Science - Physics + Astronomy

He made improvements to the mirror galvanometer [gal-vah-NOM-ih-ter], which he used on his trans-Atlantic cable. Name this scientist whose work in thermodynamics led him to create an absolute temperature scale with its zero corresponding to absolute zero temperature.

1st Baron Lord Kelvin (or William Thomson)

This person developed a device more complicated than a Wheatstone bridge that is used for measuring small resistances. The effect named for this person and James Joule [jool] explains the temperature change of a gas that expands without any heat transfer.

1st Baron Lord Kelvin (or William Thomson)

This person is also named for the elastic scattering of light, which is used to explain why the sky is blue. Name this scientist whose namesake scattering is often contrasted with Raman [RAH-mun] scattering.

3rd Baron Lord Rayleigh (or John William Strutt)

The waves named for this person, which are very similar to Lamb waves, travel along solid surfaces and are generated by earthquakes. His name also is used for the situation when the minimum amplitude of one diffraction image coincides with the maximum amplitude of another, his namesake criterion.

3rd Baron Lord Rayleigh (or John William Strutt)

An inverse-square law named for this man gives the electrostatic force between two separated charges. For 10 points, name this French physicist who is also the namesake of the SI unit of charge.

COLOUMB

The age of the universe can be approximated as the inverse of his namesake (*) constant. His namesake law states that the recessional velocity of a galaxy is equal to its distance from us multiplied by his namesake constant.

Edwin Hubble

The swinging variety is only integrable when the stationary element is three times as massive; otherwise, the motion it exhibits is chaotic. In the simplest case, the acceleration of the system is equal to g times the difference of the masses over the sum of the masses;

Atwood's machine

Lene Hau has created substances of this type wherein the speed of light is zero, while a variety dominated by repulsive forces in one dimension is named for Tonks and Girardeau. Their Hamiltonians contain a term proportional to particle density, resulting in the nonlinear (*) Gross-Pitaevskii equation.

Bose-Einstein condensate

One person with this surname synthesized radiophosphorus by bombarding aluminum with alpha particles, while another contributed to the artificial synthesis of nitrogen. Another person with this name is the namesake of a law in which the magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to temperature;

Curie

Binary pulsars display a quadratic form of this phenomenon known as the Shklovskii effect. A form of this phenomenon predicted by special relativity was measured using canal ray tubes in the Ives-Stillwell experiment, and the Lorentz transformation is used to derive its relativistic form.

Doppler Effect

Those experiments, verifying the transverse and relativistic forms of this effect, were performed by Kundig and by Ives and Stillwell. Astronomical objects may appear red or blue because of this effect. For 10 points, name this effect in which the motion of a wave-emitting source relative to an observer causes an apparent change in the wave's frequency.

Doppler effect

For 10 points, name this American astronomer who is the namesake of an optical space telescope launched by NASA in 1990.

Edwin Hubble

Extensions of this relation to 3 dimensions involve a fourth-order tensor with 81 coefficients symbolized sigma for stiffness, or Cauchy's 36-entry compliance matrix. Inapplicable to rubber, this relation applies below the yield strength to linear-elastic materials for which Young's modulus is defined.

Hooke's Law

For homogenous and isotropic materials, this relation is defined in 3 dimensions with Lamé's first and second parameters. Cauchy's ("co-sheez") generalization of this principle utilizes a 36-entry compliance matrix with Poisson's ratio, Young's modulus, and the shear modulus. For continuous media, this law relates the second order (*) strain and stress tensors.

Hooke's Law

Usable for a parallel or series system of harmonic oscillators, as well as individuals, for 10 points, name this law stating that the restoring force is proportional to displacement, by the formula F equals negative k x, in springs.

Hooke's Law

A spacecraft named for this person has used the "transit method" to discover over 1,000 (*)) ​exoplanets since 2009.

Johannes Kepler​

One representation of this quantity is equal to the momentum squared over two times mass, and it is represented in the Lagrangian with a capital T. The equipartition theorem dictates that for molecules in an ideal gas, this quantity is equal to three-halves times the Boltzmann constant times temperature.

Kinetic Energy

They are expelled from superconductors in the Meissner effect, and Faraday's law of induction describes how a changing one produces an electrical current. They are formed when an electrical current passes through a solenoid,

Magnetic Field

This entity's presence in a two-dimensional conductor creates Landau levels in the quantum hall effect. The Lorentz force on a particle is given by charge times velocity cross this entity, which is equal to the curl of the vector potential.

Magnetic Field

The Rydberg formula was derived from one of his theories, and he codified his work on quantum mechanics with Werner Heisenberg in the Copenhagen interpretation. For 10 points, name this Danish scientist who names a model of the atom in which electrons travel in orbits that are fixed distances from the nucleus.

Niels Henrik David Bohr

This man names a method of determining the allowed quantized states of a system with Sommerfeld. He criticized the EPR paradox as part of his debates on quantum mechanics with Albert Einstein, and the wave-particle duality is an example of this man's complementarity principle.

Niels Henrik David Bohr

while for a rigid body, this quantity can be maximized by increasing the distance from the pivot point or increasing the tangential component of force. With units of newton-meters, it is the time derivative of angular momentum. For 10 points, name this quantity, the rotational analogue of force.

torque

A requirement of this result is satisfied by constructing wavefunctions with a Slater determinant. This is the cause of the repulsive short-range twelfth-power term in the Lennard-Jones potential, as well as the degeneracy pressure that keeps white dwarfs stable.

Pauli exclusion principle

Ehrenfest posited that this result is what gives matter volume, since it prevents atoms from being placed too close together. Wavefunctions must be antisymmetric under exchange due to this principle, which only applies to fermions.

Pauli exclusion principle

A change in this quantity in an incompressible fluid is transmitted equally throughout the fluid according to Pascal's law. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to force divided by unit area.

Pressure

In his more serious scientific endeavors, he related an object's temperature and the ambient temperature to its rate of (*)) cooling. He gave a mathematical basis to Kepler's laws of planetary motion in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica,

Sir Isaac Newton

This man used Divine intervention to explain anomalies that were later accounted for in Laplace's calculus of variations. As part of this man's studies of alchemy, he translated the Emerald tablet, and he thought the world would end after 2060.

Sir Isaac Newton

He worked closely with Roger Penrose, applying Penrose's work on singularities to the state of the universe before the Big Bang. This person's later work led to predictions that Black Holes would eventually use up their energy and vanish because they emit his namesake radiation. Name this scientist who suffers from ALS and wrote A Brief History of Time.

Stephen Hawking

The temperature named for this person is similar to the Unruh [un-ruh] Temperature, though it is based on gravitational field strength rather than acceleration.

Stephen Hawking

The Chandrasekhar limit is approximately equal to 1.4 times the mass of this object, whose outer atmosphere is known as the corona. An astronomical unit is equal to Earth's mean distance from, for 10 points, what celestial body at the center of our Solar System?

Sun

It is the only planet in the Solar System that has true retrograde motion. It has the highest albedo of all planets in the solar system due to its thick atmosphere, which also leads to runaway greenhouse effect. For 10 points, name this hottest planet, the second closest to the Sun.

Venus

This celestial body has two clusters of volcanoes called the Ishtar Terra and the Aphrodite Terra. Its tallest mountain, named Maxwell Mountain, lies in the Ishtar Terra and spews a lot of sulfur compounds and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Venus

This property has a constant value for Newtonian fluids, and it exists in kinematic and dynamic forms. For 10 points, name this term for a fluid's resistance to flow.

Viscosity

A change in magnetic flux generates this quantity according to Faraday's law, and electric field is the negative partial derivative of this quantity with respect to x. An oscilloscope plots this quantity with respect to time, and Kirchoff's laws state that the net change in it around a loop in a circuit must be zero.

Voltage

This quantity is equal to the dot product of electric field and displacement, and the change in this quantity around a loop is equal to zero according to Kirchhoff's laws.

Voltage

and its intrinsic form is called spin. This quantity is equal to the moment of inertia times the angular velocity. For 10 points, name this physical quantity, the rotational counterpart of momentum.

angular momentum

Because the Sakharov conditions were satisfied, CP-symmetry violation explains why there is less of this substance produced than its (*) counterpart. This substance produces high-energy gamma rays when it comes into contact with normal particles, which have the same mass but opposite charge as particles of this type. The positron is an example of, for ten points, what type of material which rapidly annihilates with matter?

antimatter

The radius of this structure is proportional to a measure of its mass to the one-third power. Because of this structure, a relatively large number of particles following a hyperbolic path will have a very small impact parameter.

atomic nucleus

This structure absorbs gamma radiation in the Mössbauer effect. When this structure (*) binds together, it release energy responsible for the mass defect. This structure's charge is denoted by a Z.

atomic nucleus

The product of the two "principal" forms of this quantity is equal to its (*) Gaussian form. This quantity and torsion are the two scalars present in the Frenet-Serret formulas.

curvature

Cobalt, but not copper, possesses, for 10 points, what form of permanent magnetism named after iron?

ferromagnetism

Dividing (*) Planck's constant by two times this number gives the reduced Planck constant, which appears in the Heisenberg uncertainty equation. Raising e to the power i times this number equals negative one. For 10 points, identify this constant, the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.

pi

A special relativistic correction to one form of this phenomenon was made by Llewellyn Thomas, and the geodetic effect is a form of it named for Willem de Sitter. A variety of this phenomenon involving magnetic moments in external magnetic fields is named for Joseph (*) Larmor.

precession

NMR-related imaging is based on the fact that resonant frequencies of nuclei experience the Larmor type of this and are proportional to magnetic field strength. For the torque-induced type, one can calculate velocity of this by dividing torque by spin angular momentum,

precession

In AC circuits, this is the real quantity added to the reactance to calculate the impedance. This quantity is equal to a material-dependent constant times length divided by cross-sectional area and by Ohm's law,

resistance

it is equal to voltage over current. For 10 points, name this quantity whose SI unit is the ohm, which measures a circuit element's opposition to the passage of current.

resistance

An equation which states the change in velocity of these objects is proportional to the logarithm of the initial mass over the final mass is (*) named for Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. A coaxial pintle injector is sometimes used in these devices to accelerate the combustion of gases when they use liquid fuel.

rockets

One version of this law states that the line integral of dQ over T over a closed path is equal to or less than zero; that statement is Clausius' inequality. This statement limits the efficiency of the Carnot cycle and is apparently violated by Maxwell's demon. For 10 points, name this statement that says in a closed system the entropy must always increase.

second law of thermodynamics

The unitarity of the universe's transition matrix implies this law because this law is a property of doubly stochastic Markov chains. This law is apparently in conflict with the Poincare recurrence theorem. One consequence of this law is that the Onsager matrix is positive semi-definite, and this law's apparent violation of T-symmetry can be resolved using (*) Boltzmann's H-theorem.

second law of thermodynamics

For 10 points, identify this fundamental force in which gluons bind quarks into particles such as protons and neutrons.

strong nuclear force

It is experienced by all (*) hadrons, and the magnitude of this force drops off exponentially with distance, but at close range it is one hundred times more powerful than the electromagnetic force.

strong nuclear force

The line integral of this quantity equals "mu-nought times I-enclosed." Its divergence, or its integral around a closed surface, is (*)) zero, by Gauss's law, which states the impossibility of this kind of monopole.

magnetic field

For 10 points, name these entities, the one of which generated by the earth's core is explained by the dynamo model and influences the direction of compass needles.

magnetic field

In a vacuum, the curl of this quantity is "1 over c-squared, partial-E partial-t." A differential bit of it is proportional to "I, d-l cross r, all over r cubed." A constant that determines it has numerical value "4-pi times 10 to the negative 7."

magnetic field

One of these things exerts a force proportional to the sine of the angle between it and a current-carrying wire. One of these generated by a current is modelled by the Biot-Savart ["BEE-oh sa-VAR"] and Ampère's laws. For 10 points, name this counterpart to the electric field.

magnetic field

similarly, the tension in the string connecting the two masses is equal to g times twice the product of the masses over their sum. Invented by its namesake to prove Newton's laws, this is, FTP, what simple apparatus that consists of two or more masses connected by a massless string on frictionless pulleys?

Atwood's machine

The first example of one of these substances was produced using laser cooling on rubidium by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman. For 10 points, identify this state of matter in which particles collapse into the lowest quantum state on a macroscopic scale, named for an Indian and a German physicist.

Bose-Einstein condensate

This quantity increases by a factor of one plus the amplitude gain in the Miller effect, and the reciprocal of this quantity is elastance. It can be calculated for an isolated sphere as 4 pi times epsilon naught times the sphere radius, and the energy in devices associated with this quantity is one half this quantity times voltage squared.

Capacitance

In materials science, this man and Mohr name a failure criterion equation. A blockade named for this scientist can be observed in single electron transistors, and he is the namesake of a barrier that makes achieving nuclear fusion reactions difficult.

COLOUMB

Kinetic friction is independent of velocity according to a law named for this scientist, who invented the torsion balance.

COLOUMB

Dielectrics can increase it, and for two parallel plates this quantity increases with area and decreases with distance. This quantity is also equal to charge over voltage. For 10 points, name this quantity typically measured in farads that is associated with devices capable of storing charge.

Capacitance

The antennae of moths assist them in flying by accounting for this effect, which is also used in mass flow meters. The Rossby number can describe whether this effect is prominent in a system by relating it to inertial forces. When considered on the Earth, the Beta effect leads to its variation with latitude.

Coriolis effect

This effect is caused by a pseudoforce and it was studied by a French scientist interested in water wheels. Leading to deflection of moving objects in rotating reference frames, it drives oceanic and atmospheric currents. For 10 points, name this effect whichcauses cyclones on Earth to rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Coriolis effect

that man also names the temperature above which a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. This name's most famous bearer, who hydrolysed pitchblende to isolate radium, is the namesake of a unit of radioactivity and element number 96. For 10 points, name this surname shared by a husband and wife who discovered polonium, Pierre and Marie.

Curie

It can be employed with the Faber-Jackson relation or the Tully-Fisher relation to estimate the distance to a galaxy using the redshift or blueshift produced by this effect. This effect results in a shift in frequency between a source and an observer moving relative to that source. For 10 points, name this effect exemplified by the change in pitch when a siren passes by.

Doppler Effect

An experiment verifying one form of this phenomenon involved measuring the frequencies of gamma rays being produced by a spinning centrifuge. Another experiment testing this phenomenon involved looking for longer wavelengths on a spectrograph because of a relativistic term.

Doppler effect

The deceleration parameter is equal to one plus the time derivative of a value named for this scientist divided by that same value squared. That value named for him is equal to the time derivative of the cosmic scale factor divided by the scale factor.

Edwin Hubble

One experiment involving this quantity balanced the buoyant force with the electric force using oil drops to prove that this quantity is quantized, and that experiment was conducted by Robert Millikan. For 10 points, name this quantity measured in Coulombs, which is positive for a proton.

Electric Charge

This quantity is related to isospin by the Gell-Mann-Nishijima equation. The electric flux through a surface is equal to this quantity over permittivity of space according to Gauss's law, and the time derivative of this quantity is current.

Electric Charge

This law is valid for stresses below the yield strength. Objects that obey this law follow simple harmonic motion and the constant in this law relates to the stiffness of a material. For 10 points, name this principle of physics, denoted "F = -kx" that states the restoring force is proportional to displacement for a spring.

Hooke's Law

A set of postulates named for this man includes the "equal areas in equal time" law and the statement that orbits are ellipses with the sun at one focus. For 10 points, name this one-time assistant to Tycho Brahe, a German astronomer who proposed three laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler​

A spacecraft named for this person uses a photometer to measure the brightness of stars in the constellations Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco. This man described a model of the universe consisting of nested Platonic solids, one for each planet, in his ​Mysterium Cosmographicum

Johannes Kepler​

The change in this quantity is equal to power times time, and inelastic collisions do not conserve this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity defined as one-half times the mass times velocity squared, the energy possessed by objects in motion.

Kinetic Energy

A proposed upgrade to it hopes to increase luminosity, known as the "super" version of it. One part of it is partially known as "beauty" and uses the VELO to carry out B tagging. Another part of it uses what are known as electromagnetic calorimeters and contains a large central magnetic solenoid.

Large Hadron Collider

Specialized experiments, like ATLAS and Totem, are contained in a total of 6 detectors seen in this device. FTP, an attempt to discover the Higgs boson is the main purpose of this CERN particle accelerator, located partly in Switzerland and France that was the subject of end-of-the-world theories in late 2008.

Large Hadron Collider

For 10 points, name this particle accelerator in Switzerland and France built by CERN, which is looking for, among other things, the Higgs boson.

Large Hadron Collider [or LHC]

This device is believed capable of detecting particles such as neutralinos, which arise in supersymmetric theories. A toroidal apparatus in this device is being used to search for the last unknown Standard Model particle, which gives mass to all the other particles.

Large Hadron Collider [or LHC]

This device's data output, measured in inverse femtobarns, exceeds any other device of its kind. It's not RHIC, but one substance created by this device is described by QCD at high temperature and density. The final injector for this device is the SPS.

Large Hadron Collider [or LHC]

and Gauss showed that the divergence of these entities is zero unless monopoles exist. For 10 points, name this entity most commonly associated with objects with north and south poles.

Magnetic Field

According to Gauss's law for magnetism, this quantity is equal to zero for a closed surface, and this quantity is equal to the dot product of magnetic field and area. Measured in webers, For 10 points, name this measure of the strength of the magnetic field through a surface.

Magnetic Flux

This quantity is the denominator in the formula for reluctance, and this quantity can be calculated by taking a line integral of the magnetic vector potential. The line integral of the electric field around a closed loop is equal to the negative change in this quantity with respect to time according to Faraday's law of induction.

Magnetic Flux

If bosons are considered massless in the Bose-Einstein distribution, the distribution reduces to one named for this person. He derived Wien's law before creating his namesake law, which tends to the Rayleigh Jeans law and Wien's law at low and high frequencies, respectively.

Max Planck

In his namesake postulate, this man related energy, frequency, and his eponymous constant, which is equal to 6.63 times 10 to the -34 meters squared times kilograms over seconds. For ten points, name this German founder of quantum theory.

Max Planck

his scientist names an era in the early universe roughly 10 to the -43 seconds after the (*) Big Bang when the four fundamental forces were combined, as well as a set of units including the shortest measurable length.

Max Planck

He resolved the "ultraviolet catastrophe" by showing that the negative fifth power of the wavelength is proportional to (*)) blackbody radiation. He also showed that energy is proportional to frequency, with the constant of proportionality equal to six point six times ten to the negative thirty-fourth, so energy can only come in integer multiples of a small unit. For 10 points, name this German theorist who invented quantum mechanics and names the constant "h."

Max [Karl Ernst Ludwig] Planck

This physicist developed an energy distribution that, in the high-frequency range, matches the Wien approximation. One of his concepts was extended by Einstein to explain the photoelectric effect.

Max [Karl Ernst Ludwig] Planck

The creator of a (*) direct-current generator that produces an emf constant in time, this man names a device that causes the total electric field at every point inside it to be zero; that is his namesake "cage." For 10 points, name this man with a namesake law of induction and whom the SI unit of capacitance is named after.

Michael Faraday

This man used an experiment containing a charged metal ball, insulating thread, and an ice-pail to confirm Gauss's law. Liquids may contain this man's namesake ripples, and alongside Joseph Henry, this man discovered that moving a magnet near a conducting loop can cause a current in the loop.

Michael Faraday

A (*) free body diagram can be used to examine all the components involved in this law. The rotational analogue of this law equates the torque to the product of the moment of inertia and the angular acceleration.

Newton's Second Law

In special relativity, this equation is modified by multiplying by gamma or gamma cubed, depending on whether two vectors are perpendicular or parallel. Adding a term including the change in mass with respect to time, or the thrust, to this law produces the rocket equation.

Newton's Second Law

Its original form equates the time derivative of momentum to force, but one side is most often given in terms of acceleration. For 10 points, name this law of motion which states F equals m times a.

Newton's Second Law

A generalization of this statement to quantum mechanical operators is known as the Ehrenfest theorem. The motion of simple harmonic oscillators can be described by setting Hooke's law equal to one form of this statement, and when mass is not constant, one side of it is rewritten as the time derivative of momentum.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

Free body diagrams are often used in conjunction with this statement, and weight is found by replacing one term in this law with a constant approximately equal to 9.8 meters per second squared. For 10 points, name this law of motion which states that force is equal to mass times acceleration.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

Applying Ehrenfest's theorem to the momentum operator recovers this equation in quantum mechanics. It can be used to derive a law setting the change in velocity proportional to the logarithm of initial mass over final mass. That equation, the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, requires a generalized version of this equation since mass is not constant.

Newton's second law of motion

Integrating this law with respect to time gives the impulse, because the time derivative of momentum appears on one side of it. One often draws a free body diagram before applying this law, which requires vector sums of forces. For 10 points, name this law of mechanics which states that net force equals mass times acceleration.

Newton's second law of motion

It explains why two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spin, since they cannot occupy the same state. For 10 points, name this "exclusion" principle named for an Austrian physicist.

Pauli exclusion principle

For an ideal gas, this quantity is equal to the number of moles times temperature times the ideal gas constant, all divided by volume. A change in this quantity in an incompressible fluid is transmitted equally throughout the fluid according to Pascal's law. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to force divided by unit area.

Pressure

This quantity has a negative value if the cosmological constant causes a positive vacuum energy density. Like kinematic viscosity, the kinematic version of this quantity can be used to compute the Navier-Stokes equation,

Pressure

This quantity has a negative value if the cosmological constant causes a positive vacuum energy density. Like kinematic viscosity, the kinematic version of this quantity can be used to compute the Navier-Stokes equation, and one law states that the change in this quantity is equal to density times gravity times the change in height.

Pressure

and one law states that the change in this quantity is equal to density times gravity times the change in height. For an ideal gas, this quantity is equal to the number of moles times temperature times the ideal gas constant, all divided by volume.

Pressure

Demonstrating the principle of superposition, this formulation involves the spontaneous decay of an atom, which ends up breaking a vial of hydrocyanic acid and killing the namesake animal. For ten points, identify this scenario in which a certain feline is both alive and dead.

Schrodinger's cat

While not Hugh Everett, the formulator of this construct was motivated by the EPR paradox and wished to contradict the idea of wavefunction collapse. Influenced by complementarity, this argument sought to reveal the limitations in the Copenhagen interpretation, leading Everett to propose the many-worlds interpretation to resolve this (*) paradox.

Schrodinger's cat

An altered form of this process is described by an equation which includes the additional term e raised to the negative bt over two m. Acceleration in this process can be calculated as the negative of omega squared times displacement,

Simple Harmonic Motion

and equations multiplying either the square root of I over mgh or the square root of L over g by two pi describe this process for different devices. For small amplitudes, this process can approximate the motion of pendulums. For 10 points, name this type of periodic motion exemplified by springs.

Simple Harmonic Motion

which also contains his universal law of gravitation. For 10 points, name this English scientist who developed three laws of motion and discovered calculus concurrently with Leibniz.

Sir Isaac Newton

The "fuzzball model" is thought to describe these objects, from which energy can be harvested by means of the Penrose process. Ones described by the Kerr metric cause frame-dragging within their ergospheres.

black holes

The tachocline is one layer found within this body that produces most of the neutrinos passing by Earth. The varying locations of one notable feature on this object are described by Sporer's Law, and its movement was used to derive the Carrington rotation.

Sun

Stokes' law gives drag force for a spherical object as six pi times radius times velocity times this property, and the Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to forces caused by this.

Viscosity

This property can be measured using a Zahn cup, and for special cases, shear stress can be calculated as the product of shear strain and this property. Measuring this is the goal of the pitch drop experiment, and one unit this quantity is measured in is poise.

Viscosity

Measuring this in a circuit requires an instrument with a very high resistance connected in parallel. For a point charge it is proportional to charge over radius, and it can also be referred to as potential difference. For 10 points, name this term used for work per unit charge, often symbolized V.

Voltage

The power of a resistor is equal to the square of this quantity divided by resistance, and this quantity is constant for resistors wired in parallel. Referred to as the electromotive force when generated by a battery, For 10 points, name this quantity which, according to Ohm's law, is the product of current and resistance.

Voltage

Although this astronomer was born in Germany, most of his work took place in the city of Bath in England. Apart from being a composer in his spare time, this man discovered the moons Oberon and Titania, which orbit his most famous discovery, which he initially called (*) "George's Star". For ten points, name this astronomer who discovered the seventh planet, Uranus.

William Herschel

This scientist coined the term "asteroid" and was the first to propose that the Milky Way galaxy was shaped like a disk. This man designed a new type of telescope, which had a 40 foot focal length, which he used to discover two new moons of (+) Saturn.

William Herschel

The enormous range of timescales on which these particles are produced are related to their energies by the Geiger-Nuttall law. George Gamow modeled the production of these particles in terms of quantum tunneling out of a potential well. The production of these charged particles by (*) americium-241 underlies the operation of smoke detectors.

alpha particles

The production of these particles decreases both the atomic number and mass number of their neutron-rich sources, and they have same constituents as a helium-4 nucleus. A sheet of paper can easily stop —for 10 points—what form of ionizing radiation, composed of two protons and two neutrons?

alpha particles

In quantum mechanics, the square of the operator corresponding to this quantity commutes with the Hamiltonian if the potential is central. Kepler's Second Law arises from the fact that areal velocity is equal to this quantity divided by twice the mass of the orbiting body,

angular momentum

In quantum mechanics, the square of the operator corresponding to this quantity commutes with the Hamiltonian if the potential is central. Kepler's Second Law arises from the fact that areal velocity is equal to this quantity divided by twice the mass of the orbiting body, and the (*) orbital form of this quantity is quantized in units of the reduced Planck's constant.

angular momentum

Noether's Theorem applied to rotational invariance yields the conservation of this quantity, and its intrinsic form is called spin. This quantity is equal to the moment of inertia times the angular velocity. For 10 points, name this physical quantity, the rotational counterpart of momentum.

angular momentum

and the (*) orbital form of this quantity is quantized in units of the reduced Planck's constant. Noether's Theorem applied to rotational invariance yields the conservation of this quantity,

angular momentum

The ATRAP project collected one type of this substance from radioactive sodium-22 in a Penning trap. The existence of another type of this substance was proposed by Dirac to explain quantum states with negative energies and was first observed by Carl Anderson.

antimatter

One method of attitude-controlling these devices is via gravity-gradient stabilization, which typically requires that an extended boom be present. The destruction of these devices may eventually lead to an ablation cascade, as proposed by Kessler. Over the course of their lives, these devices consume their "delta-v budget", and once that budget is almost over, they may be graveyarded.

artificial satellites

These devices must perform station-keeping maneuvers when located in low Earth orbit. The GPS constellation features 32 of these devices. For 10 points, name these manmade objects that are launched into space, the first of which was Sputnik.

artificial satellites

A combination of two earlier models of this thing that incorporates vibration and rotation is the so-called collective model. A correction term in a formula for these things adds or subtracts a term equal to 11.18 MeV over A to the one-half for even-even and odd-odd types of them, respectively.

atomic nuclei

That formula, developed by Carl Friedrich von Weizsaecker, incorporates empirical data and assumes that this thing behaves as an incompressible liquid drop, and is used to calculate the binding energy of these things, which is the energy needed to (*) split them into multiple parts.

atomic nuclei

These things are more stable when their constituents are present in so-called "magic numbers". Its existence was confirmed by the results of the gold foil experiment. For 10 points, what part of the atom consists of protons and neutrons?

atomic nuclei

In a refutation of the "plum-pudding" model, this structure was discovered in Rutherford's gold-foil experiment. For 10 points, name this structure made of the protons and neutrons at the center of an atom.

atomic nucleus

Their only known properties are mass, charge, and angular momentum, due to the no-hair theorem. For a given mass, the Schwarzschild radius gives the surface of their event horizons, which contain a singularity of infinite density. Studied by Stephen Hawking, for 10 points, identify these massive, compact space objects from which not even light can escape.

black holes

A function of the frequency of these objects squared fails at low wavelengths in the ultraviolet catastrophe. That law, the Rayleigh-Jeans law, was improved by Planck. Their emissive power is proportional to temperature to the fourth power. For 10 points, name these theoretical bodies named for their ability to absorb and re-radiate all incident electromagnetic radiation.

blackbodies

Lummer and Kurlbaum modeled these objects as a cavity with a miniscule hole. A law derived by multiplying the Bose-Einstein distribution by the density of states gives these objects' peak energy as roughly 2.8 times the Boltzmann constant times temperature, in accord with Wien's law.

blackbodies

Historically, it was believed that these objects could be modeled as a cavity with equally likely modes that increased with frequency. The fourth power of temperature is proportional to the flux emitted by one of these according to the Stefan-Boltzmann (STEF-on BOLTS-mon) law.

blackbody

hey have a wavelength of maximum intensity described by Wien's (VEENZ) displacement law. The ultraviolet catastrophe describes the breakdown of the Rayleigh-Jeans Law governing radiation from these entities. For 10 points, name these objects that absorb all incoming energy.

blackbody

A novel material of this color is made of vertically aligned nanotubes and is known as "vanta"-​this color. Every path from a node to its leaves has the same number of nodes of ​this color in a type of tree named for it and an alphabetically-​later color. This color names an object that emits radiative power proportional to the fourth power of (*) ​temperature, according to the StefanBoltzmann law.

black​

This type of "body" absorbs incident radiation of all frequencies. In computer science, a device whose internal workings are unknown is called a "box" of this color. For 10 points, identify this color corresponding to the absence of light.

black​

For the characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission line, this value is multiplied by "j omega" in the denominator of the square root. For a circuit, the impedance is equal to the reciprocal of the complex unit times angular frequency times this value.

capacitance

One divided by the product of angular frequency and this quantity gives its namesake (*) reactance. In a namesake device, increasing the dielectric constant increases this quantity.

capacitance

The band filling / emptying effect alters the quantum form of this quantity for low density of state systems. For two concentric spheres, this quantity is equal to 4pi epsilon naught divided by the reciprocal of the inner radius minus the outer radius.

capacitance

This quantity is defined as charge over voltage and is measured in farads. For 10 points name quantity that measures the ability to store charge.

capacitance

This value is proportional to plate area and inversely proportional to distance in its namesake parallel-plate device, and its product with voltage is the charge. For 10 points, name this quantity that describes the ability of a namesake circuit element to store charge.

capacitance

This value is proportional to the reciprocal of the log of the ratio of the (*) shell diameters for a coaxial cable.

capacitance

Heinrich Kreutz is the namesake of a family of these objects, and Fred Whipple devised a model of them. One of these objects was studied by the Deep Impact mission, and another was studied by the Giotto mission.

comets

One of these objects collided with Jupiter in 1994, and another named Swift-Tuttle is responsible for the Perseid meteor shower.

comets

The long-period type of these objects comes from the Oort cloud, and the short-period type comes from the Kuiper belt. For 10 points, name these celestial objects, examples of which include Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Hale-Bopp.

comets

One version of this value is given as the quotient of the determinants of the two fundamental forms. The derivative of the unit tangent vector is equal to this quantity times the unit normal vector. By the Theorema Egregium, this value is invariant under local isometry.

curvature

This value for a circle is given as one over its radius. For 10 points, name this mathematical quantity intuitively defined as how unstraight a line is.

curvature

Accounting for about 27 percent of the mass-energy of the universe, identify this substance that does not absorb or emit light and therefore cannot be seen directly.

dark matter

This concept has been more successful than Modified Newtonian [new-TOE-nee-un] dynamics at explaining the galaxy rotation problem. An equation relating average kinetic energy to potential energy called the virial[VEHR-ee-ul] theorem and observations of the Coma cluster were used by Fritz Zwicky in 1933 to predict the existence of this substance.

dark matter

Due to this process, every point on a wave front is considered a source of (*) secondary spherical wavelets, and this interaction creates an Airy disk that limits the focusing ability of lenses.

diffraction

Interference caused by this phenomenon creates alternating light and dark bands, which was observed in Young's double-slit experiment. For ten points, identify this phenomenon where waves bend around an obstacle.

diffraction

The intensity of this process for electrons is proportional to the structure factor squared, and one parameter for this phenomenon measures the ratio of aperture size squared to the product of distance and wavelength.

diffraction

A coefficient associated with this force is equal to one when stagnation pressure builds up over an entire surface. Potential flow solutions to the Euler equation indicate that this force should be zero in direct opposition to observation in a paradox named after Jean d'Alembert.

drag

The power needed to overcome this force is proportional to the third power of velocity and at very low Reynolds numbers, this force for spherical objects is proportional to the fluid velocity, according to Stokes' Law.

drag

This force leads to an object reaching terminal velocity and counteracts thrust. For 10 points, name this force which opposes an object's motion through fluid, including air.

drag

Ceres is the only one in the asteroid belt; all the others, including Makemake (MAH-kay MAH-kay) and Eris, are Trans-Neptunian. For 10 points, name this type of celestial body to which Pluto was demoted in 2006, a body that is not quite a planet.

dwarf planets

The name for these objects proposed by astronomer Julio Angel Fernandez was unanimously rejected in favor of the current name. According to the IAU, new Trans-Neptunian objects with an absolute magnitude of less than +1 should be named under the assumption that they are these objects. They have not cleared their orbital path of similarly sized objects, but they have sufficient gravity to have been rounded.

dwarf planets

Capacitance is equal to this quantity divided by voltage. The electrostatic force on an object equals this quantity times the external electric field. For 10 points, name this quantity, often symbolized by the letter Q, which is measured in Coulombs.

electric charge

Its conservation is assumed by Kirchoff's first circuit rule, and the Millikan oil-drop experiment measured the "elementary" one. For 10 points, name this property measured in coulombs, whose rate of change is current and which can be positive or negative.

electric charge

One variety of this property defines eight different types of gluons; hadrons with that type of this property cannot be isolated or directly observed due to confinement. Unlike that "color" type, the more common type of this causes a point to be accelerated in proportion to it by the Lorentz force.

electric charge

The magnetic force on a moving particle is equal to this quantity times the cross product of (*)) velocity and magnetic field by the Lorentz force law.

electric charge

The time derivative of this quantity's density equals the negative divergence of current density. The energy stored in a capacitor equals one half times this quantity squared, divided by capacitance.

electric charge

The power dissipated due to Joule heating is proportional to the square of this quantity, which is also the subject of Kirchhoff's first law. This quantity, which is measured in amperes, is the rate that electric charge flows. For 10 points, name this quantity that is equal to voltage divided by resistance, according to Ohm's law.

electric current

This quantity is plotted on the y-axis of a Bergeron diagram, and determinants are used to calculate this quantity in mesh analysis. The magnetic field is proportional to this quantity according to the BiotSavart law.

electric current

In semiconductors, the mobility is multiplied by this entity to get drift velocity. In the Lorentz force law, unlike a similar quantity it is not multiplied by the velocity. Its divergence is equal to the charge density divided by the permittivity of space.

electric field

It polarizes dielectrics, allowing capacitors to store energy in capacitors. For 10 points, name this field whose magnitude at a location is defined as the strength of the force divided by the point charge that experienced it.

electric field

The cross product of this quantity with the magnetic field appears in the equation for the Poynting Vector. The Stark effect refers to this entity splitting spectral lines

electric field

The displacement current in Ampere's Law is proportional to the time rate of change of this quantity. Current density equals conductivity times this value, according to a variant of Ohm's Law.

electric field

This quantity is independent of distance from a charged sheet according to Gauss' Law, which is used to calculate it for charge distributions. It is constant inside a capacitor and zero inside a metal.

electric field

he negative integral of it equals the change in potential between two points. This quantity can be calculated by dividing both sides of Coulomb's Law by a test charge and noting it equals force divided by charge. For 10 points, name this quantity, the field from charged particles.

electric field

Bela Karlovitz used magneto-hydro-dynamic theory to invent one of these devices. Faraday invented consisting of a rotating flywheel. A type of these devices relies on conductive brushes rubbing against the conducting armature on a mechanical commutator.

electrical generators

Magnetos are used for this purpose. A hollow metal globe in which static charges (*) accumulate due to friction is one of these devices.

electrical generators

These devices in electrical circuits are usually either dynamos or alternators, depending on if the result is alternating or direct. For 10 points, name these devices, exemplified by an object named for van de Graaff, which create electrical currents.

electrical generators

Describing their motion was the original intent of a formula containing Pauli matrices, the Dirac equation. They are discharged en masse in a tube named for William Crookes; in an experiment using a nickel crystal, these particles were shown to diffract like waves by Davisson and Germer.

electrons

Hertz discovered that they are emitted when matter is hit by sufficiently-energetic light. Emitted in beta-minus decay, they became the first discovered leptons in 1897, when J.J. Thomson determined cathode rays were made of them. For 10 points, name this ubiquitous elementary particle with negative charge.

electrons

In an atom, the state of one of these is uniquely defined by four indices, including the spin quantum number, which exists due to the Pauli exclusion principle. In the Bohr model, these things orbit in distinct shells, but modern theories treat them as a cloud of probability surrounding a nucleus. For 10 points, name these negatively-charged subatomic particles.

electrons

The work function measures the binding energy of these things. "Configurations" of them are often abbreviated by writing the symbol of a noble gas in square brackets. Multiplying their charge by one volt gives a unit of energy that is frequently used in particle physics.

electrons

Degenerate orbitals have the same value for this quantity, which determines the order in which electrons fill orbitals according to the aufbau (OWFF-bow) principle. For 10 points, name this quantity that, like work, is measured in joules.

energy

Franck Condon and Jablonski diagrams implicitly plot this quantity along the (*) vertical axis. Transition states are saddle points on a plot of this quantity against the reaction coordinate. This quantity is the eigenvalue of the Hamiltonian in the Schrödinger equation.

energy

In the exponential of wave functions for stationary states, this quantity is multiplied by negative i times t over h-bar. This quantity is equal to the time derivative of the action. The commutator of this quantity with time is negative i times h-bar, which means they have an uncertainty relation similar to Heisenberg's.

energy

The AMBER software package maps this scalar quantity to molecular structure. The standard unit for this quantity in quantum chemistry is the hartree. The Born Oppenheimer approximation allows two forms of this quantity to add independently. Variational methods minimize this quantity.

energy

Two forms of this quantity are added together to give the (*) Hamiltonian. Quantum mechanical states are degenerate if they have the same value for this quantity. Work equals the change in this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity that can come in potential and kinetic varieties.

energy

Owing to a (*) hysteresis loop, this property remains in a material even after an applied field is removed, though it disappears when a material is raised above the Curie temperature. Bulk materials with this property consist of domains of aligned spins.

ferromagnetism

This property is present in elements above the horizontal axis in the Bethe-Slater curve, and it only occurs in materials with one or more easy axes. Coercivity and remanence are characteristic properties of materials with this property that increases in discrete steps as shown by the Barkhausen effect.

ferromagnetism

If a fluid is incompressible, the divergence of this quantity is zero. The sum of pressure head, elevation head, and this quantity's namesake head is constant. This quantity times diameter over viscosity equals the Reynolds number.

fluid velocity

This quantity times density times area is constant by the conservation of mass. This quantity is squared in (*) Bernoulli's equation, which shows that it goes up if pressure goes down.

fluid velocity

Volumetric flow rate equals this quantity times cross-sectional area. Often symbolized u, this quantity for a compressible fluid in a pipe cannot be greater than Mach 1. For 10 points, name this quantity measured in meters per second.

fluid velocity

The value of a specific type of this quantity in a rotating reference frame is equal to the cross product of v and -2m times omega. This quantity's third and fourth derivatives are known as "snatch" and "shake", respectively.

forces

This quantity is equal to k times the absolute value of the product of two point charges divided by the square of their distance in a law named for Coulomb. With units of kilogram meters per seconds squared, also known as newtons, for ten points, name these vector quantities which are always found in equal and opposite pairs according to Newton's Third Law.

forces

During black hole mergers, it creates "waves" that have been detected by LIGO. For 10 points each, name this weakest of the four fundamental forces, which results from curved spacetime according to Einstein's general relativity.

gravity

Joseph Weber proposed to detect one consequence of this phenomenon using a set of ringing aluminum cylinders. The "A+" upgrade will double the sensitivity of another instrument that observes the effects of this phenomenon.

gravity

The equivalence principle states that the force due to this entity is indistinguishable from the force experienced in a (*) non-inertial frame. The Pound-Rebka experiment verified the redshift due to this phenomenon.

gravity

When the equation describing one of these systems has a double root, the object will cross a certain point once before slowing to a stop, and an RLC circuit acts like one of these systems.

harmonic oscillator

When the external force on a certain type of these systems has the right frequency, it will exhibit pure (*) resonance. Using the small angle approximation lets a pendulum be modeled as one of these systems, and setting Newton's 2nd Law equal to Hooke's Law gives the equation that models the "simple" type of these systems. For ten points, name these systems which can be "damped" and "simple," and exhibit periodic motion, an example of which is a spring.

harmonic oscillator

Dennis Gabor invented this technique whose creation was made practical by the development of lasers. Name these images which appear to be three-dimensional.

hologram

Stephen Benton invented the most popular type of this phenomenon, the rainbow. In general, these are classified as either thin or thick, as amplitude or phase, and as transmission or reflection. Those classifications depend on the location of the reference beam when these are created and the spacing of their interference pattern.

hologram

In thermal equilibrium, this quantity for every particle is equal to three halves times Boltzmann's constant times temperature. In special relativity, this quantity is equal to the gamma factor minus one times mass times the speed of light squared.

kinetic energy

Multiplying one-half times the moment of inertia and the square of the angular velocity gives the rotational form of this quantity. Along with momentum, this quantity is conserved in elastic collisions, and subtracting potential energy from this quantity gives the Lagrangian of the system. For 10 points, name this physical quantity that is equal to one half times mass times velocity squared.

kinetic energy

The rotational form of this quantity is given by one half the moment of inertia times the angular velocity squared while for non-relativistic velocities, the translational form is equal to one half of the mass times velocity squared. For 10 points, name this type of energy that is caused by the motion of an object, in contrast with potential energy.

kinetic energy

The value of this for particles equals the quantity the Lorentz factor minus one, times mass times the speed of light. In the absence of outside forces, the value of this for superfluids remains constant. The value of this for a photon is given by multiplying (*) Planck's constant by frequency.

kinetic energy

This quantity is conserved in elastic collisions, and escape velocity can be found by setting this quantity equal to the negative of potential energy. For ten points, name this quantity equal to one half mass times velocity squared, the energy of motion, symbolized K.

kinetic energy

William Bertozzi found that an electron's value for this quantity after striking aluminum agreed closely with those predicted by special relativity. An object's value for this quantity is equal to linear momentum squared divided by twice the object's mass, and the rotational form of this quantity is proportional to the square of angular (*) velocity.

kinetic energy

In 1960, Theodore Maiman used a ruby crystal in one of these devices not long after Charles Townes created a precursor to one of these objects that produced microwaves. For ten points, identify these devices that emit a very focused beam of light.

lasers

The rate at which one process occurs in these devices is proportional to Einstein's B-coefficient, and mode-locking can make them active for shorter periods of time. These devices typically require the gain medium to reach a state of population inversion, where there are more molecules in an (*) excited state than not.

lasers

These devices use optical pumping to bring the system to a short-lived state which decays into the most populated metastable state. That's called population inversion.

lasers

These devices, which come in a free-electron type, are used to create a transmission hologram. They create coherent photons through stimulated emission. For 10 points, name these devices which can make a monochromatic beam of light.

lasers

Though not synchotrons, one type of these devices makes use of wigglers to accelerate electrons through a transverse magnetic field. In 2012, physicists used one of these devices to create particles which were successfully quantum teleported 150 kilometers away.

lasers

Finding the time-derivative of the expectation value of this quantity gives Ehrenfest's theorem. In Lagrangian mechanics, cyclic coordinates can be used if the generalized form of this quantity is invariant. A relativistic form of this quantity has one component equal to E over c and the other three equal to the classical components.

linear momentum [accept p]

This quantity is conserved due to the Lagrangian's translational invariance according to (*) Noether's theorem. This quantity divides Planck's constant to find de Broglie wavelength. The change in this quantity is equal to the impulse.

linear momentum [accept p]

This quantity is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collision. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to mass times velocity.

linear momentum [accept p]

A star with a particularly strong one of these entities explains bursts from soft gamma repeaters; those stars are a subtype of (*) neutron stars, whose revolution rate decreases over time due to these things. The solar wind is guided by one of these entities, whose reconnection causes solar flares.

magnetic field

An accretion disk and one of these entities can be used to extract energy from a spinning black hole in the Blandford-Znajek mechanism. The "ballerina skirt" model was used to describe the effects of another one of these entities, whose generating body's rotation influences the shape of the Parker spiral.

magnetic field

An "effective" form of this quantity used to calculate conductivity in the Drude model is equal to three times the harmonic mean of three similarly-named values specific to each dimension. Its invariant form is proportional to the square root of the difference of the squares of energy and momentum times the speed of light.

mass

Some of this quantity is lost when atoms bond, this value's defect. Black holes are completely categorized by charge, angular momentum, and this quantity. Given by force divided by acceleration, for 10 points, name this measure of an object's inertia, measured in kilograms.

mass

Discovered in 1932 by James Chadwick, for 10 points, name this electrically neutral subatomic particle, found in the nucleus with protons.

neutrons

Experiments by Francisco-Miguel Marques et al. suggested the possibility of a stable cluster of four of them. Brockhouse developed a method of spectroscopy using these particles, and work leading to their discovery showed that beryllium rays could remove particles from paraffin wax and was performed by the Joliot-Curies.

neutrons

n antineutrino is released when these undergo a certain type of decay, and free ones have a lifetime of approximately fifteen minutes. They undergo beta-minus decay, and are created by electron capture.

neutrons

Attaching two of these devices end to end creates a chaotic device whose trajectories trace out part of a topological torus. The generic equation of motion for these devices is "theta-double-dot equals negative k times sine theta", assuming there are no extended masses present, as in the "compound" type of this device.

pendulum

One type of these devices picks up a geometric phase as the Earth rotates, causing it to precess; that type is named for Foucault. The period of these devices equals "2 pi times root (length over small g)". For 10 points, name this simple device consisting of a weight suspended from a string, which exhibit approximate simple harmonic motion.

pendulum

A team led by Nevil Maskelyne used one of these objects to calculate the density of the Earth. These objects were once used to calculate the momentum of a speeding bullet. The differential equation "d squared theta d t squared equals negative g over L sine theta" describes these objects;

pendulums

that equation is then solved by assuming sine theta equals (*) theta. One of them placed at the dome of the Pantheon was used to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth by Foucault. Their periods are independent of mass. For 10 points, name these simple harmonic oscillators which consist of a bob on a string, used in grandfather clocks.

pendulums

According to Lenard, the kinetic energy of the resulting particles is intensity-independent and varies with the wavelength of the incident radiation in this effect. For 10 points, name this effect by which photons hitting a surface cause emission of electrons, the explanation of which won Einstein his Nobel Prize.

photoelectric effect

The work function over Planck's constant equals the threshold frequency of this effect. The use of induction coils with spark gaps bombarded by ultraviolet light allowed [*] Heinrich Hertz to discover this effect.

photoelectric effect

This phenomenon's namesake spectroscopy can be used to determine the binding energy of a material. This effect experiences no detectable time lag due to ambient radiation.

photoelectric effect

A scattering event in which one of these particles is the incident particle is characterized by a factor of "one minus the cosine of the scattering angle." These particles are exchanged in interactions between charged particles according to QED and they're responsible for radiation pressure.

photons

In order for both energy and momentum to be conserved, a nucleus is usually involved when these particles decay into an electron and positron. Einstein's coefficients determine when these particles are emitted in systems which usually have undergone population inversion.

photons

The energy of these particles is sometimes sufficient to exceed a material's work function, and is proportional to their momentum.

photons

These particles are incident in both (*) Compton scattering and Rayleigh scattering. The energy of one of these particles equals its momentum times the speed of light or Planck's constant times its frequency. Einstein posited these bosons to explain the photoelectric effect. For 10 points, name these quanta of light that have zero mass.

photons

These particles were proven to diffract in Young's double-slit experiment, and their existence explains the photoelectric effect. For 10 points, identify these massless particles which move at the speed of light.

photons

Six times this quantity times the dynamic viscosity times the radius times the velocity gives the force exerted on a spherical object in Stokes' law. Eight times this value times the universal gravitational constant times the stress-energy tensor appears in the numerator of Einstein's field equation.

pi

A tokamak magnetically confines substances of this type to a torus. Substances of thistype are studied by Langmuir probes and created through the Townsend discharge.

plasmas

The LHC's ALICE is an experiment to create a substance of this type consisting of asymptotically free quarksand gluons. The average number of electrons in a substance of this type in a Debye sphere is this substance'snamesake parameter lambda.

plasmas

The heliosphere is defined by theextent of a substance of this type emitted by the sun, the solar wind, and these are created by ionizing a gas at hightemperatures. For 10 points, name this fourth state of matter present in stars, neon signs, and lightning.

plasmas

Negative the gradient, or spatial derivative, of this property is equal to force, and it is equal to one-half a constant times the (*) displacement squared for a spring.

potential energy

The chemical form of this property is contained in bonds, and its gravitational form is proportional to the weight times the height. A swing at its peak has the maximum value of, for 10 points, what type of energy contrasted with kinetic?

potential energy

When this quantity is constant, the solutions to the time-independent Schrodinger equation are complex exponentials, and the shape of the graph of this quantity is square for an infinite square well. In the Hamiltonian or Lagrangian, it is often denoted uppercase V.

potential energy

For AC circuits, the expression for the average of this quantity includes a namesake factor which accounts for differences in this quantity between DC and AC currents. In fluid systems, this quantity is equal to pressure times volumetric flow rate.

power

In a rotational system, this quantity equals torque times angular velocity, while its electrical type can be expressed as both current times voltage and as voltage squared divided by resistance.

power

Its integral with respect to time gives the work done on a system, and its instantaneous form equals force dotted with velocity. For 10 points, name this quantity measuring the rate at which energy is transferred, which is measured in watts.

power

A wobbling along the path of this phenomenon is called nutation, and a spinning bike wheel can hang from one string at the end of a horizontal axis using it. This phenomenon classical form has angular velocity directly proportional to torque. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which the axis of rotation shifts, an effect usually demonstrated with gyroscopes.

precession

a quantity often computed for the gyroscopic type and important in gyrocompasses. For 10 points, name this phenomenon where the axis of a rotating object changes direction, which can be applied in astronomy to Earth's changing axis as it revolves and rotates.

precession

Evangelista (*) Torricelli invented a device for measuring this quantity, and the first part of his last name is the origin of a unit for measuring this. For an ideal gas at constant temperature, Boyle's law

pressure

This quantity has a namesake head that represents the internal energy due to a type of this quantity. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation states that the slope of a coexistence curve equals the derivative of this quantity over the derivative of temperature.

pressure

states that the absolute form of this quantity is inversely proportional to volume. For 10 points, name this property of gases equal to force over unit area that measured in Pascals.

pressure

A system of a spring, a mass, and one of these devices oscillates with an angular frequency of two time the spring constant over the sum of the mass and the mass of this device.

pulley

Mechanical advantage increases directly with the number of these devices in a block and tackle system. For 10 points, name this simple machine made of cable attached to a wheel on an axle.

pulley

One of these devices with two masses attached has an acceleration proportional to the difference of the masses over the sum of the masses and is called an (*) Atwood machine.

pulley

Observations of these objects are used to probe the free electron density of the universe. They eventually reach the death line or death valley, and a binary system consisting of two of these objects was discovered by Hulse and Taylor.

pulsars

These stars' emissions and precisely periodic rotation result in a "lighthouse effect." For 10 points, name these rapidly rotating neutron stars that emit a beam of radiation.

pulsars

They sometimes experience sudden increases in frequency known as glitches. They can be powered by accretion or rotation, and highly magnetized ones are known as magnetars.

pulsars

A law describing this phenomenon was derived by Fermat from his principle of least time, and that law indicates that the ratio of phase velocities in two media are proportional to the sine of the angle of incidence to this phenomenon's namesake angle. For 10 points, name this optics phenomenon described by Snell's Law, in which light bends because of a change in medium.

refraction

This scientific phenomenon helps explain Fata Morgana. The Fresnel equations describe this phenomenon's relationship to reflectance and polarization. Certain classes of metamaterials can have a negative value for a number associated with this phenomenon.

refraction

For an electrical component envisioned by Leon Chua, this quantity depends on previous values, indicating that electrical components can have a memory for this quantity. Predictions for this quantity are too low in AC circuits because of the Skin Effect.

resistance

In deriving the equation named for these objects, the second order term consisting of "dm times dv" is usually neglected, since it is the product of two differentials. Gustav de Laval designed an hourglass-shaped tube that is used to improve the efficiency of them.

rockets

Two boosters of this kind of engine are attached to an orbiter in a space shuttle. For 10 points, name these engines that achieve thrust by expelling fuel, and which may consist of different "stages."

rockets

One type of these materials are said to be strongly confined when their radii are smaller than the exciton Bohr radius, and they fluoresce under excitation; those objects are quantum dots. These materials are modulated by the Schottky barrier and Fermi level found in the bandgap region, and are fabricated through (*) etching and lithography.

semiconductors

They can be classified based on the presence of electron holes or free electrons, both of which are found at a p-n junction, and they can be incorporated into rectifiers and diodes. For ten points, identify these materials with properties between those of an insulator and a conductor.

semiconductors

An object (*) exceeding this quantity will cause the formation of a cone of condensation due to the formation of a shock wave, which is also accompanied by a loud boom. For 10 points, identify this speed equal to Mach one, the rate at which phenomena such as thunder and voices propagate through a medium.

speed of sound

For an ideal gas, this quantity equals the square root of the adiabatic index times the gas constant times temperature over molar mass, a result which can be derived from a more general formula equating it to the square root of the bulk modulus over the density. For air, this quantity varies based on humidity and temperature.

speed of sound

This quantity explains why two lines appeared when silver atoms were passed through an inhomogeneous magnetic field in the Stern-Gerlach experiment, as it "couples" with orbital angular momentum.

spin

This quantity is opposite in sign for two electrons in an orbital according to the Pauli exclusion principle, and has a magnitude of 1/2. For 10 points, name this intrinsic angular momentum of a particle.

spin

This quantity is represented by the SU(2) group of three anticommuting, Hermitian, unitary matrices named after Wolfgang Pauli. The quantization of this quantity was established by an experiment that passed silver atoms through an inhomogeneous magnetic field conducted by Stern and Gerlach.

spin

This quantity is the fourth quantum number after the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers. Fermions are characterized by half-integer values for this quantity. For 10 points, identify this quantity that represents intrinsic quantum angular momentum of a particle.

spin

When constructing molecular orbitals, the letters alpha and beta symbolize the eigenfunctions of this quantity. In the singlet state, the net value of this quantity equals zero. Metals with low splitting energy prefer to maximize this quantity according to Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity.

spin

In the fine structure constant, the charge of an electron is raised to this power. By the divergence theorem, any law in one over this many degrees can be written in Gaussian form. Kepler's Third Law establishes a proportional relationship between the cube of the semimajor axis of an orbit and this power of its period.

square

The force between two electric charges and the intensity of light emanating from a source both vary inversely with this power of the distance. In the formula for the area of a circle this power is assigned to the radius. For 10 points, give this name for when a term is raised to a power of two.

square

A tensor which contains terms for this quantity, energy, and momentum is related to the Ricci tensor and the metric tensor by the Einstein field equations. For a fluid, the only term describing its response to this quantity is the bulk modulus, which describes the compressional form of this quantity.

stress

For 10 points, name this quantity, a measure of the force per unit area that deforms a body, which is related in simple materials to strain by Hooke's law.

stress

The shear form of this quantity is related by an expression involving Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus to the shear deformation. Plastic deformation begins when this quantity exceeds an object's yield point.

stress

One of its properties, discovered by Gross, Politzer, and Wilczek, is known as asymptotic freedom. It is characterized mathematically as a non-Abelian gauge theory of the symmetric group SU3, a fundamental tenet of quantum chromodynamics.

strong nuclear force

Explained bythe condensation of electrons into phonon-exchanging Cooper Pairs, materials exhibiting this phenomenon expel magnetic fields in an effect named for Meissner. For 10 points, name this phenomenon which occurs at very low temperatures and is defined as the absence of electrical resistance.

superconductivity

Objects with this property have a characteristic coherence length and London penetration depth, and can be used in SQUID magnetometers. It can be described by Ginzburg-Landau theory, and a perovskite-based compound can maintain this property at a temperature above 77K, and is called (*) YBCO.

superconductivity

The Type I of this phenomenon is explained as the condensation of electrons into Cooper pairs by BCS theory and this effect causes the expulsion of magnetic fields in the Meissner effect, which can allow materials with this property to levitate. For 10 points, materials lowered below their critical temperature have what property in which there is no resistance?

superconductivity

Transition to this phenomenon is marked by a discontinuous jump in electric heat capacity. One theory about this phenomenon introduced the concepts of coherence length and penetration depth, explaining small perturbations in density and the decay of external magnetic fields. That theory is named for Ginzburg and Landau.

superconductivity

These materials may be modeled by Ginzberg-Landau theory or by constructing a superfluid of bosons called Cooper pairs.

superconductors

For 10 points, name this vector quantity, the derivative of angular momentum, which, given constant moment of inertia, causes angular acceleration and which is equivalent to the cross product of position and force, making it the rotational analogue of force.

torque

Two types of these objects were delineated by Abrikosov with respect to one model, whose namesake parameter is the ratio of the penetration depth to the coherence length. The free energy of these objects is minimized when the Laplacian of H equals the negative square of the London penetration depth times H, a condition that results in a form of perfect (*) diamagnetism unrelated to the expected Lenz's law cancellation.

superconductors

YBCO is a high-temperature example of these materials, which expel magnetic fields in the Meissner effect. BCS theory governs, for 10 points, what materials that exhibit zero electrical resistance?

superconductors

The Eotvos rule relates this quantity to surface tension, and the Einstein relation states that the diffusion coefficient is proportional to this quantity. One of these named for Boyle is the value for which the second coefficient of the virial equation is zero.

temperature

This quantity is raised to the fourth power in the Stefan-Boltzmann law for blackbody radiation, and this quantity will eventually approach equilibrium for objects in contact according to the zeroth law of thermodynamics. For 10 points, identify this quantity usually measured in degrees or Kelvins.

temperature

This event was immediately followed by the mysterious Planck time. Its occurrence can be verified by the fact that matter, at sufficiently large scales, is homogenous and isotropic,

the Big Bang

as well as by the uniform 2.73 Kelvin temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation. It was accompanied by a very rapid inflation and soon followed by recombination, during which electrons and protons cooled enough to form atoms. For 10 points, identify this event which occurred roughly fourteen billion years ago and began the existence of the universe.

the Big Bang

The root-mean-square speed for particles in an ideal gas is equal to the square root of this number times R T over M. The electric field strength due to an electric dipole decays at this power of distance, and this constant is in the denominator of the moment of inertia of (*) a rod rotated about one end.

three

The semi-major axis is raised to this power in one of Kepler's laws, and jerk is this derivative of position with respective to time. A "law" states that as the surface area grows by the second power, the volume instead grows by this power. For 10 points, give this number, the number of spatial dimensions.

three

A converter named for this concept is in cars with automatic transmissions instead of a clutch, allowing drivers to use the brakes without harming the car. To find this quantity on a loop of wire, start with the product of current times vector area, and cross that with the external magnetic field.

torque

One form of this quantity is represented as the cross product of lambda times magnetization and the derivative of magnetization in the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation. For an electric dipole, this quantity with a "spin-transfer" variety is equal to the cross product of the dipole moment and the electric field,

torque

This quantity is the source term in the mechanical Liouville equation, a generalization of Euler's equation of motion to non-rigid bodies. A mechanical couple produces these but not their analogues. A body experiences mechanical precession when the body's angular velocity is perpendicular to this quantity on the body.

torque

Work can be found by integrating this quantity with respect to angle, and this quantity is equal to the time derivative of angular momentum. Name this quantity equal to both moment of inertia times angular acceleration and to position vector cross force, the rotational analogue of force.

torque

A simple inverter consists of one of these components with a DC input in one part. The parameters of one of these devices are determined using the open-circuit and short-circuit tests. These devices' energy losses are sub-divided into copper losses and iron losses.

transformer

The equation governing these components sets the ratio of the number of turns in the two coils equal to the ratio of the voltages in the winding. For 10 points, name these alternating circuit components containing a pair of inductively-coupled coils that steps down or steps up an input voltage.

transformer

The root-mean-square output of these devices equals approximately 4.44 times the frequency times area times magnetic field times N. An example of the resonant kind of these devices is the (*) Tesla coil.

transformer

Bell Labs scientists Brattain, Bardeen, and Shockley won the 1956 Nobel for inventing this device. For 10 points, name these semiconductor-containing devices used as amplifiers and switches.

transistors

During the invention of this device, the so-called "traitorous eight" founded Fairchild. John Pierce coined the name of this invention, which began as strips of gold attached to a plastic triangle called the "point-contact" type.

transistors

his device, which replaced Lee De Forest's triode tube, was easier to manufacture in the "bipolar junction" form than the "field effect" form. Every 18 months, the number of these which can fit on an IC doubles, according to Moore's Law.

transistors

In one theory of this phenomenon, viscosity cubed over rate of energy dissipation all to the one-fourth power gives its smallest length scale. The energy cascade from large to small scales during this phenomenon is driven by vortex stretching.

turbulence

nce Kolmogorov microscales are reached, the kinetic energy necessary for this phenomenon to occur is lost as heat due to molecular viscosity. This phenomenon occurs at (*) high values of inertial forces divided by viscous forces,

turbulence

which is referred to as the Reynolds number. Laminar flow is contrasted with, for 10 points, what chaotic fluid flow that can cause unpleasant plane rides?

turbulence

Particle interactions between a pair of metal plates in this medium is described in the (*) Casimir effect, and evaporation into this medium is known as outgassing.

vacuum

Researchers have recently used an array of SQUIDs to produce photons in this medium, and electron interaction with this medium accounts for the small energy difference between the 2s and 2p energy levels.

vacuum

This medium sets a benchmark for the speed of light, and it is where true freefall occurs. Often achieved in laboratories by using an air pump, this medium is approximated by outer space. For ten points, give this condition that describes a space devoid of matter.

vacuum

A basis for these things is typically denoted "i hat, j hat, k hat" in rectangular coordinates. The cross product of two of these things yields another one of these things, and addition on them is performed "tip to tail". For 10 points, give this name for a mathematical object with a magnitude and a direction, often expressed as tuples of scalars.

vectors

This description is applied to bosons with a spin of 1, since their spin states transform like one of these things. One class of these objects is classified as either spacelike, timelike, or null. One operation on one of these things is set equal to zero in Gauss's law for magnetism; that operation is called "divergence", or "del dot".

vectors

This property is constant through the entirety of a homogeneous substance. Little g times the volume of a submerged object times this property of the displaced fluid equals the buoyant force, according to Archimedes's principle. For 10 points, name this quantity that equals mass per unit volume.

volumetric mass density [accept number density]

This quantity times the derivative of pressure with respect to this quantity is equal to a substance's bulk modulus. The degeneracy pressure of matter is a function only of this intensive property of the matter. Surfaces along which this property is constant are called "isopycnic". The specific volume is the reciprocal of this quantity.

volumetric mass density [accept number density]