x 9.2 how to round the answer? HINT: When multiplying and dividing, your answer must have the same number of significant figures as the number with the least number of significant figures.
400. 40 only has one sig fig. Thus, your answer should contain only one significant figure, so it should be reported as 400 instead of the 368 your calculator would give you.
Biomes W/ Moderate Productivity(3 biomes)
500 and 1000 grams of biomass per square meter per year savannas, boreal forests, and temperate grasslands.
-chem- measurements adding 5.113 and 2.0 How round? HINT: Any time you're adding or subtracting, you will always report your answer with the same number of decimal places as the number with the least number of decimal places.
7.1. your answer should be rounded to the nearest tenth place. You can't assume that the second measurement was 2.000, so your answer should never be more precise than the measurements used in the calculations.
-chem- measurements 54/7 how to round the answer? HINT: When multiplying and dividing, your answer must have the same number of significant figures as the number with the least number of significant figures.
8 If both of these numbers were measurements, our answer can only have one significant figure, so our answer would need to be 8!
Competitive inhibition
Competitive inhibitors bind with the active site. -they more or may not catalyze a reaction -they prevent from substrates from joining up w/an enzyme
Three Models of DNA Replication
Conservative(parent fully retained, seperate copy produced), Semiconservative, Dispersive(DNA copied in small chunks, new strands alternating between old and new)
What are two ways in which meiosis results in gametes that are genetically different?
Crossing over alters the types of alleles on the chromosomes and the daughter cells have different combinations of the haploid number of chromosomes.
chloroplasts - they contain their own ____ and ___, independent of the rest of the cell.
DNA and ribosomes.
DNA as a code/language
DNA bases as letters in an alphabet. The DNA alphabet is just a simple alphabet with only four letters. Letters can be combined to form different words, sentences and paragraphs. Likewise, the order of DNA base pairs determines what biological molecules can be produced and, in turn, the characteristics that makes each of us unique individuals. There are approximately three billion base pairs in each human cell.
central dogma
DNA houses recipes to make different biological molecules; however, this information is not accessed directly from the DNA. Instead, a copy of the recipe is made in the form of RNA. This copy of the recipe can then be read to make a protein.
euchromatin
DNA that is loosely packed around histones. This DNA is more accessible to enzymes and the genes in euchromatin can be activated if needed.
why Darwinism over. Lamarckianism
Darwinism- Natural selection, random genetic mutation, and the like evolve a species over time. -August Weismann proved by cutting off the tails of mice, that subsequent generations continued to grow tails. Thus, it seems that genetic code is not altered by things like frequently stretching one's neck or losing a tail. However, giraffes with long necks are more likely to eat their fill and reproduce.
Finally, at the very end of the stream (where it meets a large body of water like a lake), the water slows so much that any remaining sediments are deposited, and this forms a______.
Delta
sporophyte
Diploid, or spore-producing, phase of an organism. Makes haploid spores by meiosis.
Nuclear Envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Compare the attachment of chromosomes to the spindle during metaphase 1 and metaphase 2(or mitosis)
During meta 1, pairs of homologues are attached to either of the the spindle poles. These pairs allign at the spindle equator. During meta 2(daughter cell), the diyads divide, seperating the sister chromatids into daughter chromosomes., which are pulled to the spindle poles
The Dust Bowl.
During the 1930s, there was a major drought that resulted in severe soil erosion across the prairielands of the United States. This event, and the subsequent results, increased public awareness of the environment and made more people aware of the benefits of preserving the environment. In 1935, as a result of this dramatic event, the Soil Conservation Act was passed to help manage the land and prevent such a disaster from happening again.
Why are seedless vascular plants sometimes called "Coal Age Plants?"
During the carboniferous period, such plants were more sizable and more abundant, especially in the swamplands of what is now Appalachia, Northern Europe, and Ukraine. A large number of these plants died but did not fully disappear, becoming instead the coal that we burn today.
organic chemistry, what's that all about? life=carbon based.
Formerly, organic chemistry was just the study of molecules that came from living things and from formerly living things. Today, however, on account of chemists synthetically producing the molecules found in living beings, the definition has been broadened: The study of molecules that contain carbon.
Discovery of the Transforming Principle
Frederick Griffith. Rough bacterium lacked an effective outer coating Smooth bacterium had an effective outer coating When dead parts of S bacterium was added to R bacterium, the R- transformed, gaining the effective outer coating of S bacterium.
Bound ribosomes vs. Free ribosomes
Free ribosomes float around in the cytoplasm until they receive an mRNA message to translate. Bound ribosomes Ribosomes attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. They produce proteins that are usually destined for some kind of specific structures, or they're meant to exit the cell through exocytosis
Cell Cycle Checkpoints(name the 3)
G1 checkpoint- if DNA is good to go, the cell is committed to dividing. If the DNA is damaged, cell can enter G0 or apoptosis can occur. g2 checkpoint- Mitosis will not occur until DNA has been reduplicated. M checkpoint- Mitosis pauses until chromosomes are properly aligned.
Linked Genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses. But, crossing over can shuffle up genes, so it is not certian
how is trench suction is differentiated from slab pull?
Gravity is not the main factor. After sliding down under another plate, a tectonic plate is sucked back down towards the Earth's mantle along with the downward sinking current.
Four nitrogen bases
Guanine, Adenine, Thymine and Cytosine. G, A, T C.
Acidic Solutions have a higher concentration of..
H+
Conversationalist & Preservationist collab
In order to provide the wholly spider monkeys with the type of food they needed to survive, certain areas of the forest were logged in order to create room for new vegetation to grow. In this example, the two views on land management worked together to ensure the survival of an endangered species.
I-What is meant by mineralization? II-What causes it? III-What are its consequences for soil?
I-Mineralization is the loss of humus and resulting collapse of topsoil. The soil is composed of only minerals. II-Humus naturally composes at a rate of 2-5% of its volume per year. Without additional detritus, humus will gradually to disappear. III-Water-, nutrient holding capacities, infiltration, and aeration decline.
What is meant by desertification? Describe how the process of erosion leads to a loss of water-holding capacity and, hence, to desertification?
I. a permanent reduction in the productivity of arid, semiarid, and seasonally dry areas. II. With the erosion of topsoil and, hence, the loss of clay & humus, the water holding capacity of the soil disappears. Without this water-holding capacity, arid places that usually sustain some sort of vegetation can no longer provide the water that plants need, degrading into deserts.
clumped dispersion pattern
I.concentrated in specific areas of a habitat, and the organisms, in turn, become concentrated around these resource rich areas. II.Clumped dispersion patterns are also seen as a result of social interactions within a population. For example, animals that live in herds or packs for social reasons have a clumped dispersion pattern.
denatured
If the temperature gets too high or the PH changes too much, it can distort the enzyme, making it unable to function properly. In fact, if temperatures got too high, enzymes can undergo a structural change in shape that inhibits function.
lysogenic cycle
In the lysogenic cycle, phage nucleic acid will integrate into the bacterial genome. The term 'genic' in 'lysogenic' can remind you that the phage genes are incorporated into the bacterial genes, a step that does not occur in the lytic cycle.
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson
In this book, Carson discussed the effects of pesticides and herbicides on the environment, opening the public's eyes to the ways in which we are harming our own environment.
political action
In this course, this refers specifically to a government setting an environmental policy.
For most of human history, the population was less than 1 million. Today: 7 billion. What consequence?
Increased strain on natural resources
Which variable remains unaffected by the other variables of the experiment.
Independent Variable
Rough ER(Role in protein synth):
It is with ribosomes, and thus looks rather rougb. While synth. a protein,a ribosome may encounter a mRNA messages that states that the given protein needs to produced in the Rough ER. As such a protein is being synthesized, it enters the lumen of ER. There it is chemically modified, so it can make its way to the Golgi ap, from rich it will reach its intended destination, be it within or outside of the cell.
Collagen
It's an important component of connective tissue, which is found in tendons and ligaments. An example of protein as structure.
How strong is the peptide bond between animo acids?
It's incredibly strong - in fact, it won't break in heat. This is why, when you take an egg, and you fry it, it turns into a hard, gelatinous mass. Even though the heat can turn the peptides into sort of a goo, and make them lose their structure, the bonds will not break.
import proteins carry....
NLS-protein cargo into the nucleus. This action requires chemical energy, causing the pore to stretch to accommodate these bigger proteins. -After all we would not want just any protein bungling around in ur nucleus, right?
Homologous chromosomes(which are themselves pairs) occur in pairs. Explain.
One member of the pair came from the maternal parent and the other from the paternal parent.
it's also possible to have polymers that are made up of different monomers.
One polymer that is made of different monomer units is nylon, which is a combination of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid. The nitrogen in the hexamethylenediamine reacts with the carbon in the carbonyl group of the adipic acid, creating water as a byproduct and forming very long chains with alternating units of hexamethlyenediamine and adipic acid.
volatile organic compounds(why a prob)
Organic chemicals and petrochemicals that emit vapors while evaporating. In paints, VOC generally refers to the solvent portion of the paint which, when it evaporates, results in the formation of paint film on the substrate to which it was applied. Indoors their release into the air is pretty minimal, but highly concetrated, i.e. perfume.
energy flow for autotrophs
Organisms that use photosynthesis, about 1 % OF THE TOTAL LIGHT ENERGY ---> usable chemical energy. Of the energy that is harnessed by producers through photosynthesis, about 30% is used during metabolic processes and dissipated as heat, and about 70% becomes stored energy.
How DNA was discovered to be the molecule of heredity
Oswald Avery Removed/degraded, lipids, RNA, and proteins from R molecules, yet still failed to prevent the transformation of R bacterium into S Bacterium. It was only when he messed with DNA that the transformation did not occur. Thus, it was known that DNA is the molecule of heredity.
Name and describe one process that can keep plants from obtaining the amounts of each of these things they need for survival.
Over-watering deprives the roots of oxygen, which the roots need for metabolization; leaching drags minerals deeper into the ground, depriving plants of those essential materials; evaporative water loss depletes the soil's water reserves without benefiting plants.
carpels
Overall name for female flower part (stigma, style, ovary)
Contrast the modes of action of radiation and chemotherapy with the mode of action of hormonal therapy.
Radiation and chemotherapy damage DNA or otherwise interfere with the completion of mitosis. Hormonal therapy interferes with cell's reception of an external signal to divide.
Caves and Caverns(why)
Rainwater moves through the cracks in the limestone and dissolves the rock as it flows through it. Cracks become larger, and this eventually creates large channels underground
Lumen(appearance):
The lumen is completely separated from the cytoplasm that surrounds. it exists within the folds of the endoplasmic reticulum/gogli apparatus.
parent material
The mineral material of soil that has its origin in the geological roots of a given area.
1985 Brits in Antarctica discovered..
The ozone over Ant. had thinned by as much as 60%, CFCs were to blame.
Of the three components of a nucleotide.
The phosphate group and sugar are the same in every nucleotide, but there are four different nitrogenous bases.
Terracing
Similar to contour farming is terracing, which creates a series of platforms along a sloping edge to prevent runoff. Consequently, this practice also prevents soil erosion, as the water stay put.
a phospholipid bilayer
Since both the inside and outside of cells are aqueous (usually), it is necessary to have this bilayer, which rings around the water both inside and out, while still providing a barrier
Freshwater Biome
Since lakes, ponds, streams, and rivers are often naturally isolated from each other in many ways, species of freshwater fish are often found only in one particular lake or river system or even in a single stream.
-Aridisols:
Thin soil of drylands/desert. The lack of prior vegetation leaves the soil unstructured. But that being said, they can sometimes support enough vegetation for rangeland animal husbandry. Irrigation usually leads to salinization, as the high evaporation rate draws the salt to the surface of the soil, sometimes making it toxic for plants.
long-term environmental management.
This is when the environmental problem and location are monitored after the solution is implemented. The management is referred to as long-term because it should take place from the time the solution is implemented until well beyond the time when the problem no longer exists, to ensure that the problem has been permanently solved.
nitrification.
This process by which ammonia is (oxidized )converted to nitrite and then to nitrate. the process in which certain bacteria convert ammonium (NH4+) to a form that can be used by plants and other producers; nitrate, or NO3. Note that the amount of available nitro is not changed, just the oxidation state is altered.
Metapopulations
This theory describes a way in which several, small and somewhat isolated populations in a patchy environment can ensure the survival of the species in a larger, general area. -the populations that move to and fro these isolated patches are called metapopulations. -he species will inhabit different patches at different times but will maintain a stable metapopulation and presence in the area.
peptide bonds
To form proteins, many amino acids come together by dehydration to form peptide bonds, which is a bond between the carbonyl group of amino acid and the amino group nitrogen of another amino acid. Peptide bonds are incredibly strong and help proteins stay together to perform their jobs.
glycogen
To store our carbohydrates, mammals use something called gloycen. It turns out that the chemical structure of glycogen is almost identical to that of amylopectin; it's a big, long strand of glucose, and this sugar can be millions of sugars long, so maybe it's a little bit bigger than what you might find in plants, but it performs the same purpose, which is storing energy in the form of glucose for future use.
A Horizon:
Topsoil. It is a mix of humus and leached mineral soil (soil in which the minerals have been leached away by the downward passage of water.).
In prokaryotes, gene expression is controlled at the level of ____.
Transcription.
active transport
Transport against a concentration gradient that requires chemical energy. It is facilitated by integral membrane proteins
Your body has trillions of cells. But it is home to roughly 10-fold that number of _______
bacteria
How Do Humans use Decomposers?
bacteria is in yogurt and cheese. The yeast in bread is also a decomposer. bioremediation-cleaning up environmental damage, such as oil or chemical spills caused by people.decomposers can be used to help dispose of excess waste.
Migratory Bird Act of 1918
banned the hunting of migratory birds in the United States.
tuber root
Tuberous root is an enlarged fiberous root that serves as a food reserve ex. Yams, potatoes
Sister chromatids
Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteins at the centromere and sometimes, along the arms. While joined, two sister chromatids make up one chromosome. Chromatids are eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II
Actin and Myosin=
Two of the most important proteins that are involved in movement. -Actin is highly involved in cell motility and mobility. It's also important for our muscles contract so that we can move or walk. -Myosins are a motor protein and are also really important for making our muscles contract.
semi-conservative model
Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.
How does urban development affect soil erosion?
When areas are urbanized or commercially developed, soil is eroded because the land is stripped of the vegetation and then reconstructed. Not only is the natural vegetation altered, but new drainage and sewage flows are created, and paved roads create impervious surfaces that funnel water, which is one of the major erosion factors.
induced fit
When binding to a substrate, enzymes may undergo an induced fit. This is the change in enzyme shape to accommodate and bind to a substrate. Although it's true all substrates are specific for their enzymes, you can imagine this is just like a little tweak to the enzyme-substrate complex to make the reaction occur.
Are things like volcanos and forest fires, which send harmful particles and gases skyward, considered sources of polution?
Yes.
E Horizon:
Zone of leaching. This layer tends to be paler in color, what remains at this layer is less Humus & minerals resistant to leaching.
How can some Prokaryotic cells do photosynthesis, despite lacking the chloroplast organelle of green plant cells?
a bacterium can perform photosynthesis in the folds of its cell membrane.
Homologulous chromosome
a chromosome pairs with another chromosome during meiosis. This pairing (synapsis) happens between two chromosomes that are homologous, i.e. chromosomes having the same genes at the same loci but possibly different alleles. For example, two chromosomes may have genes encoding eye color, but one may code for brown eyes, the other for blue eyes. One half of the pair is contributed by each parent.
food web
a combination of food chains that are interconnected to create a network of feeding relationships. Just like a food chain, energy enters the food web at the trophic level of the producers, which can also be called autotrophs. In the desert, autotrophs are often some type of cactus, grass, or shrub.
trophic level
a foodchain can be divided up into different trophic levels, or the levels of a food chain where organisms obtain their energy. The food chain starts with a producer, the prickly pear cactus, which obtains its energy from sunlight
triglycerides
a glycerol-based kind of lipid. - Most dietary and storage fats are triglycerides. They are made of glycerol combined with three carboxylic acids, which we call fatty acids.
tumor
a layered pile of cancerous cells
alteration of generations
a life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte
density-dependent factors
a limiting factor whose effects on a population increase or decrease depending on the population density. -比如：the amounts of habitat, food, water and shelter that are available. -In most species, the reproductive rate is also density-dependent: If the population gets too big and food is scarce, more individual females will be in poor health.
polymer
a long chain molecule that is made up of many smaller units or that is made from many smaller units. -long polymers = really strong intermolecular forces occurring between them. *** Christmas lights, you can put them together, and they come out as a big jumble, intertwined around one another so that you can't pull them apart. *** That's what happens with these polymers; they get wrapped around each other and form really strong bonds between molecules so you can't pull them apart.
benign tumor
a mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin. It is usually enclosed inside of a capsule and cannot invade other parts of the body.
The nucleus is
a membrane-bound structure that contains the genetic material of a cell. Transcription, the process of creating different types of RNA from DNA, and translation, the process that creates proteins from mRNA, both take place inside the nucleus.
centriole
a minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division.
global enviro problem 1: Habitat destruction
a natural habitat is altered in a way that makes it no longer possible for the habitat to support the species originally found in it. Habitat destruction can include land modifications such as deforestation, urbanization, converting land for agricultural use, dam construction and strip mining.
Nuclear Lamina
a netlike array of protein filaments that lines the inner surface of the nuclear envelope and helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.
Prokaryotic cells do not contain______.
a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.
The most compelling evidence for metapopulation theory is:
a number of English ponds where core samples have demonstrated that a particular species of snail has undergone several cycles of colonization and extinction within the same pond. This shows that these ponds are interconnected to others by immigration, that local extinctions do occur from time to time and that recolonization also occurs in the same patches.
A significant figure is
a number that plays a role in the precision of a measurement
lactaid
a pillful of enzymes: breaking down these lactose sugars, these enzymes help peoples' stomachs feel better. An example of protein as enzymes.
secondary structure
a repetitive 3-D structure of a protein. 3 structures: Alpha helix, Beta sheet, random coil
bulb
a rounded underground storage organ present in some plants, notably those of the lily family, consisting of a short stem surrounded by fleshy scale leaves or leaf bases and lying dormant over winter.
unsaturated solution
a solution that has less than the maximum amount of solute.
saturated solution
a solution where the solvent has dissolved all of a particular solute that it can
centomere
a specialized region of the chromosome where the two sister chromatids are joined
resin
a substance that protects leaves and other parts of the tree from fundgal and insect attacks.
Histones
a type of protein molecule found in the chromosomes of eukaryotic cells. In bunches of 8, DNA strands coil around these proteins.
unsaturated fat
a variety of triglyceride: are triglycerides that have double bonds in their carboxylic acid chains. These are found in things like olive oil, and can be monounsaturated, which means they contain one double bond, or they can be polyunsaturated, meaning they contain many double bonds. In unsaturated fats, the carbons on either side of the double bond are on the same side of the double bond. These double bonds kink and bend the chains of carbons making it harder for them to interact closely. unsaturated fats tend to be liquid
trans fat
a variety of triglyceride: triglycerides that have trans double bonds in their carboxylic acid chains. What trans means is that means is that the carbons on either side of the double bond are on opposite sides of the double bond. Trans fats are the byproduct of hydrogenating polyunsaturated fats. The goal of scientists was to make saturated fats, and these happened as a side product. -Because trans fats are able to pack so tightly together, they're able to become solid at higher temperatures,
saturated fat
a variety of triglyceride: no double bonds in their carboxylic acid chains. Saturated fats are found in things like butter. Because their fatty acid chains are long and flexible, they can intertwine with one another, and because they're non-polar, they're attracted to each other, and not to polar things, like water. butter is solid at room temp.
Particulate matter
about 60% of particulate matter pollution is wind-blown dust. -it can be constituted by of solid or liquid polutant, inlcuding toxic chems and metals.
Enzymes are regulated by molecules called
activators/inhibitors -they are not substrates -they can be proteins or other molecules
The specialization of cells is not due to the presense or absense of genes, it is due to the ___/___ of genes.
activity/inactivity
ecosystem is composed of ___
all organisms and all abiotic factors within a geographic location.
fertilization gives each new individual two ____(AA)(Aa)(aa) for each trait.
allele
gametes only have one ____ for each trait, A or a
allele
-Alternative forms of a gene are called ____. An individual may have different_____ of a gene on each homologue
alleles
Vascular Plants
also known as tracheophytes and also higher plants, form a large group of plants that are defined as those land plants that have lignified tissues for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They usually have true roots, stems, and leaves.
Amine Group
amine -a nitrogen atom that is bonded to three hydrogen atoms. It's quite small and quite volatile, and that's why it has a very pungent smell. More generally, amines are a NITROGEN atom that is single-bonded to THREE different groups that contain either HYDROGEN or CARBON. 比如：ammonia, a component of amino acids
uniport
an integral membrane protein that moves an ion or molecule in one direction.
antiport
an integral membrane protein that moves one ion or molecule in one direction while moving a second substance in an opposite direction. "Coupled Transport"
symport
an integral membrane protein that moves two ions or molecules in the same direction. ' "Coupled Transport"
Ribosomes read..
an mRNA sequence, translate it and use tools to build it into a protein. This protein is then used by the cell. Specifically, ribosomes use tRNA as tools. This helps bring the correct amino acids to the building protein.
detritivore
an organism that feeds on waste products or dead organic material. Examples of detritivores include vultures, fungi, and bacteria.
random coil
an unstructured peptide chain. So this is what happens when there isn't hydrogen bonding between the backbone of the protein and it's just floating around out in space kind of flexibly.
Prosthetic groups
are cofactors that bind tightly to proteins or enzymes. As if holding on for dear life, they are not easily removed. They can be organic or metal ions and are often attached to proteins by a covalent bond. -they can bind with other proteins, not just enzymes.
Polar covalent bonds
are covalent bonds in which the shared electrons are more attracted to one atom than the other and move closer to that atom. This makes one atom in the bond negatively charged and the other atom positively charged, which can hold the material together even more strongly.
Floodplains
are flat land areas surrounding a stream channel that flood with water and sediments from time to time. Usually they are found near the end of streams.
Temperate Deciduous Forest
are forests in temperate climates that are characterized by broad-leaved deciduous trees. These forests are found at mid-latitudes in areas that get significant rainfall in the warm summer months, which can support fast-growing species like birch, hickory, maple, and sycamore trees.
Proteins
are large biological molecules that are made of amino acids that are joined together by peptide bonds.
Trunk-crown ecomorphs ex. anole lizard
are perhaps the least specialized ecomorph grouping. These are small-to-medium sized arboreal species that can be found at a wide range of heights on just about any type of surface. -coloration of these species is generally green, but some species have purple or blue markings (like this blue anole from the Island of Gorgona). Trunk-crown species are also capable of changing their coloration to a dark brown.
analogous Traits or structures
are similar in appearance or function but that evolved separately
Nonrenewable natural resources
are substances that are in finite supply and will run out. Nonrenewable resources include minerals and crude oils.
Renewable natural resources
are substances that can be replenished over a period of time, such as sunlight, wind, soil, and timber. Not that Human agency does not determine if a substance is renewable or not.
two of the most important factors in categorizing biomes:
are water abundance and latitude, which is basically how far a place is from the equator.
charged amino acid
attached to a tRNA
Microtubules(size? composition? 4 functions?)
Size-the largest fibers of the cytoskeleton 25-nanometer diameter Comp-composed of many many tubulin dimers, 13 chains of tublin diamer makes one microtubule, but more can be added/subtracted, usually to the + end. Function- 1.much like a train, cell structures can be moved through these hollow tubes. 2.Cell structure 3. cell division 4. Some cells, like sperm, have tails called flagella. These tails are made up of microtubules.
microphylls
Small leaves on lycophytes. They possess a single vein of xylem ＆ phloem. At the terminus of these are the sporangia.
Organisms within soil are a main factor in soil health. (why?)
Small organisms like worms, bacteria, and fungi help break down decaying material and turn it back into healthy, nutrient rich soil. This is nature's way of tilling soil, which feeds the plants and animals above ground.
osmotic pressure.
So if you have a whole lot of solute in one place (for example, inside a cell), and a lesser concentration of solute outside the cell, your solvent will start to flow into the cell to try to equalize the concentration of solute in the two solutions. The amount of external pressure that is needed to equalize these two solutions is called osmotic pressure.
Categories of Nitrogen bases All Gods are Pure
The bases can be categorized into two different groups. The single-ring nitrogenous bases, thymine and cytosine, are called 【pyrimidines】, and the double-ring bases, adenine and guanine, are called 【purines。】
When land has subsided ->
The ground has been pulled down because the groundwater has been substantially extracted.
chem The graduated cylinder...
comes in many different sizes and is a very good tool for measuring the volume of a liquid.
dehydration
comes when two hydroxyl groups come together, leaving a carbon bonded to an oxygen bonded to another carbon (or ether), and water is a byproduct from that hydroxyl group and the other hydroxyl group.
Heterotrophs .'
consumer -note that some plants, fungi, and bacteria are also heterotrophs
Catalyst of polymerization
cram them into a small container to pressurize them, and then we add a catalyst to start the polymerization process.
National Park Service Act
created the national park system
Smelting, he process of heating ores to release the metals in them., ->How bad?
creates air pollution. The gases that are created as by-products (such as sulfur dioxide) may escape and reach the air.
complementary base pairing.
cytosine can form three hydrogen bonds with guanine, and adenine can form two hydrogen bonds with thymine. C-G A-T
Solutions to indoor pollution, Developed V. Developing
Both: adequate ventilation Developed: reducing the use of plastics, treated products (such as wood furniture), pesticides and harsh cleaners. Keeping a clean house will also reduce mildew buildup and those pesky dust bunnies. -Test ur house for Radon Developing: -drying wood before burning it markedly reduces the amount of smoke produced and cooking outside reduces the smoke that is produced in the home.
uncharged amino acid
Briefly, an uncharged amino acid goes to a pool of amino acids. Here it finds the one specific amino acid to which it can attach and binds it, or becomes charged. Then it carries the amino acid back to the ribosome where the amino acid is transferred from the tRNA to the growing protein.
Evolution of Land Plants (6 name, time, evolutionary event)
Charophytes(500 MYA)- Evolved from green algae, an ancestor of green algae, but are not themselves plants. mosses(500 MYA)-protect the body from drying out, protect the embryo in a special structure lycophytes(420 MYA)-vascular system, trasporting water+true roots Ferns (Between 420 MYA & 360 MYA)- The development of the now obsosolete megaphylls(big leafs+unbrancnhed ceter stems) gymnosperms(360 MYA) The first seed plants, angiosperms(160 MYA) -the development of flowers.
Prophase(Chromosomes, N. envelope, spindle)
Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle fibers form, attaching themselves to chromosomes.
The point of saturation
is when more substrate will not increase the rate of reaction. in a cell, there are ten units of one type of enzyme but only four substrates for the enzyme to work on. In this case, all the substrates will bind to an enzyme and the reaction rate will be low. -After a certain point, all the enzymes are busy working w/ other substrates and cannot go make other chemical reactions, even if substrates provide more opportunities.
consumer
it gets its energy from other organisms.
If a species is endemic
it is found in only one particular area.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum(appearance, 3 functions):
it is without ribosomes, and thus really looks like a membranous compartment of smooth tubes. 1-steriod and lipid synthesis 2-detoxifying place of the cell(hence why liver cells have so much) 3-in it's lumen, proteins and small molecules can be modified.
Eukaryotic cells contain ________. They can constitute single- or multi-cellular org, like me, insects, fungi, plants, etc.
membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.
Unlike humans, plants grow their entire lives becuase they have_____:
meristem tissue.
neutron charge/mass
neutral charge/ one atomic mass unit
In addition to morphological differences, niche differentiation can also ----
occur along different aspects of resource use, such as the temporal separation of niches between nocturnal and diurnal species.
chem volumetric flask is used for....
preparing standard solutions. The bottom is great for dissolving or mixing liquids, and the narrow neck is perfect for the precise measurement of a liquid.
Cactus's stem
primary photosynthesis organ, water storage.
Cactus's stem:
primary photosynthesis organ, water storage.
taproot
primary root found in some plants that grows longer and thicker than other roots
Primary structure
primary structure: -a list of the amino acids in the protein, from the n-terminus with the free amino group, to the c-terminus with the free carboxillic acid group. -it is dictated by DNA
Stems support the leaves, transport materials between the roots & leaves, and _____ :
produces new tissue.
anther
produces the pollen, the male sex cells (sperm)
some prokaryotes have a cell wall & cytoskeleton， However, unlike the cell walls of Plants & the cytoskeletons of Eukaryotic cells......
prokaryotic cell walls are made of a different specialized molecule. For example, bacterial cell walls can contain peptidoglycan, or a polymer of sugar and amino acids that gives shape and structure to the bacterial cell wall. Prokaryotes also have a version of a cytoskeleton that contains some of the same proteins that are similar to the actin and filaments of eukaryotic cells and function in a similar, though simpler, way.
--proto-oncogenes ordinarily..
promote the cell cycle and inhibit apoptosis. Mutation can result in a gain of function for these activities.
The cell wall provided 3 things for plant cell. They are：
protection, strength and shape
activators
proteins that turn operons on by binding to DNA
. Homologous structure
s develop from a common ancestral origin but may have diverged in appearance and function over time. i.e. bird wing and human arm
Process of Environmental Scientific Evaluation
scientific assessment-> environmental risk assessment, public engagement-> political action-> long-term environmental management
law of original horizontality
sedimentary rocks are originally formed in horizontal layers. if the layers of rock are inclined or tilted at an angle, the event that caused them to shift happened after they were deposited.
global enviro problem 2: Invasive species
species that have been transplanted from their original location to another location and have negative effects on the native organisms, environment and economy of their new region.
In vascular plants, the —————— phase is dom. In non-vascular plants, the —————— phase is dom.
sporophyte gamephyte
The thylakoids inside chloroplasts are surrounded by a liquid. This liquid is full of molecules essential for photosyn, just like Thylakoids. Wanna venture a guess at what it's called?___
stroma
lignin
substance in vascular plants that makes cell walls rigid
Wilderness Act of 1964
designated over 100 million acres of wilderness and gave the land the highest level of protection.
random dispersion pattern
dispersion with no rhyme or reason do occur but are much less common.There is usually a driving force in a population that favors either clumped or uniform dispersion.
Alleles, in genetics, are assigned upper case letters if they are ______, or lowercase letter if they are ____.
dominant recessive
The U.S. Forest Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service were both established
during the early 20th century
Mollisols
fertile dark soils found in temperate grassland biomes. They are abundantly present in the midwestern United States, Russia, Mongolia, and Argentina. [[They have a deep A horizon and are rich in humus&minerals, precipitation is insufficient to leach minerals down]].
Tropical Rainforests
forests in the tropics that receive over 100 inches of rainfall per year. Most types of forests can support large populations of plants and animals; however, tropical rainforests support the greatest number of species of any other type of biome on the planet -The warm, wet conditions in the tropical rainforest cause rapid decomposition of any detritus, and because sunlight and water are plentiful, any nutrients released into the soil are rapidly used by the fast-growing vegetation, leaving the soil amazingly poor considering the high productivity of the biome. However, as long as the forest remains intact, nutrients will quickly cycle through the ecosystem. This rapid cycling produces a steady input of nutrients into the soil that plants can use, and that is how the poor soil can support such a massive amount of biomass.
secondary growth forests,
forests that are re-grown after a disturbance,
metallic bonds
form between metal atoms because electrons are free to move inside of metals. Metals contain positive nuclei surrounded by a sea of free electrons.
Plants most likely evolved from ____ some 500 MYA.
freshwater algae
Carbon monoxide
from where： vehicles, about 62%, but they also come from forest fires, lawn equipment and the burning of industrial waste how hurt: it can prevent oxygen from being delivered through your body to major organs. At higher levels, it can cause death. one of the six pollutants identified by the EPA to cause the greatest threat to human health.
Trunk-ground ecomorphs ex. anole lizard
generally have the longest hind limbs, making this species excellent jumpers and sprinters that are able to avoid predators in the relatively open areas that they are found in.
--Chromosomal rearrangements, such as translocations, may disrupt
genes that regulate the cell cycle
There is strong evidence that cancer is a ___ disease
genetic
A concentration gradient
gradual difference in solute concentration between two areas. In this case, it's the difference in solute concentration between the outside of the cell and the inside of the cell.
Functional groups
groups of atoms that we often find together that have a specific behavior. Remember that org. chemistry is the study of molecules that CONTAIN carbon, not just carbon. There is more to life than carbon, y'know?
good ozone is in which layer of the atmos? bad?
g： stratosphere b: troposphere
An accurate species richness index can help determine what conservation measures need to be taken to provide a _______________
habitat where species can survive and thrive.
grass-bush ecomorphs ex. anole lizard
have very slender bodies and long hind limbs, feet and tails, which make them perfectly adapted to climbing on narrow, vertical surfaces.
Polymerization
he monomers bond together to form polymers in a process called polymerization.
sodium potassium pump
higher concentration of potassium inside the cell and higher concentration of sodium outside the cell, so body wants to pump more potassium into the cell to help with muscle contractions. In return, some sodium is thrown from the cell. The SPP is an Antiport.
Biomes W/ High Productivity(6 biomes)
highly productive areas have an average annual net primary production of over 1,000 grams per square meter per year. The aquatic biome with the highest level of primary productivity is the coral reef biome with around 2,500 grams of biomass per square meter per year.Swamps and estuaries are also productive, as there are many availible nutrients. the terrestrial biome with the highest level of primary productivity is the tropical rainforest biome with around 2,200 grams of biomass per square meter per year. The tropical seasonal forests also fall in the range of having high primary productivity.Temperate evergreen and deciduous forests also produce a bunch, but are limited by winter and less rainfall.
nature preserves like the national parks ensure that there is a reduced, yet still sufficient about of land for a species to carry on. I.e=
the wild bison herds in Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Park is only a small fraction of the original range that the American Bison used to roam; however, it is large enough to support two separate herds of bison with a total population that ranges between 2,300 and 4,500 animals.
Why is pine considered a soft wood?
the wood consists primarily xylem tissue, which is less rigid than the tissue of flowering trees.
Rise in co2 = global warming
there is a proven correlation between a rise in co2 and a rise global temperatures. -in the past century the global temperature has risen 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit. -In the past 800,000 years, the concentration of CO2 never rose much above 300 parts per million - that is, until about a hundred years ago, when we blasted right through the 300 mark on the way to our present level in 2012 of a little over 390 parts per million.
supersaturated solution
there's more dissolved solute than than there would be at an equilibrium for a saturated solution
When fossil fuels, like petroleum, coal and natural gas, and other organic materials, like grass, trees and brush, are burned..
they release large amounts of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. -coal 最脏 -油 中间 -natural gas 最干净
enhanced greenhouse effect(def, 2 effects)
too much heat is trapped on Earth, resulting in an overall increase in global temperatures. -Rising temperatures on Earth have produced severe changes in weather patterns, such as hotter summers, colder winters and stronger storms, like hurricanes and tornadoes. -Increasing global temperature will also lead to a rise in sea levels as the glaciers and polar ice caps melt. As sea
Insulin (is composed of..)
two polypeptide chains - the a-chain, and the b-chain. The a-chain consists of 21 amino acid residues, or amino acids, while the b-chain consists of 30 amino acids.
deoxyribose
very similar to ribose except that it lacks an oxygen or hydroxyl group on one of its carbons, hence 'deoxy'ribose. Note the ether group: 1 OXYGEN atom with any 2 CARBON-CONTAINING GROUPS on either side of it.
Kyoto Protocol
was developed to legally mandate the signing countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from 2008-2012. In 2012, it was amended to include a new reduction target period of 2013-2020. The USA is not a signatory power.
Environmental Protection Agency
was established in 1970 to regulate water quality, air pollution, solid waste and other environmental issues.
xylem transports____:
water & minerals from the roots to the leafs
osmosis as passive transport
water also gets in, despite the bilayer. This is in part because of how small it is, but also becuase of some help from molecules and proteins. -no energy is required
acid mine drainage(definition)
water that is full of metals and toxins. Much like hot water dripping through coffee in a filter, rainwater picks up the harmful components in the ground and carries them off as surface and groundwater runoff. This runoff can end up in streams, rivers and lakes that are nearby.
succession in freshwater ecosystems,
such as lakes and streams, happens when a disturbance occurs that results in the aquatic area filling with sediment or organic matter. -less studied than terrestrial succession. -most all freshwater bodies are considered temporary, after a disturbance, the next ecosystem in an area may be terrestrial!
disaccharides
such as sucrose, also known as table sugar.
phloem transports_____:
sucrose, hormones, & other compounds, often from the leafs to the roots.
While nitrogen oxides are considered nutrients in the soil, in the atmosphere it's a different story. In the atmosphere....
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water to create sulfuric and nitric acids. This results in 【acid rain】: rain + those 2 chems. acid rain can foul up the ph of freshwater places. Killing sensitive animals.
--tumor supressor genes usually...
supress the cell cycle and promote apoptosis. Mutation can result in a loss of function of these activities.
First Law of Thermodynamics
t energy can't be created or destroyed, but you can convert it from one form to another.
sucrose
table sugar.
--When the enzyme Telomerase is present:
telomeres don't shorten and cells can continue to divide.
Temperate Grassland
temperate grass, climate, seasonal drought, occasional fires and grazing by large herbivores,
Apical meristem is located in the _____:
terminal bud (of the shoot system)
A habitat is an area __
that is suitable for a particular organism to live in.
Ecosystem stability
the ability of an ecosystem to maintain a steady state, even after a stress or disturbance has occurred.
global enviro problem 4: Pollution
the act of releasing a contaminant into the soil, water or air. Although most pollutants are released in a specific location, pollution as a whole is considered a global problem, as it has contributed to changes in the entire climate of the planet.
realized niche
the actual resources a population uses
Genetic diversity （biodiversity）
the amount of variation in genetic material within a species or within a population. There is a high level of diversity among species, but there is an even higher level of 【diversity among the genetic material of the individuals of a specific species】.
Ground Tissue:
the bulk of leafs, stems, & roots; Fills the interior of a plant & helps carry out functions of a particular organ.
chem a burette is.....
the burette is used for precisely measuring the volume of a liquid. Because it is so narrow, it has the capability of measuring down to the nearest tenth of a milliliter.
Ribosomes are....
the cellular structure that performs translation, or protein synthesis.
eutrophication
the ecological process that occurs when excess nutrients are added to a body of water. humans can cause -Over-fertilization of farmland can result in excess nitrogen compounds entering a nearby stream or lake. This one cause of eutrophication why bad -This ecological imbalance can = large algae blooms. These large blooms produce a lot of oxygen when exposed to daylight, but at night, the process is reversed and the algae can suck all of the oxygen out of the water and suffocate aquatic animals, causing massive die-offs.
Ecosystem services
the environment's natural processes that provide us with the resources we need to support life. 例子：water and air purification, nutrient cycling, climate regulation, pollinating of plants, and the recycling of waste.
hemoglobin
the enzyme that carries oxygen from the lungs.It is a protein.
Kennedy's Environmental Policy Act
the first legislation that acknowledges a connection between human actions and environmental systems
the pioneer species.
the first species to colonize the area after the disturbance
range
the geographic limits within which a population or individual lives. The larger that a population's range is, the more resources will be available to that population and the greater the carrying capacity will be if all other factors stay the same.
uniformitarianism,
the geological principle that natural laws have remained the same throughout the history of the earth. The same natural laws that impact the earth today had the same impact millions of years ago.
a landform diagram, which is a drawn cross-section of a landform that clearly shows _____
the layers that form it.
solubility
the maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a particular solvent at a specific temperature and pressure.
Nucleic acids are
the molecules that cells use to store, transfer and express genetic information.
diploid (2n) number
the number of chomosomes that normal humans have: 46
atomic number
the number of protons in the atom's nucleus. -carbon's atomic number is six, so we know that any atom with six protons in its nucleus is a carbon atom.
prophage
the phage DNA that is integrated into the bacterial DNA. Every time the bacterial cell replicates its DNA and divides into two new cells, it will also replicate the viral genetic information and pass this on to new cells
crop rotation
the practice of planting different crops each year to reduce nutrient depletion. Different crops use different soil nutrients, and by changing crops from time to time, the soil has a chance to recharge its nutrient load.
exocytosis
the process by which vesicles carry materials to the cell membrane, fusing into its phospholipid bilayer and releasing the substances it contians outside of the cell. -this is one way that the membrane;s bilayer can get refreshed/how substances get released secreted from cells.
nitrogen fixation.
the process of creating ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen -why? the nitrogen gas in the atmos cannot be used by living creatures. ammonia can be easily incorporated into organic molecules like amino acids. -who & how? -some bacteria have evolved the ability to add hydrogen atoms to nitrogen and create ammonia, -the ocean's blue-green algae -other creatures can consume either the excess ammonia that that nitrogen fixers produce or just consume the fixers themselves. Gain their ammonia... and courage...
pinocytosis
the process where small, dissolved substances and liquids are taken up by a cell. Just like phagocytosis, it is done by the cell membrane folding around something and internalizing it via vesicles.
migration
the seasonal movement of organisms over long distances. -Availability of food appears to be the most common reason for migration. -some migrations also appear to be motivated by seasonal variation in temperature.
The precision of an instrument refers to__
the smallest repeatable digit that the instrument can measure to
Chloroplasts(plants) are __
the structural sites of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into food. -They make green plants green
Ecology, a branch of enviro sci., is defined as
the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the relationships between organisms and the interaction between organisms and their environment.
Global ecology
the study of the interactions among the Earth's ecosystems, land, atmosphere and oceans. EX. Global warming, large oil spill in the ocean
Community ecology
the study of the interactions between multiple populations of species within a specific ecological community and how these populations interact with the environment. An example of community ecology would be a study on how two species of turtles utilize and partition the same habitat and food sources.
Ecosystem ecology
the study of the interactions between organisms from multiple communities within a larger region. An example of ecosystem ecology would be a study on how a fire has influenced the species in a specific habitat.
Population ecology
the study of the interactions of a single species with other members of its species and the species' environment. Population ecology deals with problems that are on a smaller scale and influence a single species within the environment. An example of population ecology would be a study on the distribution of herds of deer.
substrate
the substance or molecule on which an enzyme functions
Secondary Succession
the type of terrestrial succession that occurs when an area experiences a disturbance that alters the existing ecosystem but does not destroy all of the original species. Remaining soil and some surviving species are the building blocks of the new ecosystem. I.e. clear cutting/forest fire -The ecosystem would still have a variety of small plant species and many animal species left after the harvest, and these species would begin to grow and recolonize the area. Eventually, the larger trees would grow back, and the ecosystem would return to a stable state.
Primary succession
the type of terrestrial succession that occurs when an area experiences a disturbance so severe that none of the original species survive. Things like Lichen and Moss are the first back on the scene, putting soil atop the bare rock.
Homologues seperate during _____
meiosis
0.003- how many Siggy Figgys?
1- Leading zeros are not significant=
When apical meristem cells divide, of the two daughter cells, 1 = ------- , 1 ------
1---apical meristem tissue 1---differentiated tissue(Epidermal, ground tissue, vascular tissue).
All viruses are surrounded by a capsid - a viral envelope made of protein（It contains two things, and does another cool thing）。
1-This can be made of different types of proteins and it can come in all different shapes, increasing the variety of these viruses. 2- All viruses also contain nucleic acid within this capsid. This nucleic acid can be double-stranded or single-stranded DNA or RNA. 3-Proteins in a viral capsid will recognize specific proteins or carbohydrates on the surface of the bacterial host cell wall that it's able to infect.
Metapopulation Theory makes 3 assumptions:
1. )immigration events between individual populations must be infrequent because if immigration is occurring on a daily or weekly basis, then there is essentially just one population 2. )local extinctions within a patch are likely to occur eventually. If a patch is large enough to support a population indefinitely without any extinction, it is a stable population on its own and therefore not dependent on a larger metapopulation for survival. 3. )colonization events must occur at least as frequently as extinction events over a long period of time.
Why is a virus not considered not living(5 differences)?
1. Although composed of protein It is not composed of cells, the basic unit of life. 2.They can't reproduce on their own. 3.They can't transport substances in and out of any membranes. 4.They can't metabolize any sort of food. 5. Except when invading a host cell, viruses display no other characteristics of living matter. Note that a virus does decide whether or not invade & destroy a cell, or stick around as a hanger-on.
loam
perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, and clay.
Besides shaping the land to slow wind and water, _______ is one of the best ways to prevent soil erosion.
planting vegetation Plants create a matrix of twists and turns underground that soil has to find its way through if it wants to move.
ribose
plays an important role in holding together our genetic material. Note the ether group: 1 OXYGEN atom with any 2 CARBON-CONTAINING GROUPS on either side of it.
contour farming
plowing and planting along the land's natural contours. When water is forced to travel this way, it slows down, keeping the soil and the nutrients where they should be.
dimer
polymer composed of two monomer
ecomorphs
populations that have recently evolved physical variations to adapt to specific microenvironments. - sometimes very different looking, but closely related species
Protons charge/mass
positive in charge/ one atomic mass unit.
prop roots
Thick adventitious roots that grow from the lower part of the stem and brace the plant.
Gabino Lopez's "five golden rules of the humid tropics." These rules are:
"1. Keep the soil covered, 2. using minimal or even no tillage, 3. using mulch to provide nutrients to the crops, 4. maximizing biomass production, 5. maximizing biodiversity. As a result of these practices, maize production has averaged 4.3 tons/hectare in some villages, a 0.8 .
Anaphase
"Third phase of mitosis, beginning when sister chromatids separate from each other and ending when a complete set of daughter chromosomes have arrived at each of the two poles of the cell"
The Function of DNA
'Reading' the DNA code ultimately tells a cell how to make proteins that it can use to perform various functions necessary for life
Describe, in terms of both content and physical structure, the soil environment that will best fufill the needs of plant life.(5)
(1) a good supply of nutrients and a good nutrient-holding capacity (2)allows infiltration and features a good water-holding capacity (3) has a porous structure and permits good aeration (4) has a nearly neutral pH (5) has a low salt content.
Turner Syndrome
(45 chromosome, female, XO) A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted. They are not retarded and can live normalish lives with hormone therapy. One x becomes a barr body
phloem
(botany) tissue that conducts synthesized food substances (e.g., from leaves) to parts where needed
O Horizon:
(detris) decaying organic material. Humus is the dark, most decomposed material at the bottom of this layer.
diploid
(genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number
Cellulose
-Now one really interesting thing about cellulose is that it's a very long strand of glucoses all linked together - thousands and thousands of glucoses in one really long strand! -our bodies, unlike cows, cannot digest cellulose
translocation
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome. The process in which a segment of a chromosome breaks off and attatches to another chromosome
Scavenger vs. a Decomposer
- a scavenger, such as a vulture or hyena, will consume larger chunks of the body, but while scavengers do break down dead animals, they aren't decomposers, because they're not reducing the animal into chemicals that become part of the soil. - Decomposers reduce dead animals, plants, and feces into chemicals such as nitrogen and carbon.
mRNA processing
- alternative mRNA processing leads to a sequence of different exons in mature RNA and, therefore, different proteins.
Primary growth
- how plants increase in length, the root tip extends downwards, the terminal bud rises upwards.
Translation
- the process by which tRNA reads the message of nucleic acids, or nucleotides, and translate it into proteins, or amino acids.
Pollination
-(male)Pollen grain is brought in vicinit of the female gametophyte.
how have humans have started to have a measurable effect on the carbon cycle?
-Part of this is due to deforestation. Trees have alot of biomass. That biomass has to go somewhere. Eventually, a lot of it goes skyward. -Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, also known as CO2, into the atmosphere.
For a variety of structural reasons, mRNA has a very short lifespan compared to DNA. .
--If RNA was a very stable molecule, it might tie up a lot of resources in a molecule that isn't being used. --There are many hydrogen bonds holding a DNA molecule together. While the bases in a RNA molecule can hydrogen bond with each other, usually far fewer bonds can form compared to a DNA molecule. Fewer hydrogen bonds means a less stable structure. --Second, the extra hydroxyl group in the ribose sugar of RNA makes RNA more reactive than DNA. A reaction between that hydroxyl group and another molecule could destroy the RNA molecule. --Finally, proteins that degrade RNA are found everywhere.
1--What are some problems with the sweeping claims 2--made about soil erosion and soil degradation? How 3--have these claims been challenged?
--The GLASOD report was a global assessment on land degradation. It constructed a global map based on estimates collected from soil experts and was only verified by actual data in a few places. This lack of verification was a big problem. --Based in part on the GLASOD report, in Burkina Faso, it was projected that the country faced the worst rate of soil degradation in all of Africa, with some reports putting it as high as 75%. However, contrary to these estimates, it was discovered that in Burkina Faso the yields of virtually every crop have risen over the last 40 years, rather than decreased. This rise in crop yield is the result of drylands-appropriate water & soil use that have, unbeknownst to some "experts," helped to prevent soil degradation
Why are evergreen conifer trees well-adapted for the dry northern temperate regions?
--tough needle-like leafs are good for periods of dryness.
25,000-how many siggy figgy's? 25,000.-how many siggy figgy's?
-2 -5 Without a decimal point, those trailing zeros are meaningless. The number 25,000 implies that the actual value is around 25,000 rounded to the nearest thousand, whereas the number 25,000. - with a decimal at the end - implies that the actual value is 25,000
Zero Kelvins is about ____ degrees Celsius
-273
NLS
-A special amino acid sequence. -If a large protein possesses this amino acid, it is allowed through the nuclear pores. -
Examples of decomposers include bacteria, fungi, some insects, and snails, which means they are not always microscopic
-Decomposers can break down dead things, but they can also feast on decaying flesh while it's still on a living organism. Dung beetles, as you may have accurately concluded from their name, break down feces from other animals. Some decomposers, like snails and worms, can also be consumers because they sometimes eat plants.
Law of Independent Assortment【in modern g.】(5 components)[Mende's 2nd law]
-Each pair of factors segregates independently of other pairs. -All possible combos of factors can occur in the gametes. -Each pair of homogules separates independently of other pairs -Mendel's laws are consistent with the manner in which homogules and their alleles seperate during meiosis
How does the tRNA know if it's carrying the right amino acid, that is, the amino acid that needs to be added next according to the codon sequence of the mRNA?
-Easy, tRNA have anticodons as part of their sequence. -The anticodon sequence also tells the tRNA which amino acid it can attach to at the pool. The amino acid is attached to the yellow tip of the tRNA. Anticodon sequences work just like codon sequences. Thus, each amino acid has more than one anticodon that recognizes it, but each anticodon only recognizes one amino acid.
rate of decomposition
-For plants, the rate of decomposition is highly dependent on moisture and temperature. Generally, environments that are moister and warmer have much faster decomposition rates.
The end is neigh?
-For the entire Mesozoic period that lasted between 65 and 250 million years ago, the Earth stayed between 10 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than it is now, and CO2 levels ranged between about 700 to 2,500 parts per million. -Earth was once much warmer for a much longer period of time, and life survived and thrived through many periods of climate change. -humans are pretty adaptable. Maybe we'll evolve with our planet's climate.
Reproductive vs. Therapeutic cloning
-In reproductive cloning an early embryo is placed inside of a surrogate mother until the individual comes to term. The goal is to produce a new individual that is identical to the original. -In therapeutic cloning, the cells on an embryo are separated,and then treated so that they develop into specialized tissues that can be used to treat human disorders. Adult stem cells can also be treated to become specialized tissues.
Carboxylic Acid
-It consists of a carbon that is double-bonded to an oxygen, and single-bonded to an oxygen that is single-bonded to a hydrogen (which we know is a hydroxyl group). -a carbonyl bonded to a hydroxyl group -These are found in amino acids and fatty acids in our body. One that you may be familiar with is acetic acid, the major component of vinegar and what gives it that lovely pungent smell.
Are di-, tri-, and polypeptides considered proteins?
-No. You can string anywhere from 2 to about 30 animo acids together before they are considered a protein. -There is a grey zone (30-50) between polypeptides and proteins. We'll use 30 for concenience.
lead
-in 'merica it used to be added to gasoline, and still is in some places. Once the gas is burned, the lead enters the air as a particle. -Once that leads gets ingested by animal, like humans, it can build up and cause nervous system problems or mental retardation.
Ionic bond
-is an attraction between two atoms due to one transferring an electron (or several electrons) to the other. -One atom is in want of electrons, another atom wants to get rid of some electrons. So they stick together.
Globalization
-is defined as the increase in the interconnectedness of human activities, ideas and cultures. -This awareness of others is important to the field of global ecology, because as awareness increases, there will be a higher demand for research that focuses on investigating and solving worldwide environmental problems.
The Outer Membrane (of mitochondria )
-just like the cell membrane, this one is composed of a phospholid bilayer, pores, and integral proteins for transport. It is also selectively permeable.
sea-level rise
-melting the 2/3 of the earth fresh water, which is stored in polar ice caps -If the rate of increase were holding steady, 7 more inches in another 100 years might not be so bad. But, considering the rate of sea level rise in the past 10 years was twice the rate of the past century, we are likely going to lose more than another seven inches of land!
What are the main things that plant roots must obtain from the soil?
-mineral nutrients, water, and oxygen(air)
A series of mutations, especially in cells that can divide, lead to cancer cells w/ these characteristics[5]:
-no contact inhibition -uncontrolled growth -are nonspecialized -have abnormal chromosomes -done not undergo apoptosis
A phospholipid
-phosphate is the hydrophillic head (polar), - charge -usually two lipid hydrophobic tails of hydrocarbon fatty acids -The phosphate group and the lipid are connected by a glycerol group.
density-independent factors
-population-limiting factors that are not affected by population size. -比如： predation and many types of disease. Also, natural disasters.
DNA
-stands for 'deoxyribonucleic acid,' - It's one of two basic types of nucleic acids. -DNA is like a recipe that tells a cell how to create those building blocks. -Deoxyribonucleic acid gets its name from the fact that DNA possesses a sugar called deoxyribose
lysosomes -the cell
-structures within the cell that contain digestive enzymes. -vesicles combine with lysosomes after bring new materials into the cell -they are more acidic than the rest of the cell -Lysosomes are able to break down food and foreign material from these vesicles using their digestive enzymes.
denaturation
-the breakdown of secondary, tertiary, quaternary structure of protein by heat or chemical treatment. - if you treat a protein with a lot of acid, or you cook it, then it takes the protein, breaks the beta sheets and helices and turns the entire protein into a random coil. -This is why an egg suddenly becomes solid when you fry it. When you first crack an egg, all of its proteins are in their natural state. As you heat it, the proteins break down into random coils and these long strands come together and have intermolecular forces with each other, causing them to solidify into your delicious fried egg.
Montreal Protocol of 1987
-the use of ozone-depleting chemicals is down 95% from what it was in the 1980s. -Tried to deal with o-zone depletion via CFC's. It helped developing countries transition and held developed nations to a higher standard. Most successful environmental treaty to date. -to reduce CFC emissions 50% by the year 2000. The treaty allowed the use of less harmful hydrochlorofJuorocarbons (HCFC) as temporary replacements.
Preservation of the environment - viewpoint on land management
-the value of the land is not what you can use from it, but instead that land has an intrinsic value, meaning that it is valuable in itself simply by existing. -John Muir: Muir was a strong advocate for the complete protection of land and believed that people should only use the environment for enjoyment and not as a resource for goods.
For protection, in addition to a plasma cell membrance, plant cells have __.
.A cell wall. It can be up to 800 times thicker than the plasma membrane. - Although plants aren't the only organisms with a cell wall, this structure is a characteristic of all plants.
chem Erlenmeyer flask
.It's very convenient to dissolve solids using these because the narrow neck allows you to swirl the liquid without worrying about it spilling or splashing out.
phosphorus cycle
0. Phosphate is available in sedimentary rocks 1. Phosphate weathers off from rocks into the soil 2. Phosphate is absorbed by plants and cycles through the trophic levels. 3. Phosphate becomes biowaste, either re-entering the soil or being recycled by detrivores. -phosphorus does not enter the atmos -harvesting crops can remove proper Phosphate from an area. Phosphorus fertilizer, produced from the mining of Phosphate -containing rocks, can be used to replenish the depleated area.
Integral and peripheral membrane proteins. (Where are they, what do)
1. Integral(membrane) proteins that actually 'integrate' themselves throughout the bilayer, spanning accross the the bilayer, with a hydrophylic segment/domain outside of the cell, and a hydrophobic one within. 2. Per
How CFL destroys ozone: 4 steps
1. UV radiation hits a CFL, so a chlorine molecule is released. 2. When that chlorine (CL) bumps into ozone(O3) it reacts, leaving us with Chlorine Monoxide(CLO) and (O2). 3. When that Chlorine Monoxide(CLO) bumps it too a lone oxygen atom(O), it ditches its oxygen, making (CL) (O2) 4. Then the Chlorine goes and breaks another Ozone(03) and begins the cycle all over again. Until the molecule breaks down in a thousand or so years..
Two Structural differences between RNA & DNA
1. Whereas the sugar in DNA is [deoxyribose], the sugar in RNA is [ribose]. Ribose has one extra hydroxyl group compared to deoxyribose. 2.In RNA, in place of Thymine, Uracil forms two hydrogen bonds with adenine and functions just like thymine does. 3.e DNA is double-stranded, RNA is single-stranded.
In subsurface mining, a long tunnel is created either horizontally or vertically, down to places well well below the surface, 100s-1000s of feet. There are 3 good ways to get the ore out:
1. blast the ore with explosives, and then cart the chucks up to the surface. 2. longwall mining, which is when coal is sheared from the wall and collected on a conveyor belt, much like a potato peeler shears away layers of a potato. 3.solution mining, which is when hot water is injected into the ore to dissolve it. Once the ore is dissolved, air is pumped into it, and it's bubbled up to the surface.
All cells, Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic, contain some common features(4).
1. they contain DNA as a heritable genetic material, and they can reproduce. 2.They transcribe DNA into RNA and translate RNA into proteins on ribosomes. 3.They regulate transport across a cell membrane 4.They require chemical energy for some cellular processes.
malignant tumor
A cancerous tumor containing cells that have significant genetic and cellular changes and are capable of invading and surviving in new sites. Malignant tumors can impair the functions of one or more organs.
carbonyl Group
A carbonyl is a carbon that is double-bonded to oxygen 比如：acetone, which is found in nail polish remover.
Punnett Square
A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross
exons
A coding region of a eukaryotic gene. Exons, which are expressed, are separated from each other by introns. The coding regions of a gene (the portions that are expressed as polypeptide sequences) are called
Sex Chromosomes
A combo of XX or X/ Y chromosomes, that determines gender.
chem Crucible
A crucible is a container that has the ability to be heated to very high temperatures and may be used with or without a cove. It is useful for heating things up way way high.
Barr Body
A dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells, representing an inactivated X chromosome.
gene
A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
cell plate
A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.
Nitrogen oxides
A family of smelly chemicals. More than half of these pollutants come from vehicle combustion emissions, with a large amount also coming from industrial combustion. Nitrogen oxides also cause respiratory illnesses. They also causes ugly things like the smog over LA.
regulatory gene
A gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes.
gamete
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
phosphodiester bond
A hydroxyl group (or -OH) in the sugar and one of the oxygen atoms in the phosphate group form what's called a diester bond. For this reason, the bond between the phosphate group and the sugar in a polynucleotide molecule is called a phosphodiester bond.
Hydroxyl (alcohol) Group
A hydroxyl group is an oxygen atom that is single-bonded to hydrogen and is also single-bonded to a carbon-containing group. -> -the general picture of an alcohol is that it is a group that contains carbon attached to oxygen, which is single-bonded to hydrogen 比如： ethanol, found in booze and cleaner
R??????
A lot of times, chemists use the short hand R to talk about something that contains carbon. That R represents any ol' compound with carbon.
double fertilization
A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, fertilization process unique to anthophytes in which one sperm fertilizes the haploid egg and the other sperm joins with the diploid central cell; results in the formation of a diploid (2n) zygote and a triploid (3n) endosperm
nucleotide.
A monomer of DNA -A nucleotide is composed of three things: a sugar (in the case of DNA, the deoxyribose I mentioned earlier), a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
Cytoskeleton(def, 3 parts)
A network of thin fibers, that can help structures move independently within your cells. A cytoskeleton can position cell structures in specific places within the cell, or it can move cell structures from one end of the cell to the other. 1. microtubules 2. intermediate filaments 3. microfilaments
Describe what is meant by homologous chromosomes？
A pair of chromosomes that have the same size, shape, centomere position, and genes for the same trait.
mitosis
A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei.
repressor
A protein that binds to an operator and physically blocks RNA polymerase from binding to a promoter site
Chaparral
A scrubland biome of dense, spiny evergreen shrubs found at midlatitudes along coasts where cold ocean currents circulate offshore; characterized by mild, rainy winters and long, hot, dry summers.
What is a signal, in general what two kinds of signals help regulate the cell cycle?
A signal is a molecule that inhibits or promotes an event. They are generally divided into internal and external signals.
Pleiotropy
A single gene having multiple effects on an organism, One gene contributes to multiple phenotypic effects[manifests as multiple visible traits]
In what ways is cellular reproduction necessary to A.) the continued existence of a mature organism and B.) the production of a new organism?
A.) Mature organisms have replenish worn out cells and repair injuries. B.)Unicellular organisms divide in order to reproduce, and multi-cellular organisms develop from a single cell.
Contrast the structure of the chromatin when the cell is not dividing to that of the chromosome just prior to cell division:
A.)Chromatin consists of strands of DNA that are organized around histone proteins. These strands form a zigzag that is folded in a loop. B.)When cellular repoduction occurs, the chomatins are further condensed into larger loops, producing the greatly compacted chromosome, which is 10,000 times than 'regular' chromatin.
Golgi Apparatus (trans? cis? role in protein production?)
After proteins are finished in the Rough ER, they can make their way over to the lumen of the Golgi Apparatus, which will further modify the proteins, directing it to it's intended destination. The cis side, closer to the nuc+rough er, is where the proteins enter. the trans side is where the now-readied proteins depart through.
How does agriculture affect soil erosion?
Agriculture causes erosion through excessive plowing, overgrazing land with too much livestock, and removing vegetation. It can also cause erosion because crops use the nutrients in the soil to grow. if the same crops are grown year after year, specific nutrients may become totally depleted from the soil, which decreases the richness of the soil. And, when this happens, soil is more easily washed away by wind and water.
monosaccharides
Aka single sugars: glucose, fructose, ribose, deoxyribose
Autosomes
All of the 23 pairs of chromosomes execpt for the sex chromosome combo.
Soil Profile
All the vertical layers or horizons that make up a soil in a particular place
Klinefelter Syndrome
An (47, male, XXY) individual inherits only one X chromosome, they tend to be slow but not retards. One or more X chromes become Barr bodies.
Every animal has an even number of chromosomes becuase:
An equal amount is contributed from each parent.
Nondisjunction
An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other, which leads to one daughter cell recieving the whole pair, and one daughter cell recieving no pairs.
disease: an independent or dependent factor?
An example of a density-independent disease is cancer. However, certain diseases, especially some of the infectious diseases, spread more efficiently and kill more individuals in overcrowded conditions. In these situations, a disease can be a density-dependent factor, so sometimes it's not so simple to categorize a given variable as density-dependent or density-independent.
Down Syndrome
An example of an autosomal syndrome, the individual inherits three copies of chromosome 21.
replication(cellular biology)
An identical copy of a cell's DNA is made in the cell's nucleus, preparing for the cell to divide.
a producer.
An organism that gets its energy from an abiotic source, i.e. the sun.
Genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
What explanation can you give for the difference between plant and animal cytokinesis?
Animal cells divy up the cytoplasm by furrowing, stretching out a narrow+cleavaged portion of membrane until the cells eventually split. Plant cells have inflexible cell walls and thus cannot manage furrowing. Instead, plant cells form a new plasma membrane between the split nuclei, called the cell plate.
Contrast the centrosomes of plant cells and animal cells
Animal centrosomes contain contain centrioles, whereas plant cell centrosomes lack centrioles and are not clearly visible.
Taiga
As elevation increases, the temperatures get colder and the precipitation increases. So at around 3,000 feet in elevation, more or less, the predominant biome becomes taiga, which is more commonly known as coniferous forest or a forest composed of evergreen conifers they also support large populations of many species of insects, spiders, birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals. - about 8,000 to 10,000 feet in elevation, or the lands just south of tundra, the trees get much smaller and grow into more twisted shapes. These trees are growing at the very limits of altitude that can support tree growth, but they live exceptionally long lives. One species found here, the bristlecone pine, is the longest living species on the planet, living up to 5,000 years.
We known that DNA looks like what it does, because:
As was first discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick.. -X-ray imaging revealed it to be a helix -there is a 1-1 ratio of g->c and a->t -Cuz chemistry, two hydrogen bonds could form between A and T and three hydrogen bonds could form between G and C. -the only way that this could work is if the strands are oriented anti-parallel to one another. -Thus, there must be two helices.
spore
Asexual reproductive or resting cell capable of developing into a new organism without fusion with another cell, in contrast to a gamete
Extreme Desert
At elevations higher than 12,000 feet, which is only a few mountaintops in the Sierra Nevada, the environment is similar to the polar ice caps -extremely cold, complete absence of plant life
Gregor Mendel
Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)
flow of total photosynthetic energy
Autotroph->Primary: 10% Primary->Secondary: 1% Secondary->Tertiary: 0.1% -About 10% passes on to the next level. -Most of the other 90% of the energy is used in various functions, such as metabolism and movement, and is ultimately dissipated as heat, and whatever isn't used or eaten by predators is consumed by detritivores.
List the major protective strategies you can employ to reduce your risk of cancer.
Avoid tobacco use, reduce sun exposure, reduce radon exposure, avoid heavy drinking, avoid obesity, consume foods rich in Vitamins A&C, avoid chemically preserved foods, include vegetables from the cabbage family in your diet.
cristae (mitochondria)
The folds of the inner membrane where cellular repsiration takes place. These contain proteins and molecules used for making chemical energy for the cell.
angiogenesis
The formation of new blood cells
List the characteristic features of cancer cells
Cancer cells lose their normal functions, have abnormal nuclei, form tumors, do not undergo apoptosis, undergo metastasis, and promote angiogenesis(new blood vessels).
_______ a process that converts food into usable chemical energy in your cells.
Cellular respiration
Within Mitochondria, which cell bio process takes place?
Cellular respiration - molecules from your already digested pancakes are used to create chemical energy that your cells can then use to perform different activities in its daily routine.
natural polymers
Cellulose: is a natural polymer that's made up of repeating glucose monomers. And of all these glucose molecules, cellulose is one molecule that is responsible for helping to hold plants upright. Proteins: are another natural polymer, and they have many possible monomer units because there are 20 different amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. They're formed when the nitrogen of one amino acid bonds to the carbonyl carbon of another amino acid, similar to the formation of nylon, and creates peptide bonds.
population genetics.
The study of genetic variation within a population
List the major differences between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
During Meiosis 1 the parent cell is a diploid, synapsis and crossing over occur, and the daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
"Crossing over in meiosis"
During Meiosis 1, when four chromosomes from a tetrad along the middle of the cell, the sections of chromatids(two strings of chromosomes) of non-sister sister chromosomes can cross over, shuffling the genetic data they contain. When meiosis is complete, a novel genetic combos are produced in all four daughter cells.
Ester Group
Esters consist of 1 CARBON atom double-bonded to 1 OXYGEN atom that is single-bonded to 1 OXYGEN atom that is attached to 1 CARBON atom.
What is a signal transduction pathway (enzymatic reactions)?
Eukaryotic cells communicate with one another, secreting signals to and fro. Some of these signals can change the behavior of the cell. When stimulated via the transduction pathway, a transcription activator stimulates the transcription of a particular gene
biogeochemical cycle
How an element cycles through organisms and the environment is called a All Elements are cycled differently, but generally: 0. Inorganic materials are avaiable in the air, water or soil. 1. producers acquire all their essential elements from the air, water or soil. 2. Consumers acquire oxygen from the air, hydro and oxy from water, and everything else from other organisms. 3.All of these elements are then cycled between the various trophic levels until they are either disposed of as waste or wind up as detritus. 4.At this point, they can -> into other living organisms by detritivores or -> unavailable organic compounds, where they may stay out of the biological part of the cycle for millions of years and be transformed into crude oil, coal or natural gas 5. By burning these unavalible organic compounds, fossil fuels, the elements are returned to step 0. 6. Although returned to step 0, some elements never get used by organic lfie again, becoming unusalable inorganic material, like sedimentary rock.
Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries (what kills?)
Indoor fuel burning, which is needed for cooking & heating. The fumes from wood, coal, dung, and others all enter the lungs of inhabitants, causing many health problems.
kisase & cyclin
Inside the cell, Just before S phase, S-kinase, an enzyme, and S-cyclin, a protein, bind, singaling the beginning of DNA synthesis. Inside the cell, Just before M phase, M-kinase, an enzyme, and M-cyclin, a protein, bind, singaling the beginning of Mitosis.
intracellular environment
Inside the cell.
Proteins are also able to act as messengers(2 例子) =
Insulin， able to lower our blood sugar. When it's released from our pancreas by other signals, it sends signals to our cells to take in more glucose, which decreases our blood sugar. Human growth hormone. After it's released from the pituitary gland, it can travel around our bodies, bringing the messages to grow or reproduce to other cells.
The Nucleoid in Prokaryotic cells
Is just where the circular shaped DNA is at. It is not an organelle, there are no membranes seperating it from the rest of the cell.
phagocytosis
It is the process where large molecules or other cells are eaten by engulfing them. i.e. white blood cells eating bacteria
Metric unit of volume
Liter
How does logging affect soil erosion?
Logging increases erosion rates because it removes the roots of trees, which act as anchors and help hold the soil in place. Without these roots, the soil is exposed to wind and water and therefore more easily removed.
Mass vs. Weight
Mass is how much of something you have, whereas weight =force of gravity upon an object
Density = a rock has a volume of 3.5 cubic centimeters and a mass of 8.3. How dense?
Mass/Volume 8.3 divided by 3.5 is about 2.4. This means that the density of the rock is 2.4 grams per cubic centimeter. 2.4 g/cubic centimeter
centrosome
Material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division; the microtubule-organizing center. During division, the location of the centrosome are where the "spindle pole" forms.
Law of Segregation
Mendels' first law. The Law of Segregation states that the two alleles of a given gene will be separate from one another during gamete formation (meiosis).
The Meselson-Stahl Experiment
Meselson and Stahl designed an experiment to provide more information about whether one of these hypotheses was correct. They grew E. coli in the presence of "heavy" nitrogen (15N) to label the bacteria's DNA. After many generations, they moved the bacteria to a normal 14N-containing medium and separated the DNA by density. this demonstrated that DNA replication is semiconservative and that each new DNA molecule consists of one old strand and one newly synthesized strand.
During which phase of mitosis are duplicated chromosomes aligned at the spindle equator?
Metaphase
What happens during the M stage of cell division?
Mitosis, nuclear division in which the number of chromosome number stays constant and the cytoplasm divides.
John Muir.
Muir was troubled by the poor treatment and misuse of land as people moved west across the United States. He was a preservationist and believed that the environment should be maintained in its pristine form and its resources should not be harvested for human use.
Multiple Allele Traits
Multiple allele trait is a trait that has more than 3+. Blood type is an example: the genes are A, B, and O. Any one person can only carry two of these genes since we are diploid.
introns
Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.(unique to eukaryotic)
xylem
Nonliving vascular tissue that carries water and dissolved minerals from the roots of a plant to its leaves
Do all cells have nuclei?
Not all cells have nuclei, but many cells, such as those in plants, fungi, animals, and protists, contain these structures.
Basic Solutions have a higher concentration of..
OH-
What are three major cultural1 practices that expose soil to the weather?
Overcultivation—through ploughing & insufficient crop rotation, soil is compacted, oxidized, and drained of essential nutrients. Overgrazing-- When grasslands are overstocked, the grasses fail to keep up with consumption, leaving the ground barren and exposed to the elements. Deforestation-- Forest ecosystems are naturally efficient at holding water/nutrients because they maintain a very porous and humus rich top soil. Once the trees are removed, the topsoil is free to slide with gravity, increasing the amount of runoff, and leaving the remaining subsoil exposed to the elements.
Ozone
Ozone is a secondary pollutant because it reacts from a combination of sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides and volatile carbon containing compounds. It cause respiratory illnesses.
global enviro problem 3: decline of population densities
Populations of many species have been drastically reduced in recent history due to their use by humans. Some species of trees have been overharvested for timber and the populations are now rare and near extinction.
Rainfall and Elevation(California edition)
Precipitation increases with increased elevation all the way up the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada range, but it rapidly declines down the eastern slopes of the mountains as most of the moisture is already dropped on the western slopes.
primary pollutants vs. secondary pollutants.
Primary: Cause harm directly, i.e. Soot, CO2, VOCs, Nitrogen oxides Secondary: Form when primary pollutants react with each other, or other natural occurring components i.e. ground level ozone (photochemical smog), acid rain.
autotrophs
Producers
Keratin:
Proteins can be used to provide structure. Keratin is hydrophobic and insoluble in water; this fear of water is part of why keratin is so strong. The different strands of keratin proteins are very attracted to one another and less so to the outside environment, which helps them stay together.
Species Richness Vs. Species Diversity
Richness: The number of species in a community; Diversity: the number of species & the size of each population
3 rules of a scientific experiment
Rule #1: The experiment must show that a hypothesis is either supported or not supported. Rule #2: The results of an experiment must be measurable and objective. Rule #3 for scientific investigations: The experiment must be repeatable by other scientists.
Parts per million?
Scientists measure carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in parts per million, which is another way of saying, 'Out of every million molecules of air, how many are carbon dioxide?' If 280 molecules out of every million are carbon dioxide, then the air has a CO2 concentration of 280 parts per million, or ppm.
semipermeable membranes
Semipermeable membranes are thin slices of material that contain tiny holes and can let solvent molecules, like water, through.
State and define the relationships among humus, detritus, and soil organisms. Describe the role each of these factors plays in creating a soil favourable to plants.
Soil organisms consume and breakdown detritus in the soil. Most of what they consume is used in cellular respiration. However, some material resists decomposition, forming a residue called humus, which is usually found at the bottom of the O horizon and in compost bins worldwide. This humus does an extraordinarily good job at retaining nutrients and water, featuring a hundred-fold greater capacity than clay.
Soil pH also needs to be monitored and maintained(why?).
Soil pH influences how well plants can grow because plants and soil organisms need a specific soil pH to survive and be productive. Soils that are too acidic or alkaline may cause plants and animals to die.
protein activity(regulating Eurokaryotic gene expression) -
Some proteins are immediately active after synthesis, some proteins are only active after a certain "trigger" event, many proteins are short lived, for they are destroyed and degraded by enzymes and other factors. Keep all of this in mind.
promoter
Specific region of a gene where RNA polymerase can bind and begin transcription AKA A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.
Counting Carbons
Step 1. locate the carbon that is bonded to two different oxygen atoms. Step 2. 最远 see how many carbons this carbon is attached to. If this carbon is at the end of a carbon chain and is only attached to one carbon, then this carbon becomes carbon number one. If it isn't, then you move out a little bit further, and sometimes there's one other carbon atom there, and that can become carbon one in that case. Step 3. go around the ring/down the ladder and count how many carbons. If it is glucose you are looking at, there ought to be six carbons.
pollen tube
Structure that grows from a pollen grain to an ovule, enabling a sperm to pass directly to an egg
B Horizon:
Subsoil. Accumulation of leached minerals like iron and aluminium oxides.
Chromatin
Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones(protein molecules)
Surface(strip/open pit) Mining-> How bad?
Surface mining is destructive to landscapes because it can cause changes in the topography and drainage and strips the land of vegetation, soil and rocks. The spoil banks of surface mining erode and weather away, and rainfall leaches toxic chemicals into the earth.
【alpha helix】
The alpha helix is the secondary structure where the protein coils because there are hydrogen bonds between the backbones of their amino acids.
Polymerization-> catalyst-> One molecule breaks-> broken molecules bond with nearby molecules-> which in turn breaks those molecules-> which in turn bonds with other molecules Chain reaction->
The catalyst will cause one of the hydrogen atoms to break loose, and this hydrogen atom will go form a bond with one of the carbons. Carbon can only have four bonds, so the double carbon-carbon bond breaks. We go find another ethylene molecule to form a bond with and so on. So, first it forms a dimer with another ethylene molecule, then the double carbon bonds in that ethylene molecule break and go find another ethylene molecule to interact with and form a trimer, or three unit molecule, and so on until you end up with a very long polymer.
List the major events of the G1 stage of the cell cycle:
The cell increases its size and doubles the number of organelles, in preparation for cell division.
apoptosis
The changes that occur within a cell as it undergoes programmed cell death, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die.
chara (Stonewarts)
The closest living relative of plants. It is a a filamentous green algae. the body consists of a single long file of cells anchored in the mud by thin filaments.Whorls of branches occur at regions called nodes, and unlike algae, the organism protects the zygote.
the quaternary structure.
The complete 3-D structure of a protein that contains [multiple] peptides or proteins.
chromatin
The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists in its dispersed form, as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope
fluid mosaic model,
The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
chem Desiccator.
The desiccator is used to keep a sample dry. It contains a chamber at the bottom which holds a moisture-absorbing substance. If you are dehydrating something you may want to store it in here between trials or overnight so your substance doesn't rehydrate from the moisture in the air.
cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II.
endomembrane system(def)
The endomembrane system is a series of compartments that work together to package, label, and ship proteins and molecules. It includes: The Smooth and Rough endoplasmic reticuli, and the Gogli apparatus.
Ether Group
The ether group consists of oxygen that is single-bonded to two different carbon atoms. -A more general version of ether would be 1 OXYGEN atom with any 2 CARBON-CONTAINING GROUPS on either side of it. -An example that you might be familiar with is diethyl ether, which was used as an anesthetic: Cloth->face 比如： it is in sugars
environmental science is______
The field of science that studies the interactions of the physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment and also the relationships and effects of these components with the organisms in the environment.
DNA replication
The process in which DNA makes a duplicate copy of itself, being passed on to sister cells.
osmosis
The process of solvent molecules, like water, moving across a semipermeable membrane is called.
phenotypic ratio
The ratio of the offspring determined through their phenotype as predicted from a test cross
the saturated zone(where).
The saturated zone is the region underground where water completely fills any open spaces.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that not all energy can be used, and disorder tends to increase over time. If you ever want to give you Mom a good excuse for your messy room, just tell her that you're only following the second law of thermodynamics. -friction slows things -in practical situations, when energy is expended, it is really just transformed into unusable energy i.e. kinetic energy->hear
n-terminus of the amino acid.
The side with the free amino group
c-terminus of the amino acid,
The side with the free carboxylic acid group is known as the c-terminus of the amino acid, or peptide.
Hetch Hetchy Valley
The sitch: late 19th century, san fran needs water. There is a proposal to dam a river, flood a valley, and let the ppl drink. Preservationists: no dam. The valley is valuable in its natural state. Conservationists: dam. The ppl need water. In the end, the dam was built.
Meiosis
The special type of nuclear division that occurs during sexual reproduction. Chromosomes are contributed from both the mother and the father, resulting in a unique combo of genetic data.
Ecological succession
The term used to describe how an ecosystem gradually changes in species composition and community structure over time after a disturbance has occurred.
Telophase and Cytokinesis
The two groups of chromosomes have reached opposite ends of the cell. Nuclear envelopes form, the chromosomes uncoil and the spindle disappears. Ends with the division of the cytoplasm.
logistic population growth
The type of growth where the growth rate slows as the population reaches its carrying capacity is called logistic population growth
unsaturated zone(where)
The unsaturated zone is located just above the saturated zone. This area is not completely saturated with water, and there's still a significant amount of air in the soil.
-chem- beaker volume markings..
The volume markings should only be used as approximations. Beakers are used for mixing, stirring, heating and pouring liquids.
Scientists believe that one of the primary forces behind plate movement is ___
Thermal Convection: heat, specifically magma, rises towards the surface, while colder rock sinks down towards the core. The churning, rising & sinking of the rock, is thought to be what pushes the tectonic plates. -magna breaks through the crust, forming the oceanic floor.
codons INCOMPLETE
These are three-letter nucleotide sequences read from the M-rna by tRNA. Since there are 4 nucleotides in mRNA, there are 64 of these. These 64 codons ought to correspond to 64 to one of the 21 animo acids. Multiple animo acids correspond to a sincle animo acid.
The Large subunit of the ribosome has three binding sites: （APE)
They are called the A, P and E sites. A site stands for the 'amino acid site,' where a specific tRNA binds to a specific mRNA sequence. The P site stands for 'polypeptide site,' where a polypeptide bond is formed between a new amino acid and the growing amino acid chain. The E site is easy stands for the 'exit site,' where the tRNA exits. .((( Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid. The ribosome is responsible for matching the correct tRNA to the mRNA sequence.))))
Thylakoids_____(what are those? what are they really the site of?)
They are small disk-like compartments composed of membranes that are the sites of sunlight-dependent photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are full of 'em
Adaptability of bryophytes.
They can live in all sorts of biomes, although they prefer moister climates. The spores will germinate wherever it is damp. In dryer climates, mosses will shrivel & brown, but they will resume metabolic activity and greenness upon the next rain.
chem Test tube.
They come in all different sizes and are used for containing different substances and carrying out reactions
Non-competitive inhibition
Unlike their competitive counterparts, these molecules disrupt the enzyme from meeting up with substrates, but they do not occupy the activation site. They often alter the shape of the enzyme, making the activation unrecognizable.
genetic cross
Used frequently in transmission genetics, involves the breeding of two selected individuals and the subsequent analysis of their offspring to try to understand how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
Lyctic Cycle
Viral replication cycle in which a virus takes over a host cells genetic material, destroying the cell's local DNA, and uses the host cell's structures and energy to replicate until the host cell bursts, releasing new phages.
C Horizon:
Weathered parent material, only partly broken down, but mostly unaffected by the chemical and biological processing taking place in higher horizons.
tryptophan
What amino acid is a precursor of the following substances: Serotonin?
Unconformities
What are surfaces that represent gaps in the geologic record that formed wherever layers were not deposited for a time or else layers were removed by erosion?
eluviation
What is the washing out of fine soil components to lower soil layers?
chem Ring stand
When using a bunsen burner, you will need something to hold whatever it is that you are heating up. For this, we will use a laboratory support stand, or ring stand.
DNA Strands are Antiparallel
c>g g>c never: g<c g<c Remember that the backbone is made of phosphate groups and sugars. Therefore, each strand will always have phospehate at one end and a sugar at the other end. Rather than having to refer to the phosphate or sugar end, scientists simply refer to the ends of the DNA by the closest carbon in the sugar ring. Since the carbons in the sugar are numbered one to five, -the 【sugar end】 of the strand is called the 3' end -the【-phosphate end】 of the strand is called the 5' end
diffusion
can mean the spread of molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
trophic levels for types of eaters
carnivore= level 2+ herbivore= just the primary level omnivore = any level
2 kinds of integral membrane proteins
carrier protein - proteins that bind a molecule to facilitate transport through a cell membrane. channel protein -a pore that extends through the bilayer
The cell wall of a plant is composed cheifly of__
celluose
According to our current knowledge of plant evolution, which group of organisms should feature cell division most similar to that of land plants?
charophytes
Enzymes make...
chemical reactions happen in our bodies. The way that they make chemical reactions happen is that they decrease the activation barrier to make a reaction happen.
the name of the compound/pigment that absorbs a specific wavelength of energy from the sun. This compound is responsible for making choroplasts and thus all green plants so green.
chlorophyll
vesicles
circular buds comprised of membrane, that are formed around the substance to be digested. After digestion, these vesicles are then transported into the cytoplasm.
- Cotyledons: embryonic leaves present in the seed. They wither away after the first real leaves appear. Eudicots: a category of flowering plants, flowering parts come in multiples of 4/5, 2 Cotyledons, root phloem between the arms of star shaped xylem, vascular bundles form a distinct ring in the stem, net shaped vein pattern. Monocots: a category of flowering plants, flowering parts come in multiples of 3, 1 cotyledon, root xylem & phloem in a ring, vascular bundles scattered in the stem, parrelell vein pattern. xylem transports____: water & minerals from the roots to the leafs phloem transports_____: sucrose, hormones, & other compounds, often from the leafs to the roots. Unlike humans, plants grow their entire lives becuase they have_____: meristem tissue. Apical meristem is located in the _____: terminal bud (of the shoot system) When apical meristem cells divide, of the two daughter cells, 1 =apical meristem tissue, 1 = differentiated tissue(Epidermal, ground tissue, vascular tissue). Epidermal tissue: outer protective layer of a plant Ground Tissue: the bulk of leafs, stems, & roots; Fills the interior of a plant & helps carry out functions of a particular organ.
embryonic leaves present in the seed. They wither away after the first real leaves appear.
Importance of checkpoints in the cell
ensure that each phase of the cell cycle has been accurately completed before the cell progresses to the next phase
The matrix(interior of the inner mem. of mitochondria) contains ____
enzymes for cellular respiration as well as its own ribosomes and DNA needed to create some of the proteins important for this process.
-chem- exact numbers vs. measured numbers
exact: whole, certain numbers i.e. (12 inches is exactly a foot, 2 hands are exactly 2 hands, not 2.1 or 1.9 ) -ignore siggy figgys measured: the length of the table is 5.3 feet' or 'The salt has a mass of 5.63 grams.' -mind siggy figgys
Spindle
fanlike microtubule structure that helps to pull the chromosomes apart during mitosis
-Gene pairs are on the chromosomes, one allele on each ______.
homologue
A cell can have one to thousands of mitochondria depending on ______
how much energy it needs. -Muscle cells need alot more energy than skin cells.
The Osmosis of Plant cells
hypertonic: wilting hypotonic: happy normal plant(rigid cell walls don't explode) isotonic: happy normal plant
Spindle equator
imaginary midline midway between the 2 poles of a cell where the sister chromatids line up during metaphase
The importance of apoptosis?
important in regulating the number of cells, shaping an organism, and deleting abnormal cells.
Glucose
is the sugar that serves as fuel for our bodies. Note the ether group: 1 OXYGEN atom with any 2 CARBON-CONTAINING GROUPS on either side of it.
Internode:
in between nodes
Unlike most other viruses, bacteriophages have special tail fibers that aid in
injecting the viral nucleic acid into the bacterial cell like a syringe.
environmental risk assessment
investigate the potential harm to human health or the environment as a result of the specific problem or the management options.
The beta sheet
is a secondary structure where the backbones of different strands of the amino acids (meaning not the side chain part) are held together by hydrogen bonds between the amine nitrogen and the carbonyl oxygen. These form a flattened region in the protein.
Covalent bond
is an attraction between two atoms due to the sharing of electrons between them. These kinds of bonds form when two atoms have mostly full outer shells. -they tend to form between two non-metal atoms.
A chemical bond
is an attraction between two or more atoms
messenger RNA
is created when the DNA recipe is copied in the first step of the central dogma.
species diversity
is defined as the number and abundance of different species that occupy a location. To accurately determine species diversity, both the 【species richness】, which is the number of different species, and the 【relative abundance】, which is the number of individuals within each species, must be considered. An example of species diversity would be the number and abundance of different types of mammals in a forest.
In regards to substance coming in and out, a cell membrane
is selectively permeable
the tertiary structure
is the complete 3-D structure of a [particular] protein, or peptide, including all of its atom arrangements because they tend to stay fairly stationary. -These amino acids come together to form several alpha helices, which come together to form its tertiary structure.
cytoplasm
is the intracellular space within the cell containing all these structures and components.
how does trna come to exist?
it's done by RNA polymerase III. Pre-tRNA are processed once they leave the nucleus. First, some nucleotides are cut off and then the remaining 73 to 94 nucleotide long string is folded into the shape you see in this image
In tropical areas, coral reefs provide critical habitat for hundreds of species, but warmer ocean temperatures are...
killing the vegetation that helps coral survive
fronds
large leaves divided into many thin sections that are found on many flowerless plants, especially ferns and palms
Ferns have megaphylls, _________.
large leaves with branched veins. These large leaves provide more surface area to do photosynthesis and are thus better at producing food than plants that have microphylls.
central vacuole(def+3 funtions)
large storage container inside plant and other cells. <80% of a cell's volume. 1. storing water/food/other nutirents 2. storing wastes 3. pump in hydro/proton atoms from the cytoplasim, becoming acidic and thus able to digest things.
Lateral side branches grow from the ____
lateral (axillary) side bud.
The trap of the venus fly trap, the tendrils of cucumbers, and the needles of cactuses are all modified _____
leaves
Biomes W/Low Productivity(5 biomes)
less than 500 grams of biomass per square meter per year deserts, the tundra, the open ocean, and the lakes+streams biome. -These biomes have low production because of the limited amount of nutrients available. -some of the open ocean is too deep, no light, no photosynthesis
Cofactors
like iron and zinc. these molecules increase the rate of reaction or are required for enzyme function. They are not proteins but rather help proteins, such as enzymes, although they can also help non-enzyme proteins as well.
phospholipids
lipids are extremely important because they make up part of our cell membranes. The lipids that make up our cell membranes are called phospholipids. A lipid made up of gycorel joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group, giving the molecule two nonpolar hydrophobic tails and a polar hydrophilic head. Phospholipids form bilayers that function as biological membranes.
In strip mining, Instead of creating one large pit in the ground.......
long narrow strips are dug out. The overburden is removed and piled up along the strip. Once the ore is removed, the overburden is dumped back into the strip.
mRNA translation -
mRNA translation(Eukaryotic gene regulation)[4 things]- 1.the longer that mRNA is not broken down in the cytoplasam, the more genes are produced;2. cytoplasam contains proteins that control wheter or not mRNA translation will take place;3.environmental conditions (e.g. a lack of certain material) can delay translation; 3. hormones affect the stability of certain transcripts
stamens
male structure of flowering plants; includes the stalk and anther, which produces pollen
Meiosis V. mitosis (5 differences)
mitosis= 1.daughter cells are genetically idenitical, 2.daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes, 3.requires only one nuclear division, 4.after cytokynesis there are two daughter cells. 5. constantly occurring in living tissue meiosis= 1.)4 daughter cells are genetically unique from the parent, 2.)4 daughter cells are haploid(1/2 the number of chrom in each), 3.) requires 2 nuclear division, 4.) after 2 divisions there are 4 daughter cells. 5. Only happens once during sexually reproductive organisms' lifetime
signal
molecule that stimulates or inhibits an event
Lycophytes(Club mosses)
most ancient group, many grow on trees as epiphytes, include club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts
Sub-surface mining ->How bad?
much less effective and more dangerous. Many workers die in mine collapses, which then also leaves behind a large hole from caving in of the ground above. Water may leak into the mine and dissolve toxic chemicals that may leak into aquifers and drinking water supplies
petals(corolla)
often attracts pollinators, diverse in color and size
operon
on/off switch for transcription, allows for production of genes only when needed A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
When the ore deposits are very large, a specific type of mining is utilized.
open-pit mining -A large, open pit is created as machines scrape off any earth that is not ore and set it to the side. This material is called overburden, and as the overburden is scraped off, it's piled into spoil banks.
RNA
or 'ribonucleic acid.'
glycosidic linkage
or bond between two sugars, is what holds the disaccharide, or two monosaccharide sugars, together. So one really cool thing about glycosidic linkages, which are the bonds that holds sugars together, is that they're formed by dehydration.
denitrification
other bacteria that use nitrate as a source of oxygen and convert nitrate back into atmospheric nitrogen.
Epidermal tissue
outer protective layer of a plant
abiotic factors
part of the ecosystem, otherwise known as nonliving environmental factors like climate, elevation, soil type and sources of water.
Facilitated diffusion
passive transport that uses integral membrane proteins to help larger, charged, hydrophilic, and polar molecules across a concentration gradient
soil texture
refers to the relative proportions of each type of particle in the soil; sand, silt, clay (largest to smallest).
chlorofluorocarbons are found in (3 products)
refrigerants, fire extinguishers, and aerosol propellants.
peptides represented by circles
represent animo acids with circles, connected by peps So you can think of this as a good way to represent a peptide, where the free amino group is on the left-hand side, and the carboxylic acid group is on the right-hand side.
The ability of insects and birds to fly is an example of convergent evolution
selective pressure results in the independent evolution of the same trait or ability.
Polygenic inheritence
several genes (2 or more) interact to produce one trait (on the same or diff chromosome) - shows a wide range of phenotypes for the same trait due to an additive effect (height, weight, hair/skin/eye color)
peak density
signals that conditions are optimal for a species
two categories of prokaryotes
single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus, they are sub-categorized into bacteria & archaea
Intermediate Filaments(size, comp, 1 function)
size- These fibers are called intermediate because they are the mid-sized fibers of the cytoskeleton. 8-12 nanometers in diameter comp- They can be made from any of several fibrous proteins twisted together like twine to make a rope. function-diverse roless, the biggies is that is helps support the nuclear lamina. They also branch out from the nuclear lamina, helping to keep the nucleus in its proper place within the cell.
converging boundaries can be identified by deep ocean trenches that mark the location where one plate is sliding under another one. As it slides under the other plate and is forced back into the mantle, gravity again works to pull it along. This process is called_?
slab pull
Soap structure
soap works so well because it's made from things that look an awful lot like fatty acids on their own. They have a polar head group, much like the carboxylic acid, that is soluble in water, and long tails that can dissolve in non-polar environments, like fats. This way, the soap molecule can surround a blob of non-polar lipid and help to pull it off of a dirty pan as water is washed over it, because the head group interacts with the polar water. -soap can suspend oil/dirt in such a way that it can be removed, as it does not mix with water, making it easier to remove the dirt/oil in question.
Effects of acid deposition (soil)(freshwater)(marine)
soil: ph of the soil is altered, cations are released to counteract the acidity from trees. Consequently the nutrients depleted from trees and the greater acidity of the soil both impact plant diversity. freshwater: 90% of freshwater too acidic in 'Merica. Some too acidic to support natural, other have contaminated fish life, which ultimately hurts humans that consume the fish. marine: similar to freshwater problems, the oceans are affected by acid rain and that which washes downstream.
-Oxisols:
soils of tropical & subtropical rainforests, not the best for agri. Oxisols have a thin O horizon(rapid plant decay) and feature a layer of iron and aluminium oxides in the B horizon. [[If forests are slashed & burned, the minerals will leach down, forming an impervious hardpan that limits cultivation.]]
The most important greenhouse gases WAV-CD Meth-flour? OZ NO!
water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and fluorinated gases. WAV- as the amount of water vapor increases in the atmosphere, the temperature on Earth increases as well, which then causes more water vapor absorption in the air, which again increases the warming of the Earth CO2 -fossil fuels, not most important, very abundant. Methane is released into the air from fossil fuels and livestock. Nitrous oxide is a gas that comes from feedlots, chemical manufacturing plants, emissions from vehicles and nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture. Warming impact of one pound of NO in 300x that of CO2. When found in the lower levels of the atmosphere, ozone can cause respiratory illnesses and damage vegetation. Up 36% since indust. rev. fluorinated gases, which come from aerosols and coolants take thousands of years to break down in the atmosphere. They also destroy that beneficial ozone that protects us from harmful UV radiation.
ridge push
when a rising tectonic plate from the mantle is pulled by gravitational forces, creating a cycle that contributes to seafloor spreading
Acid deposition is
when acidic or acid-forming pollutants in the atmosphere deposit on the surface of Earth, and this can occur from any precipitation (such as rain, snow or sleet), but also from fog, gases and dry particles.
no-till farming
when crops are replanted without tilling the ground and therefore without disturbing the lower soil layers. A major benefit of this practice is that nutrients from the previous year's crop are able to break down and return to the soil, reducing both erosion and the need for fertilizer.
local extinction
when one species is outcompeted by another so effectively throughout the entire local habitat, that it becomes extinct in that area.
competitive exclusion
when one species outcompetes another in a part of its habitat so well that the second species is excluded from that part.
indoor air pollution(definition)
when pollutants from things such as gases and particles contaminate the air indoors.
Point source pollution
when the air pollutants come from a single source of origin, such as smokestacks at a single factory.
Non-point source pollution
when the air pollutants come from many sources, such as all of the cars in the U.S.
A climax ecosystem
when the plants and animals of the ecosystem are in a stable relationship with the environment and they remain relatively unchanged until another disturbance occurs.
carbohydrates,
which are also known as sugars. The word 'carbohydrate' comes from the atom carbon and hydrate, or water, because the first carbohydrates that were discovered consisted of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms.
fructose
which is the sugar found in high-fructose corn syrup. Note the ether group: 1 OXYGEN atom with any 2 CARBON-CONTAINING GROUPS on either side of it.
-Alfisols:
widespread, moderately weathered forest soils. They are shallow, but have well-developed O, A, B, C horizons. These soils can be suitable for cultivation with mineral/organic fertilizers.
x-axis = y-axis =
x-axis = horizontal y-axis = vertical
the principle of crosscutting relations.
younger features cut across older features, faults dikes erosion etc. must be younger than the material that is faulted, intruded or eroded
Late 19th Century progress of Preservationists
· Thanks to their efforts In 1870, due to the growing support for the environment, the first official wildlife refuge was established at Lake Merritt in California. Soon after, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park, the nation's first national park, was created.
Interdisiplinary field
【Hard sci】 bio, chem, geol. 【Social】: geography, economics, and political science 【Humanities】: Philo/ethics
chem convert 2.3 miles into centimeters
三：1 mile = 5,280 feet 甲：2.3 miles * 5,280 feet/1 mile = 12144 feet 二：1 feet = 12 inches 乙：12144 feet * 12 feet/1 inch = 145728 inches 一：1 inch = 2.54 centimeters. 丙: 145728 inches *2.54 CM/1 inch =370149.12 CM
sulfur dioxide
從哪裏來：About 70% of sulfur dioxide emissions come from combustion at industrial power plants, like those that generate electricity from coal. 怎麽害：Once in the air it may react further to create sulfur acid, which can fall back to Earth as acid rain。the gas also causes respiratory diseases. one of the six pollutants identified by the EPA to cause the greatest threat to human health.
