SELF-IDENTITY & GROUP IDENTITY

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH

"DRAMA" = acronym. Uses metaphor of theater. Audience = essential. Dramaturgical Approach/ Theory: Concepts of front stage self, back stage self, impression management, and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical approach to social interactions. Dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions. When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience. Erving Goffman (1940) studied nature of people's interactions. He noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. They put the best presentation of themselves that they can. Says people do all these things through process of dramaturgy.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-RECIPROCAL LIKING

The term used for when a person likes another person more because they know that person likes them back. Important in a healthy relationship.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-REFERENCE GROUP

A reference group is a standard measure that people compare themselves to. For example, peers who are also studying for the MCAT might be a reference group for you. An individual can have multiple reference groups and these different groups may convey different messages.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-NETWORKS

A social network is a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others. Facebook is a popular online social network. Social networks are often based on groups that individuals belong to. Network ties are weak, but they can be powerful resources in meeting people (for example, using a network like LinkedIn to find a job).

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-ALTRUISM

Altruism: care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. Beneficial to society and also individuals. Studies found connection between volunteerism and future health and well-being. Also higher life satisfaction and decreased risk for depression/anxiety. Most definitions of altruism include that altruistic person is not getting anything in return. Can anything ever be truly altruistic?

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

Can be reduced by making task more difficult, or separating performance of individual in the group (giving own person their own grade), or make individual components to each group member.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

Conformity - "peer pressure", tendency for people to bring behaviour in line with group norms. Powerful in social situations. We use social situations (especially ones with peers) to determine what is acceptable, when to question authorities, and get feedback on behavior. This is why it is important for people to have positive peers. If group behavior is positive, then there will be peace, harmony, happiness. Negative peers = negative behaviors, which can be catastrophic.

CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Conformity and obedience refer to different, but related things. Can be positive. For example, if you see a bunch of people running out of a building, that you are just about to enter, you would probably conform to this behavior and run away as well. Can lead to negative behavior. For example, in teenagers peer pressure can lead to negative behaviors. "If your friend jumped of a bridge, would you too"

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-ALTRUISM

Cost signalling - giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation. Altruism has ulterior motive in the above three. There is always a reason (not completely selfless!)

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE ATTACHMENT

Does this parenting style have any long-term effects after childhood? Yes. Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with comfort with intimacy/relationships. Secure attachment with mothers leads to secure attachment with partner. Feel secure and trusting of partner. Insecure attachment with mother means they feel anxious about their relationship with partners as adults. Might avoid being too attached to any one person. Attachment style with infants effect our attachment with our own children. Secure attachment people tend to have secure attachments with their children and insecure attachment people tend to have insecure attachments with their children. How comfortable we feel with parents with first year of life affects us into adulthood.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SOCIAL SUPPORT

Emotional support - affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back). Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends). Esteem support - expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they belief in you. Can come from family+ friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-EVOLUTIONARY GAME THEORY

Evolutionary game theory tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

Increased arousal occurs only when person's efforts are evaluated. For example: if you are giving a presentation to close friends who are not evaluating you, you may not have any nervous energy, because you feel comfortable around them

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

Irving Janis was the first to coin the term groupthink and this person was able to come up with eight factors. !. Collective rationalization-group members ignore warnings and do not reconsider their actions, assumptions, or beliefs. 2. Excessive stereotyping - negative views of outside or dissenting opinions render effective responses to conflict necessary. 3. Illusion of invulnerability - an unjustified and excessive sense of optimism encourages risk-taking. 4. Illusion of morality - members of group believe in the moral rightness of their cause and therefore ignore the consequences of their actions.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Laws - norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. For example: public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. There is a punishment for the crime. Violation can be simple (J-walking) or severe (murder). There is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law. For example: friends takes of all clothes and decides to go streaking across the field. Broken law and you will receive a punishment. Perhaps not outrage or disgust - crowd might be laughing or cheering.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE ATTACHMENT

Parenting styles can be authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative (best). Authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child. Punishment. Authoritative: also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE JUST WORLD HYPOTHESIS

People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics/culture/spirituality. "In" group - the one we are connected with. "US". Stronger interactions with those in the in-group than those in the out-group. Interactions are more common and more influential as well within In-group. "Out" group - "THEM". Group we're not associated with, "group of people who we do not feel connected too" In-Group favouritism - we favour/friendly to people in our own group, but those in out-group we are neutral - we don't give them favours we do to our in-group. Out-group derogation - we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to out group - we discriminate. Happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to or undermine in group's success. Group polarization - Group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want. This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Physical proximity - more likely to comply with someone we are close to. In Milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter (the teacher) they are more likely to obey. Legitimacy of authority - if wearing lab coat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey. Shown in Milgram study.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR:CROWDS, PUBLICS, & SOCIAL MOVEMENT

Publics: A public is defined as a group of individuals discussing a single issue, which conflicts with the common usage of the term. This form of collective behavior begins as the discussion begins and ceases and there can exist various publics to reflect various discussions. People in public share ideas.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-ALTRUISM

Reciprocal altruism - People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. Giving with expectation of future reward. We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. This is why charities send out small gifts. By helping you out now, they hope you respond by giving them a larger gift in the future.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ROLE STRAIN & ROLE CONFLICT

Role Exit: Also called Social Role Exit. When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. Example: When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ETHNOCENTRISM & CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN GROUP & OUT GROUP

SEE NOTES

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

Strain Theory - if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. Individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success. Society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone. The lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success. For example: athlete attends a school that doesn't have proper baseball training equipment or no coach, or funding. Athlete becomes frustrated and turns to deviant behavior. School lacks the resources, so athlete tries steroids to level the playing field.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PHYSICAL ATTRACTION

Subtler things also influence attractiveness - ex. red background more attractive than white background. Unrelated physiological arousal also influences attraction - individuals who just walked across narrow bridge (sympathetic arousal) leads to increased rating of woman. Because during attraction sympathetic arousal occurs as well, ex. fast heartbeat. (you rate a woman while crossing a bridge higher because you are experiencing sympathetic arousal as when compared to rating the same woman while walking across the street.) When you are physically attracted to someone you experience this fast heartbeat (sympathetic arousal too). Our brain recognizes the sympathetic arousal from high height and being attracted together. For someone to be attracted to you - take them on a date to the amusement park.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

What are they trying to communicate? What is the main function of animal communication? Mating rituals, to attract opposite sex. Ex. Some animals use bright colors, complicated dances, and specific verbal calls. To establish/defend territory. Tell other animals to back off. For example, birds get territorial when they lay eggs. To convey information about food location. Alarm calls, to warn others about predators. Signal dominance and submission. For example, dogs have a stance to indicate who came out on top after a fight

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PHYSICAL ATTRACTION

What does physical attraction mean, and are there things attractive to all people? There are cultural differences, but some things are universally attractive - attractive across cultural backgrounds. Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso (broad shoulders, narrow waste).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-ZIMBARDO PRISON STUDY - THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Zimbardo Prison Study - the Stanford Prison Experiment - Final of three studies on conformity/obedience. Study was conducted in 1971. Purpose: how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from usual (on their own) or even contrary to how they think they would act. The answer is complicated (not only bad people do bad things). In certain situations can make otherwise ordinary people behave in strange ways.

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

"I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects' strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects' ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation: ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority." ~ Milgram

CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

# of types of conformity and obedience: Compliance, identification, and internalization. Compliance -situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed. "Compliance refers to a change in behavior that is requested by another person or group; the individual acted in some way because others asked him or her to do so (but it was possible to refuse or decline.) Compliance is the tendency to agree to do what is requested especially if there are certain factors present: a feeling that there is give and take, believability, likability, limited supply and positive feedback from others. Robert Cialdini studied how successful marketing results in consumer compliance. For example, soft drink labels have long used celebrities to increase compliance. The ordinary consumer would buy the drink because they liked the celebrity, assumed that the celebrity approved of the product, and believed what he had to say about it. For example, paying taxes (I will get punished if I don't pay my taxes). TSA screenings (nobody likes them, but you won't be allowed on the plane if you don't).

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: THE I AND ME

1. Preparatory stage -interaction through imitation, ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). Can't take perspective of others.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

2 different ways a person can conform - publically or privately. If you privately conform- change behaviours and opinions to align with group. For example, if you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color. If publically conform - you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group. For example, you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-ANIMAL BEHAVIOR: FORAGING

2 main foraging strategies - solitary foraging and group foraging. 1) Solitary foraging - animal looks for food by itself. Ex. Tigers do this. 2) group foraging - animals look for food in groups. Hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. Can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce. Benefit of this strategy is that animals can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit. ex. Lions do this.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH

2 parts of dramaturgy: Both help us explain how humans behave in a social setting. Front stage - when people are in a social setting. For example, someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball. Manipulating how he's seen to mgain/make friends. "Putting on a front and acting for an audience" perhaps use this to your advantage one day. Say "oh I love baseball" even though you don't really like baseball.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-AGGRESSION

2) Psychological: Frustration-aggression principle, the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration. Occur when blocked from achieving a goal. For example, physical pain or presence of crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration. (more violent crimes when the weather is hot). Reinforcement-modeling can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too (parents can model aggressive behavior - child can observe and pick up behavior of parents). The Cognitive association model states that we are merely to respond to stimuli in an aggressive manner when we are experiencing negative emotions or physiological feelings. For example, were are more likely to snap at our friends when we are hungry, tired, frustrated or in pain. Also, it works on a large scale such as riots occurring on very hot days.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-AGGRESSION

3) Socio-cultural-People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) - de-individuation - you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. This also explains why there is poor behavior on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behavior). De-individualization - De-individuation is when an individual loses self-awareness in groups. Social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. For example, violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. For example, lash out at someone when something goes wrong. Again, seems to be a combination of all 3 factors work together to lead to aggressive factor, not only 1.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

5. Illusion of unanimity - the majority of views of the group are assumed to be unanimous. 6. Mindguards - members of the group protect the group's cohesiveness by filtering out information that would be problematic. 7. Pressure on dissenters - members are constantly under pressure to not express views or beliefs that are against those of the group. 8. Self-censorship - members who do not hold dissenting opinions dod not share them.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-GROUP

A group consists of two or more people who identify and interact with one another. Family group is generally determined either by birth, adoption, or marriage joining of people of different ages and sexes through strong emotional ties. Peer group includes people of similar ages, statuses, and with similar interests that have all chosen to join the group. Self selected unlike family group that can perpetuate feelings of belong and friendship. Reference group is a social group against which individuals can evaluate themselves.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-PRIMARY & SECONDARY GROUPS

A group is a collection of any number of people (as few as two) who regularly interact and identify which each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations. A team of neurologists may be considered a group, while the entire hospital staff may not be considered a group, if there is little interaction between departments. The concept of social group is complex and groups come in numerous varieties. Groups help clearly define social roles and statuses.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ROLE, ROLE SET, ROLE PARTNER, & ROLE PERFORMANCE

A role is a collection of behaviors, values, norms, attitudes and beliefs that are expected of a person holding a particular status. For example, a doctor is expected to be intelligent, caring, and very knowledgeable about medicine and the human body. Every status can have multiple varied roles attached to it. This collection of roles is known as role set. These different roles are often defined by one's role partner or the person with whom one interacts. For example, imagine a seventh-grade teacher. The teacher behaves in different ways when she is interacting with different role partners like students the administration, other teachers, or parents. Role performance refers to how well a person carries out a particular role. Perhaps the teacher has an excellent grasp for her students and for what inspires then to study and work hard, but she struggles with the school's administration.

SUBCULTURES

A subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society. As the name suggests, a subculture can be though of as a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture. Members of a subculture do participate in many activities of the larger culture, but also have unique behaviors and activities that are specific to their subculture. This often includes having slang, such as that used by medical personnel (for example, cabbage for "coronary artery bypass"). Sometimes, subcultures are the result of countercultural backlash, an opposition of views widely accepted within a society. Hippies in the late 1960s and early 1970s would be considered a counterculture, because they opposed certain aspects of the dominant culture, such as middle class values and the Vietnam War. Bike enthusiasts, bartenders, and medical personnel are example of groups that can be called subcultures.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PROXIMITY & THE MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT

Advertisers know this effect. They depend on the mere exposure effect to sell you different products. More times we see a brand more likely we are to form a positive opinion about it.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-STATUS

Achieved status - status you earn yourself after working for it, for example, Olympic athlete. An achieved status is a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit. An individual's occupation tends to fall under the category of an achieved status; for example, a teacher or a firefighter.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Agents of Socialization: Refers to parts of society that are important for socialization (the process of learning the norms and values in a society). Socialization is a life-long process where we learn how to interact with others. Everything we consider to be normal is actually learned through socialization - how we learn to walk/talk/feed ourselves, and how we learn behavioural norms that help us fit in.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-AGGRESSION

Aggression = any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy. For example, physical, verbal, or spreading a malicious rumor. Aggression/aggressive behavior comes from combination of the 3: 1) Biology: 1. Genes: evidence: identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other is as well. With fraternal twins - not the case, and we can breed animals for aggression 2. Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior: No one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The amygdala (part of limbic system which is composed of structures from telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control, and correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation.(perhaps those who commit violent actions can't inhibit violent behaviors). 3. Testosterone is hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. Higher in men = why men are more aggressive than women. Also why 70 y/o man is less aggressive than a 17 y/o adolescence man. High levels of high testosterone can lead to aggression, muscle building, and wider faces (rather than long round one). Can lead to irritability/assertiveness/impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration. Drugs that reduce testosterone levels tend to reduce aggressive tendencies.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - CLOSER LOOK AT THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Also could have been affected by selection bias - no deception in study, so what kind of student willingly signs up to be in prison for 2 weeks? So, was this really random sample? Overall: these criticisms don't discredit its results. The results of the study line up with other studies of conformity and obedience with stricter methodologies.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Also institutional authority - well-respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (For example, police/government). Victim distance - in original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If could see participant, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks).

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SIMILARITY

Also more likely to think individual is attractive when their facial features are morphed with their own. More likely to vote for political candidates whose photographs have been changed to include our facial feature. We like people like us (same interests/attitudes) as well people like us who are similar to us on any level (like sharing same physical features).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - CLOSER LOOK AT THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Also, according to scientific methodology, this wasn't a good experiment. What were the operational definitions of dependent/independent variables? What was being manipulated, what was being measured, where were controls, etc.? Also small sample size? Different results if other people were involved? (Cant replicate so hard to know!) Also good example of demand characteristics (how much of behavior was influenced by how they thought experimenter wanted them to behave consciously or unconsciously). Possible that all participants were acting the way that Zimbardo wanted them to act.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

Also, many participants were comforted by passing responsibility of actions to others (when experimenter said they'd take full responsibility and participant would not be responsible for the harm, participants felt more comfortable). "I was just following orders". (seen in other cases of atrocities)

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE

Ambivalent attachment- refers to when a the child's caregiver is inconsistent, sometimes responsive to the child's needs and sometimes not. Because of this on-offf effect, a child will be distressed when separated from the caregiver but more ambivalent upon his or her return. Avoidvant attachment - refers to when a child's caregiver provides little to no response to the child's needs effectively providing no safe base. Children in this situation are likely to show no preference between the caregiver and a total stranger. As such, the child will show no distress when separated from a caregiver and little to no elation upon his or her return.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - BYSTANDER EFFECT

Amplified by amount of people in the group. If you were to collapse in small group, less chance of bystander effect. If only few people, more likely that people would be more inclined to take action and help you. Feel more personal responsibility.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - CLOSER LOOK AT THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

And guards didn't encourage solidarity, but tended to reward those they saw as good prisoners by giving privileges such as better foods, basic privileges, allowing them to keep mattresses etc. By giving privileges to some inmates and not others - guards broke solidarity of prisoners. Some released early due to emotional trauma. BUT, none of the prisoners just stopped and left the experiment, even though they were told at beginning of the experiment (in the consent form they signed) that they could. Why? Maybe it was a misunderstanding, they convinced each other to stay, or maybe didn't want to give up $ they were going to get for engaging in the experiment. These prisoners were just volunteered who could have left at any time.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-TYPES OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Animals can communicate with each other through sound, chemical signals, somatosensation, and visual cues.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Animals communicate with each other and humans. BUT, a WARNING. Watch about for anthropomorphism - attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals. For example, pet sleeping with you at night and you can assume that they love you but maybe they are just there because of your body heat.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Anticipatory socialization refers to the process by which we prepare for future changes that we anticipate. For example, say a security officer will be switching to the night shift in a few weeks. In preparation, he will begin to shift his sleep cycle, so as to anticipate the demands of the shift change. Resocialization is the process through which we get rid of old behaviors in order to take new ones. The training of soldiers to obey orders and behave within rigorous confines of military life is an example of resocialization.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Are there factors that will make someone more likely to conform? Are there external factors that can cause someone to change how they think? External factors can cause someone to do things that have nothing to do with the person.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE ATTACHMENT

Attachment refers to the emotional connection between a child and a caregiver that is established from birth. May occur starting from the first 6 months of life to two years of life.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-STATUS

Ascribed statuses - statuses you can't change, given from birth. For example, prince of royal family. The practice of assigning such statuses to individuals exists cross-culturally within all societies and is based on gender, race, family origins, and ethnic backgrounds.[3] For example, a person born into a wealthy family has a highvascribed status based solely on the social networks and economic advantages that one gains from being born into a family with more resources than others. Caste System is an example of this.

CULTURAL ASSIMILATION

Assimilation and amalgamation are two possible outcomes of interactions between multiple cultures in the same space. Assimilation is the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group. Amalgamation occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group. In this situation, a unique cultural group is formed that is distinct from any of the initial groups.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH

Back stage - more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. Private area of your life. Some things in backstage maybe nobody knows about, few people who are close to you might know about some things in your backstage. For example, guy who said he loved baseball might come home and like watching cooking shows, cooking nice meals, hanging out with his cat. Nobody knows this about him. It is things we do behind stage. For example, putting on makeup! Things we do to prepare for front-stage when nobody is around. Some people are crossing over from back stage to front stage due to social media - putting on a front in their backstage to make a good impression.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

Backstage - where you work on impression management. For example, put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits (training area for impression management).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - CLOSER LOOK AT THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Before experiment: all prisoners were similar, same background, college students, middle class, no physical or psychological conditions. Prisoners did not band together usually, they were pretty distrustful of each other. The prisoners saw each other as informants.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRACY

Bureaucracy may be associated with rationalization. Rationalization describes the process by which tasks are broken down into component parts to be efficiently accomplished by workers within the organization. Because the workers follow set procedures in completing task, it is easy to predict the outcome of the process. An example would be an assembly line and McDonaldization.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - CLOSER LOOK AT THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

But many problems with the study: Zimbardo himself played role of prison warden (to observe behaviors of input), but by doing so he compromised his objectivity (not a neutral observer). He was so involved that he passively allowed a lot of unethical behavior. Why didn't stop? He himself thought they were faking it to get released

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - BYSTANDER EFFECT

Bystander effect Individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group. The bystander effect refers to a group process in which individuals observe an injustice or a crime being perpetuated and do not intervene. Small group = less bystander effect. Large group = more bystander effect (leads to nothing happening by any one individual and people might not even call 911).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - BYSTANDER EFFECT

Bystander effect can lead to little happening by any individual. One example is story of Kitty Genovese - 28 year old women living in NYC who was stabbed, raped, and robbed while 38 people were in vicinity (witnesses). Horrific attack spanned over half an hour. Kitty was pleading for help and the victim later returned to kill her. 38 witnesses didn't take action because there were so many other people present in the vicinity.

CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Can conform due to different types of social influence- pressure we feel from those around us. Normative Social Influence - If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently. For example, friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him/her. You continue to say you like it (or even go to the singers concert). Informational Social Influence - when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't. For example, when you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in this place for a longer period) of things to do /places to eat and go along with their suggestions.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-TYPES OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Chemical signals/Olfactory Signals - Gain info from the environment through smells. They can so release scents for communication called pheromones (can be for mating, most often) or to guide other members to food (ants use this method). Can detect predators using smell, or presence of other animals. Chemical signals tends to be a lot slower than sound, but a lot longer lasting. But because of this long lasting effect, chemical signals are considered "noisy" - a lot of chemical signals in a given area.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Collective behavior generally violates widely held societal norms and it times it can be very destructive. Collective behavior is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occur in a collective.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Collective behavior is not the same as group behavior, because of a few reasons. First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time. Collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive. Collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SOCIAL SUPPORT

Companionship support - the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity. Social support network is huge! Can come from family, friends, pets, coworkers, partners, community organizers, healthcare workers, etc. Social support is important! Social support is a major determinant of health and wellbeing. Good social support = less mental health issues, more likely to behave in healthy behaviors, exercising, not smoking. Can help us deal with stress. People with low social support report more symptoms related to depression/anxiety, more mental disorders, more likely to have alcohol and drug problems. Also higher risk of deaths from cancer and heart disease. Why it's important to provide support for people around you too and also to pay attention to your own social support. You are a part of the web of social support for other people just like others are a social support for you!

ASCH CONFORMITY STUDIES (ASCH LINE STUDIES)

Criticisms/Problems with study: All participants came from the same population (all male undergrads from same culture) - women, individuals from minority groups, individuals from different cultures or age ranges might have reacted differently. Participants knew they were coming in for a study. Participant were suspicions of the study. Perhaps individuals would conform once just to see what would happen. Ecological validity - do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. If they don't, we can only make limited conclusions. A line in lab (in this experiment) is not same as conformity in the real world. Demand characteristics - describes how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that's what experimenter wanted them to do. Still, 75% of individuals confirmed with no pressure. How much more powerful would experiment be with a pressure/reward/punishment or if your friends/professors/teachers were the confederates (rather than random college students).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR:CROWDS, PUBLICS, & SOCIAL MOVEMENT

Crowds can be further classified based on the closeness of the individuals (for example, compact or diffuse crowds) and the emotions caused (for example, fear in the panic, happiness in the craze, and anger in the hostile outburst). The idea of panic is a common theme in examples of collective behavior; panic is a situation in which fear escalates to the point that it dominates thinking and thus affects entire groups (for example, during disaster situations). A mob us a specific example of a crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is directed toward a specific and violent cause. Historical examples of mobs include lynching.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-ZIMBARDO PRISON STUDY - THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Day 2: early prisoner rebellion against guards and some prisoner's remained in their cell. Guards fought back against prisoners actions because it was a danger to their authority. Prisoners cursed at guards. At some point, guards began to see actual participants as dangerous prisoners that needed to be controlled. Guards used fire extinguishers on them and forced them to strip down. Guards regained some control and rebelling prisoners were put in a closet/solitary confinement. Closet only big enough to stand but they couldn't lie down or sit. After 36 hours prisoners began to break down - literally. One prisoner starts to mentally break down (depression and uncontrollable rage, screamed, cried, yelled). Not the only prisoner who had mental breakdown, he was just the first.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-ZIMBARDO PRISON STUDY - THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Day 3, situation went even further. Participants went on hunger strike. In response, guards forced the prisoners to repeat their #s over and over again, exercise (pushups till exhaustion), withheld bathroom privileges and other basic amenities, and tried to make the prisoners turn on each other and break them down. Day 4, continued escalations. Day 5, same.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-ZIMBARDO PRISON STUDY - THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Day 6: Zimbardo had involved himself as prison warden. Zimbardo never realized things had gone wrong. His girlfriend, Maslach visited prison and so upset by what she saw she made him stop the experiment. His girlfriend is how Zimbardo was brought back to reality. Zimbardo then ends study By this time, half of prisoners already left from breakdowns. No guards had left.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - BYSTANDER EFFECT

Deindividuation - those in group are more likely to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person's identity. Good example is behavior of some on Black Friday. Presence of large group there is violence (shoppers trample employees, shot shoppers, stolen goods from stores). Presence of large group decreases their inhibition/guilt, hence increases antisocial/deviant behavior. Another example is the internet - anonymous platform causes people to express opinions they typically would not express. (ex. Youtube comments people are nasty, cyber bullying). 3 things create the perfect conditions for deindividuation such as the presence of large groups, physical anonymity, and arousing activities that start low and increase that may escalate. Deindividuation is a lack of self-awareness and is the result of a disconnection of behavior from attitudes.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Depersonalization - when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them. Depersonalization is a symptom of serious mental illness (although it can happen to anyone, repeated instances are suggestive of a dissociative disorder) in which a person feels like she has stepped outside of herself and is watching herself act, with no sense of control over her behavior. Role models for defiance - more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRACY

Disadvantages for bureaucracy include: difficulty adapting to changes. Workers may lose sight of mission goals as they focus on individual assigned task. Also, the may become overly attached to procedure and be inflexible to new challenges on an interpersonal level.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS- PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination = differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. ACTIONS ARE BEING TAKEN on negative-attitude (going a step further from prejudice). For example, say there's a woman who's very good at the job, but doesn't promote her just because she's a woman. For example, discrimination examples: Jews in WWII in Germany required to where yellow stars and in Apartheid in Africa from 1948-1994 where negative attitudes and action against minority (a sign that says for use by white persons only). Actions taken in both situations.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs. INSTITUTIONAL

Discrimination is differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. Can be based on different factors including race, age, religion, etc. Can occur at individual or at the organizational/institutional level.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE

Disorganized attachment refers to when a child's caregiver behaves erractically and is typified by a disorganized pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence and presence.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-ALTRUISM

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis - suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic. Early developmental trajectory - Helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). Helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually begin helping. Says that altruism might be a normal human behavior because it occurs at such a young age. We have a tendency to help other people without an alternative motive.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRACY

Employment based on technical qualifications -hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries. Pro - decrease discrimination Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to Peter Principle, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further).

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-EVOLUTIONARY GAME THEORY

Evolutionary game theory helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population. Evolutionary game theory predicts the appearance of (helps us see) evolutionary stable strategies (behaviours that persist in population once present). For example, Altruism - 2 groups of monkeys, one selfish and one not. Selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators. Non-selfish group alerts others and leads to overall success of group over time. Making a call at their own expense is sometimes good (the one who makes the call might not survive, but those similar to it can be helped...this is better strategy for the population). Altruism increases fitness of group!

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-PRIMARY & SECONDARY GROUPS

Example: You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) "formal impersonal groups."

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-PRIMARY & SECONDARY GROUPS

Example: wedding. Bride and groom sit with close friends known for a long time/close family (bridal party). Primary group Groom played football in college. His teammates are in his primary group because they know each other well (countless hours practicing with each other). Neighborhood of bride really were close to each other. Went to the beach, had cookouts, and the neighborhood was a giant community. This would be a primary group of the wife. Secondary group: parents work friends, distant family, acquaintances (guests there to keep strong relationships in the future. Distant family there to avoid family drama/avoid people's feelings

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PHYSICAL ATTRACTION

Facial attraction is more important than body attraction. For women, high forehead/small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbone are attractive. For men, strong chin, jaw, cheekbones, and long lower face. Both men and women are attracted to high level sexual dimorphism - the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits. [We are attracted to strong facial features of opposite gender]. Also averageness is attractive - turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Attractiveness is related to averageness. Most respondents pick 32 face average "face morph (faces digitized and averaged)" as most attractive, and 2 face average less. Even if you average 32 different faces, still looks the same as the average of 32 other faces. Suggests there's some prototype. (there is facial averageness).

ASCH CONFORMITY STUDIES (ASCH LINE STUDIES)

First trial, each participant everyone gives what is obviously right answer. Second trial, same occurrence. Error rate <1%. Third trial, answer remains just as obvious, but the first participant gives the wrong answer. The second group member than gives the same wrong answer. The study found: 75% of participants give the wrong answer (conform to the wrong answer) at least once and 37% conform every single time the group does. People often say they would always give right answer even when majority is giving incorrect one.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PROXIMITY & THE MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT

For example, Study 1: focus on attraction. Researchers had undergrads rate attractiveness where males rated women's attractiveness, then took 2 women rated similarly and placed them in same class as the male rater. After 5,10, or 15 classes males rated the woman who was with them in 15 classes higher than those women who they attended classes with 5-10 times - even though they rated the two the same initially before the repeated exposures. Whom we say day to day are more attractive and likeable.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PROXIMITY & THE MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT

For example, Study 2. study with individuals who had anterograde amnesia (retrograde amnesia is loss of all memory before an accident that causes amnesia, anterograde amnesia individuals can recall memory that was formed before an incident but cannot form new memory after accident). Showed them faces, and then showed them faces again at later date, with some new faces along with some old. Ask individual if they've seen before, say no. But if ask which one attractive, they still pick the face they've seen before. Even if they are incapable of forming the memory they have seen a person before, they still consider them more attractive. Shows us how subtle this mere exposure effect is.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

For example, in the context of medical problems, there might be a spontaneous spread of related diseases. Those affected might manifest similar medical symptoms, such as fatigue, headaches, or nausea. It is curious that these popular signs are also connected to high levels of stress. In most cases, the illness cannot be linked to an external source, such as infectious agent. It is important to distinguish this form of collective behavior from the concepts of outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics. These cases involve an unexpected increase in the incidence of an infectious disease in a given region, with outbreaks being the most limited and pandemics being the most widespread. For example, the Bubonic plague is a well-known historical epidemic; in modern times, the extent of the dangerous H1N1 influenza virus reached pandemic proportions, spreading across the world. In contrast, famous examples of mass hysteria include larger movements without clear medical explanation, such as the Salem Witch Trials. This series of trials and prosecutions began as a result of a group of adolescent girls experiencing "fits" that were thought to exceed the power of the more common epileptic fits. This caused a moral panic-a specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order-which lead to numerous executions. A second famous example is the broadcast of the War of the Worlds, during which communication issues led to some listeners missing portions of the broadcast, causing tension and panic.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

For example: can vary country to country/culture to culture: Individuals from America greet each other by saying hello or a handshake, but in European cultures it's customary to kiss on the cheeks. For example: Can change over time. When baseball began, only men were allowed to play but when men were drafted in WWII, women started playing baseball too which caused a shift in norms. By end of WWII, it was normal for men and women to play baseball.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-ANIMAL BEHAVIOR: FORAGING

Foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage. This teaches them how to hunt and what kinds of things they should be hunting.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

Fundamental attribution error - focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. Idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions. Real takeaway of study - how easy it is to think others are atrocious and evil, while people like us would only perform evil acts because they're misguided. Truth is we're all misguided, all susceptible to authorities in ways that many of us would find upsetting.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PROXIMITY & THE MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT

Geographical proximity /nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office. Mating starts with a meeting - Why is proximity so powerful for relationship formation? 1. We aren't going to fall in love with someone we don't meet. You can't start a relationship/befriend those who live far away. Even with social media, and easy travel/connection with individuals far away - rule of proximity is still true (even if you take internet dating into account).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-ZIMBARDO PRISON STUDY - THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Goal: How social norms/conventions can influence behaviours of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards. Prisoners/guards get so caught up in roles that they had to stop experiment early. Participants knew all about the study - no physical or psychological deception. And participants were normal (male, middle class, university students, with no medical/psychological problems). 18 students randomly assigned to be guards or prisoners. All knew the assignment was random.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

Group polarization is a phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted. For a view point to influence a groups final decision making: All the view do not have equal influence. Viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group. Arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view. Any criticism is directed towards minority view. Confirmation bias: group members seek out information that support the majority view. For example, majority of the group agrees that training the dog with treats is the best way to go about it. Some people chastise those who say the collar is the best way to train the dog. The individuals leave the discussion that training the dog with treats is amplified.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5. Unanimity - when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees). In the Ash experiment, there was one supporter who answered correctly before the experimenter, and full-compliance of experimenter dropped from 37% to 5%. Individuals claimed that the response of the supporter influenced their response - they said they didn't. Shows that supporter shows reduced likelihood of conformity. We're not aware of effects a defector can have (someone who conform).

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-GROUP SIZE AGGREGATE, & CATEGORY

Group size applies to groups. Dyads consisted of two people that may include more intimacy and intensity. An example would be marriage. Triads contain 3 members. Includes 3 relationships that can be more or less stable. May be equal or unequal, for example an MCAT study group with a tutor working with 2 students. An aggregate is people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity. For example, an MCAT groups meets at a coffee shop to study for the MCAT on a regular basis. All of the people that frequent the coffee shop consists of an aggregate. People who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together would be considered a category. All the people studying for the MCAT consists of a category.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Group status - why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health. Group cohesion- if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

Group-produced reduction of individual effort - groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. Perhaps to guard against being the person who is doing all the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated. For example: in group project of a presentation, they put in less effort and perform poorly.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

Groupthink - occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group "unity" individuals suppress/sensor their own opinions. First suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted. Especially if there is little hope of finding a better solution. Not the most effective way to make a decision and can explain what's wrong with Congress in the US. For example, neighborhood people decide to meet to discuss a dog exhibiting bad behavior. Leader says the dog should be put down to avoid damage to the neighborhood. Instead of arguing with the leader and having a conflict, the neighbors agree that the dog should be put down. To avoid group think: bring in outsiders/experts, have the leader of the group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups. Recap: Conformity, Group Polarization and Group think are all processes when individuals come together in a group. Can be positive if the group is open minded, positive, and willing to consider more than one opinion.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-ZIMBARDO PRISON STUDY - THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Had participants in prisoners arrested at unexpected times on a random day. Prisoners were treated as prisoners from the start and the prison had no windows and clocks so it became an environment different from outside world. The prisoners were fingerprinted, handcuffed, and numbered after arrest. Also met with guards and told them they were not supposed to physically harm prisoners, but could create fear/loss of privacy/loss of control/loss of individuality. Given uniforms, batons, and sunglasses. Instructed to refer to prisoners by #s and not names. Guards can do anything to maintain except for physically harm the participants. Day 1 uneventful. Then prisoners began to rebel against guards. Guards had to decide what to do.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRACY

Hierarchy of organization - each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. Pro - clarify who's in command Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals allows them to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members).

ASCH CONFORMITY STUDIES (ASCH LINE STUDIES)

Holocaust influenced Ash's studies of conformity (was born in Poland and moved to US at age of 13). Was interested in studying how group behavior can influence behavior of an individual. What aspects of the group behavior is most important. For example, participant in study, many other participants too. The experiment explains a boring experiment to you - he holds up a card with a target line and 3 comparison lines, and the participants need to figure out which comparison line matches target line. This occurs 18 times (12 trials where the confederates give wrong answer, 6 where they give correct answer).

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SIMILARITY

How similar someone is to us is huge predictor of attraction. Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level. We like people who are like ourselves in looks. Demonstrated through experimentation and correlation/surveys. One study, two people brought in the lab and they were told they were going to be playing a game. One person was a confederate (in on the study the entire time). Participants were split into 2 conditions. 1. Participants saw a picture of the other player and in 2. Picture shown of other participant w/ some of their own facial features mapped onto it. Results show that the individual was more likely to cooperate with the other player when the other player has similar facial feature as to his own. Person is more likely to trust/cooperate with the person who had similar characteristics (of the photo of someone whose facial features are morphed with their own).

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Humans communicate with each other through language (how we communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings and how we respond to thoughts/feelings of others), non-verbal cues (can tell if someone is happy/sad, anxious/angry by smile, frown, etc)., and visual cues (ex. painting rooms pink vs. black) Other animals have ways of communicating as well, not with language but with many non-verbal cues and visual cues, and other types of cues not used by humans.

CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Identification - when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual. According to Freud, as children develop, there comes a time in which the child must adopt the characteristics of one of the parents. During this process of identification, the child adopts the characteristics of the same sex parent and begins to associate themselves with and copy the behavior of significant others. In addition, Freud stated that this process also involves the development of the child's superego (our moral guide in life - the moral component of personality) which is done by incorporating characteristics of the parents' superegos into the child's own. So, a young male child will begin to take on characteristics of the father (act more like his father than his mother in the sense of being a male) and will develop a superego that has similarities to the moral values and guidelines by which the parents live their lives (e.g., if the parents are honest people, the child may come to realize that honesty is important and that lying is wrong). For example, football player people admired and bought his jersey, but then he engaged in domestic violence and once it was made public the identification of this player by people dropped significantly.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRACY

Impersonality - how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner. Pro - equal treatment Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Important agents of socialization - what's used to transmit (pass around) culture, values, beliefs about acceptable behaviors, and beliefs. Agents include people, organizations, and institutions that help us learn about our social world. Examples of Agents of Socialization: popular culture, family, religion/government, school, peer groups, workplace, and mass media technology. Our family - most important agent of socialization. When you are a child, totally dependent on others to survive. Your parents teach you how to care for yourself, how close relationships work, their beliefs/values/norms, how to talk to others. Malcom Gladwell's Book "Outlier" - Looks at how family plays a role in socialization. How wealthy parents raise kids vs. less fortunate parents raise children. One example is trip to doctor's office- wealthy parents encouraged to ask questions, while kids less fortunate unlikely to criticize doctor. Wealthy kids encouraged to challenge authority, while less wealthy kids taught to listen to authority. Shows us how kids are raised and how it affects their interactions with others (in this case authority)

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

Important to have compassion for all people - victims and aggressor, don't know how you'd act in their place. Conversely, be skeptical if you hear "I was doing my job/just following orders" and try not to fall into this trap yourself.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

Impression management -our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. There are multiple social situations which require different scripts from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different front stage role every time. We manage our sense of self in social interactions. For example, all front stages - football team captain (he had to get people fired up!) and perhaps on the weekends he volunteers at the hospital (very different front stage, his role is be there for the patient and offer them help as a volunteer) and then perhaps he goes to school and in chemistry class he needs to get a rec from his chemistry teacher to get into grad school (he pretends to be interested in professors research and gives impression he is a curious student).

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs. INSTITUTIONAL

Individual discrimination - Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (sex, religion, race, age etc.) ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class (in this example sex discrimination).

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

In the study there was the experimenter, one confederate (in on the study) participant, and another participant (real participant). Between the two experiments, they "randomly" decided who was going to be the learner and who was going to be the teacher. Not so random, the confederate always got learner role, and real experiment got the teacher role.

ASCH CONFORMITY STUDIES (ASCH LINE STUDIES)

In this experiment, the other participants of the group were confederates (actors, told what to do) and were told what to do by the experimenter. The purpose was to determine if the real test participant would go along with the other group confederates incorrect decision. No actual pressure to conform, i.e. no prize for conforming to the study and no punish for not conforming. Only perceived pressure to conform.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SOCIAL SUPPORT

Informational support - sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family/friends or even articles online. Tangible/Instrumental support - financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs. INSTITUTIONAL

Institutional discrimination - organization discriminating - including governments, banks, schools etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Internal factors - Prior commitments (if we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say). Feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others (conformity).

CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Internalization-idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity. Internalization refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told. This is how children learn how to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in (home, school, church, playground, etc.). For example, start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-EVOLUTIONARY GAME THEORY

Introduction to Game theory: usually talked about in reference to decision making, but can also use it for evolution and animal behavior. Game theory - social science/economics typically but also can explain everyday behavior. Game theory tries to predict behaviors we would expect to see when an individuals are playing a game. It looks at individual strategy and looks at the behaviors of what other animals will do. For example, effect of a decision effect not just an individual but the overall group.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

Is there a way we can stop this from happening, stop us from obeying authority in these controversial situations? Be aware of the just world phenomena- and try to stop ourselves from making judgements about people for being in the situations they are in. For example: Stop thinking that people are poor because they didn't do well in school, didn't work hard enough, and didn't care enough. Stop believing in the just world phenomena.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

Known as: "as money sees, money do" Money accepts deviant behavior as normal. For example: elite athlete who grows up believing that cheating is wrong and to be a successful athlete one must train hard, avoid drugs and alcohol, and be respectful to opponents. Elite athlete now switches teams and now new team member believe that using steroids, partying, and heckling is the best way to be successful at a sport. Perhaps even show athlete how to be deviant by demonstrating how to take a particular drug, introducing athlete to steroid, etc. Overtime the athlete will learn from the new team members that these behaviors (partying, heckling, and drug use) are acceptable even though they were not before. Accepts these new deviant behaviors overtime

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

Labeling Theory - a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society. For example: steroids can be labelled as deviant. Not labeled as right or wrong, it is possible that in some situations steroids are necessary. In professional sports - steroid use can be labeled as wrong or unfair and can be considered deviant and subject to critic by others. Deviance is determined by the team members,sporting league, or greater society label. "Perspective on deviance that suggests labels get applied to certain groups or individuals regardless of specific behavior. Adolescents are often subject to stigmatizing labels, leading to perceptions that may not match behavior. Labelling theory calls attention to the power that stereotypes can have in determining how individuals are perceived.

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

Learner (confidante experiment) was hooked to a # of electrodes, and told that the teacher will teach the learner a # of word pairs. Then the learner would be shocked whenever they gave the wrong answer. In some versions: the learner noted that they were worried about the experiment because of a heart condition. The experimenter told them not to worry - that the shocks would be painful but not dangerous. Teacher (real participant) was taken to different room without visual contact with learner, and sat in front of shock box. Shock box had switches that would shock the experimenter at 15V, and then switches increased in increments up until 450V. Switches also labeled from slight shock, moderate shock, strong shock, very strong shock, intense shock, danger.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SOCIAL SUPPORT

Let's say you had a bad day at school or work? You would call friends, parents, reach out to people online, and your other social network in this time of stress. Social support is from more than just friends/family - it's from everyone we reach out too. Individual people can give you different kinds of social support. 4/5 Kinds of social support: 1. Emotional support. 2. Esteem support 3. Informational support 4. Tangible/instrumental support 5. Companion support

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Likelihood someone will obey - following orders without question/protest. OBEDIENCE. In order to prevent negative consequences from disobeying. Depends on type of authority giving orders. Our closeness to authority giving orders- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect

EVENTS THAT INSPIRED THE MILGRAM STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

Many Nazi Officers/German followers/Eichmann said they were "just following orders". Everyday people can commit horrendous acts if put into certain situations. Milgram wanted to know if everyday people can be made to follow orders like the Nazi officers. Can a normal person be made to harm an innocent individual just because of an authority figure? It isn't as simple as "they are evil" "we are good".

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE ATTACHMENT

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation - done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones). Experiment: #1. Mother and child in room with a stranger (stranger was part of experiment). Child allowed to explore. Neither stranger nor mother interact with child. Purpose: would they explore the space? #2. Then mom leaves the room (without calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. Baby left alone with stranger. Purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves (does child keep playing or does child start crying). #3. Then mother returns. Mother + stranger + baby in the room. Purpose: What is the child's response when mother returns (are they happy, sad about her return, or ignore her.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Mass hysteria is large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time. Reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumours and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat. Can be described as a form of groupthink. Examples include things such as medical problems and supernatural occurrences like periodic interest in crop circles.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Mass hysteria refers to behavior that occurs when groups react emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats. It is characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media. For example, mild-form of hysteria: Reaction due to news of severe weather warnings. The result is fear/anxiety induced in large #s of people and the fear causes people to become crazed (rush to supermarket), drive erratically and become irrational.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Mass media/technology - television, internet, radio, book, magazines. When you are young, you learn things through mass media that parents would not approve of. Today, children are exposed to a lot of content intended for mature audiences - violent TV shows. Enforces gender and other stereotypes. For example, children's books is another agent of socialization.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Mass psychogenic illness, or epidemic hysteria: Mass hysteria can be a result of of psychology, like when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease. For example, after anthrax attack in US, after reports there were over 2000 false alarms. Individuals reported false symptoms of anthrax infection and because they believed they were exposed (which induced false symptoms).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR:CROWDS, PUBLICS, & SOCIAL MOVEMENT

Masses: A mass is defined as a group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media; masses consist of a relatively large number of people who may not be in close proximity but nevertheless share common interests.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-STATUS

Master Status In perception, an individual's master status supersedes other identifying traits; for example, if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a woman, a daughter, etc., she is more likely to identify herself as a mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such. Master status id the one that overshadows all others and determines one's place in society. For example, Roger Frederer is a male tennis player with the most Grand Slam tournaments ever won.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-MATING BEHAVIOR & INCLUSIVE FITNESS

Mating is the pairing of opposite sex organisms for purpose of reproduction and propagation of genetic material. Includes act of mating and the other behaviours associated with it. Also events that occur after mating, like nest building and feeding the young. For example, the Superb Bird of Paradise does a complicated dance.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-MATING BEHAVIOR & INCLUSIVE FITNESS

Mating strategies when searching for a mate. 1) Random mating- all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: hardy Weinberg equilibrium assumes this}. 2) Assortative Mating - Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, for example, large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. Can result in inbreeding which is a problem that occurs if animals too genetically similar mate. Tends can be harmful to species overall. Increase likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring. 3) Dis-assortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating) - opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRACY

Max Weber (sociologist) studied structure of organizations, 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of goal of organization (organization can be for business, charity, etc.) All should show these characteristics: Division of labour - people are trained to do specific tasks. Pro - people are better at tasks, and increased efficiency. Con - increase alienation in workers, separating them from other works (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity. Also can lead to trained incapacity, where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture. For example, administrators don't teach classes at university and professors are not responsible for building maintenance.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-PROXIMITY & THE MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT

Mere exposure effect = repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli versus new stimuli. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc. There are exceptions, but in general true. Especially with attraction. Exceptions: you start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is called "burn out" but most things do not violate the mere-exposure

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

Mere presence means that people are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business. For example, the task of grocery shopping usually involves the mere presence of other shoppers, without direct engagement. May affect individual's performance. Social facilitation - how would presence of others affect your behavior? Would it Help or hinder your performance? According to social facilitation, most dominant response for particular behavior would be shown. Dominant response refers to response most likely to occur. In the example of a presentation, if you practice inside and out, presence of others will lead you to perform well. If you haven't practiced well, presence of others will make you perform more poorly (exacerbate your mistakes). Social facilitation occurs when individuals perform better in front of an audience.

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

Milgram studies were done to study the willingness of participants, average Americans, to obey authority figures that instructed them to perform behaviors that conflicted with their personal beliefs and morals. Deceived study participants in order to recruit participants. Posted ads about recruiting people to a study on memory/learning. The purpose was to get everyday people.

EVENTS THAT INSPIRED THE MILGRAM STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

Milgram was effected by trials of Nazi leader after WWII. Nazi Leader Eichmann was a Nazi Officer who escaped to South American (and was not tried in Noremberg Trials post WWII). He was captured, brought to trial, then death by Nazi-Hunters in 1960, right before Milgrim conducted his study. Eichmann was a normal guy (ordinary, normal personality) who wasn't guilty after caught. He didn't have an intense hatred like other Nazi leaders. This was surprising because Eichmann had deported Jews to death camps. Eichmann acknowledge he was the one who did this, and didn't feel guilty of the consequences. "The world now understands the concept of desk murder. We know that one doesn't need to be fanatical, sadistic, or mentally ill to murder millions; that it is enough to be a loyal follower, eager to do ones duty" ~ Simon (the person who captured Eggman).

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Mores - norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. For example, truthfulness (tell the truth because it's the right thing to do, when public figures are not truthful it causes outrage because the figure has done something wrong). Don't have serious consequences. Acronym: MOREALS For example: friends takes of shirt who has painted baseball team's logo on chest. You feel strongly about modesty so you think its wrong that your friend took of shirt and is exposing skin. No serious consequences of your friend's behavior other than your disapproval.

MULTICULTURALISM

Multiculturalism or pluralism is a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions. It promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather than in a hierarchy. The United States, despite common description as a melting pot, includes elements of hierarchy. For example, English id the dominant language, and national holidays tend to reflect Eurocentrism. In true multiculturalism, each culture is able to maintain its practices. It is especially apparent in cities such as New York where there exist pockets of separate cultures (Chinatown, Little Italy, Koreatown). As a practice, multiculturalism is under debate. Supporters say it increases diversity and helps empower minority groups. Opponents say it encourages segregation over unity by maintaining physical and social isolation and hinders cohesiveness of a society.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

No one type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority. But people's moods can have an effect - those with rough day less likely to conform. Status and culture can play a role, those of low socioeconomic status (those with low power) are more likely to conform. Also cultures like US/Europe (individualized cultures) that emphasize individual achievement less likely to conform than collective cultures (Asia, cultures that emphasize family/group). People conform all the time like going to school or eating cereal for breakfast. These are reasons why ordinary people can do terrible things. But knowing these can reduce the negative outcomes. Just 1 non-conformer can make others not conform as well. Can understand social influence better knowing these factors.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Norms are reinforced by sanctions - rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively. Positive sanction - a reward for conforming to norms. Negative sanction - a punishment for violating norms. Formal sanction - officially recognized and enforced. Informal sanction - unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment. Formal norms are written down, informal norms are understood but less precise and have no specific punishments.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Norms are standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. Provide structure and standards of how people can behave.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Norms can be classified into 4 groups: folkways, mores, laws, and taboos. Dictate how important the norm is and consequences for deviating for deviating from norm. Folkways - the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, for example, opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. No actual punishment. For example: Friend's pants zipper is undone. Tell your friend your zipper is undone (common courtesy) but not telling friends leads to no consequences.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Norms vary/are dependent on context, physical locations, culture and by country. Can change with time as individual's attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviors to be valued. For example: At a baseball game you stand up and yell very loudly when your team gets a homerun. At a meeting at work, you do the same thing (yell loudly). A behavior in this context with those individuals would probably not be acceptable.

CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Obedience - describes how we follow orders/obey authority. No cognitive component. For example, "I'm just following orders" Can be positive. For example, firefighter tells you to not enter a building because it's on fire - you would probably acknowledge authority and obey. Can be negative: For example, normal people committed such negative acts during the Holocaust due to obedience. Both conformity and obedience can be positive (useful/helpful/important aspects) or negative in their effects on social behavior in society. We can conform/obey in little ways as well: For example, we obey traffic laws or agree that cereal is a breakfast food. We don't question if we should stop at a stop sign.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Observed behaviour - whether we believe our behaviour is observed. In Ash experiment, when the participant came in late, they said his response would be recorded on paper and not shared with the group. If response in Asch line was not shared with group, the experimenter was much less likely to conform. Public response - if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

Occurs when an individual completes a manageable task in front of an audience. When an individual works on a challenging task in front of an audience, this might increase arousal beyond optimal and interferes with performance".

ASCH CONFORMITY STUDIES (ASCH LINE STUDIES)

One of most famous conformity experiments. Solomon Asch (1907) was part of the group known as Gestalt Psychologists - believed not possible to understand human behaviour by breaking down into parts, people must be understood as whole. "Most social acts have to be understood in their setting, and lose meaning if isolated. No error in thinking about social facts is more serious than the failure to see their place and function." ~Solomon Ash.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

One of most famous psychological study Regular everyday people will comply with an authority figure even if it goes against their moral values and harming others. Study has been replicated, and results remain same, no matter what country/time period/location. Full compliance always hovered at 61-66% Study was perceived to be unethical today and at the time too in the 1960s. Milgram was denied tenure at Harvard and kept from entering lots of academic institutions because of the negative perceptions associated with the experiment.

EVENTS THAT INSPIRED THE MILGRAM STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

One of most famous studies on conformity/obedience are Milgram studies. Studies began in 1961, important because often studies are conducted in response to something. In this case, in response to the Holocaust. Milgram's parents had emigrated from Europe and were Jewish. Milgram was born in the US but deeply affected by the Holocaust. "I should have been born into a German speaking Jewish community of Prague and died in a gas chamber some 20 years later. How I came to be born in a Bronx hospital, I'll never understand" ~ Milgram.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-ANIMAL BEHAVIOR: FORAGING

One of most important animal behaviors is Foraging - the search for food in animal's environment. Can't survive or reproduce without it. Cost-benefit analysis associated with foraging - Cost: going out to get food can take up time and energy. Benefit: it survives. Goal is to get highest energy yield while expending least amount of energy. Includes looking for food, and stalking prey.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - BYSTANDER EFFECT

Person falls to ground nearby, would you help? People say yes, research says no. If in group, less likely to help. With increased group size, people feel less inclined to take action - called bystander effect.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ORGANIZATIONS & BUREAUCRATIZATION

Organizations achieve maximum efficiency through bureaucracy - the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations. (DOES NOT mean something negative, lines, or red tape). Bureaucratization - process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. For example, customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you. Iron rule of oligarchy - even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Conflict theory explains it. Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it). Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable. Oligarchy: a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution. McDonaldization - policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity, and control - These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment, For example, movie theatres all look and work similarly, with same concession stands look same, carry same brands and same popular movies, with same seating arrangements, look the same, and #of screens is the same. All ticket systems now the same (especially online). Same pre-show entertainment. Not necessarily a bad thing. Pervasive throughout society.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ORGANIZATIONS & BUREAUCRATIZATION

Organizations and bureaucracies play a large role on our lives. Organizations are institutions designed for a specific purpose, collective goal, and try to achieve maximum efficiency. May include businesses, governments, and religious groups. For example, Postal Service (purpose: deliver mail) , McDonalds (food), Time Warner Cable (TV/Internet access) etc. Organizations serve the purpose of increasing efficiency, predictability, control, and uniformity in society. They also allow for knowledge to be passed down more easily, so that individual people become more replaceable. Like groups, organizations both are influenced by statuses and roles and help define statuses and roles.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs. INSTITUTIONAL

Past-In-Present discrimination - how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. For example, after Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom. (Negative attitude of the past coming forward to the present and causes minority to be discriminated against unfairly)

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Peers teach us develop our social behaviours. Peers values and behaviors contradict values of our families/parents at times, and influence us. Peer pressure. How our values of our peers influence us. We must decide on what values to keep and what values to get rid off. For example, peers pressure us to drink/do drugs as teenagers. What movies/music we watch and listen to.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-EVOLUTIONARY GAME THEORY

Predicts the availability of resources and social behavior (important for who they mate with). Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players. A important difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory: Game theory involves intention, where participants reasoning about behaviours of others. Evolutionary game theory different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS- PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION

Prejudice = attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. For example, CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

Presence of others increases your arousal - your general physiological or psychological excitement (Increased HR, faster breathing, activation of autonomic nervous system) and is known as nervous energy. Increased energy/arousal increases likelihood of dominant response occurring. Whether dominant response is correct or accurate depends on how easy the task is, and how well you've learned it/rehearsed it. Presence of others improves performance (helps) on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks/unpracticed tasks. (This is known as Yerkes-Dodson Law).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Previous video: norms and deviance and how changes in norms can occur at the individual level. What happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms? In sociology, this is called collective behavior.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-PRIMARY & SECONDARY GROUPS

Primary Group vs. In-Group: Primary group is your core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual. In-group is the group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-PRIMARY & SECONDARY GROUPS

Primary groups - closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. ex. in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen (usually close friends and family members). Primary groups give a sense of belonging and shared identity. You have a sense of loyalty to each of the group members (group members care about you and you care about them as well). The value of the group is just being part of it itself, not in it for some sort of goal. Primary groups provide an anchorpoint. You are born into a primary group - your family. You often meet with those of your primary group face to face and you know a lot about their lives. These close relationships w/ primary group is often seen as a source of close human feeling/emotion (love, cooperation, and concern). Primary groups serve expressive functions (meeting emotional needs) and secondary groups serve instrumental functions (meeting pragmatic needs).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Primary socialization refers to the learning of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood, mostly from observation of our parents, siblings, friends, teachers, and other authority figures. Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is acceptable and appropriate in a smaller more focused section of society. Learning how to behave at school or in the workplace are examples of secondary socialization.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

Problem Solving/Decision-making often takes place in groups. Factors that influences an individual's problem solving/decision making - the group interactions shape the outcome.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Psychologists and sociologists study human behavior and often ask: What is normal? Who decides what behavior is normal? What behavior is strange, and what behavior is criminal? These individuals are studying norms.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SELF-DISCLOSURE

Refers to the ability one has in a relationship to disclose one's closest fears, dreams, thoughts, and goals to one's partner. May strengthen a relationship if is it reciprocated but not if it is not.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Refers to the interaction between members of the same species within a particular society. Associated with attraction, aggression, attachment, and social support. Interpersonal attraction refers to having positive feelings about another member of the species and is the basic element of love, friendship, admiration, lust and other kinds of close social relationships. Heightened by proximity, similarity, appearance, self-disclosure, and reciprocity.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Religion/Government: Both government and organized religion influence the course of cultural change by creating "rites of passage". In religion, this might include traditional milestones and celebrations such as coming of age and marriage. Government sets legal ages for drinking, voting, joining the military. Laws both influence and are influenced by the societies they apply to. For example, in the United States, stricter laws apply to crack than to cocaine, and this affects society's perceptions of these drugs and of drug addicts.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

Remind ourselves to take responsibility for our own actions. Avoid placing blame on others. Stop the passing-responsibility to others. Also, caution ourselves against self-serving bias - that we could never commit acts like this, because apparently, in the right situations most of us would.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-EVOLUTIONARY GAME THEORY

Reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory. Reproduction important to game theory because it can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others. Environment - how organism fits in with social and physical environment. Work with other organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators. [Fitness also depends on behavior of group

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE ATTACHMENT

Researchers found children could be split into 2 groups - those with secure attachment and those with insecure attachment. 60% were secure attachment. #1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring). #2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset. #3: when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy. 40% were classified as having Insecure attachment #1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. #2: When mother left became upset/distress #3: distress did not go away when she came back. Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Riots - characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. Riots are very chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. Individuals who act case aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways, and violate laws indiscriminately (ruin property, steal, etc). Often seen as a collective act of defiance/disapproval, and can be result of a perceived issue (ex. sports game outcome, frustration of working/living conditions or conflicts between races/religions). Cause of act can be legitimate, the group acts out in ways that are illegal/damaging to society as a whole. A riot is a violent form of crowd behavior that results from feelings of injustice or feeling that needs have been ignored. Riots typically result in property damage and other significant crimes. Most collective behavior is seen as irrational but some riots are not such as the ones associated with government oppression, poor living conditions, racial or religious conflicts, and other serious social issues. For example, the Arab Spring was a revolution that included riots. It first began in Tunisia but spread across the Arab world, causing civil uprisings that contributed to the eventual fall of governments. The power of riots has lead to significant public attention and participation due to mass media coverage and certain representations, which were once intended to conceal identities and offer protection (such as facemarks and scarves) have grown to be iconic. A mob is a group of individuals who are emotional and violent, but target specific individuals or categories of individuals.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ROLE STRAIN & ROLE CONFLICT

Role conflict - conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different statuses compete for someone's time. For example, someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker. for example; as a husband he has an anniversary and a friend is calling for their monthly get-together. OR ex. Paper due for school and son is injured and at hospital. Or ex. as a worker has to go to work and as a husband wife wants him to clean the garage. "Defined as the stress that people feel when they are confronted with incompatible role expectations across different social statuses they occupy. A common source of role conflict is the need to balance the statuses of employee and caregiver."

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ROLE STRAIN & ROLE CONFLICT

Role strain - when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, for example, a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

School is important. Schools teach life skills along with science and math- don't learn from academic curriculum, but learn social skills from interactions with teachers and other students - We learn the importance of obeying authority, act interested, learn to be quiet, to wait etc. Part of the "hidden curriculum": standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

Secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. For example, teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. Reaction will be he needs to continue to use steroids to be a better player. Reaction might be to use steroids more frequently or try more dangerous forms of drug. Repeated deviance gives him a reputation of deviance and the stigma of deviance stays with him for the rest of his career

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-PRIMARY & SECONDARY GROUPS

Secondary groups - formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people.

DISCRIMINATION-DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs INSTITUTIONAL

See notes above.

DISCRIMINATION-DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs INSTITUTIONAL-PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION BASED ON RACE, ETHNICITY, POWER, SOCIAL CLASS, & PRESTIGE

See notes above.

DISCRIMINATION-DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs INSTITUTIONAL-STEREOTYPES, STEREOTYPE THREAT, & SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY

See notes above.

SELF-PRESENTATION & INTERACTING W/OTHERS 3 COMPONENTS OF EMOTION & UNIVERSAL EMOTIONS

See notes above.

SELF-PRESENTATION & INTERACTING W/OTHERS-CHARLES COOLEY LOOKING GLASS SELF

See notes above.

SELF-PRESENTATION & INTERACTING W/OTHERS-GEORGE HERBERT MEAD THE I & THE ME

See notes above.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-AGGRESSION

See notes above.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ALTRUISM

See notes above.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-HARLOW MONKEY EXPERIMENT

See notes above.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-SOCIAL SUPPORT

See notes above.

ATTRIBUTING BEHAVIORS TO PERSONS OR SITUATIONS

Self Esteem, Self Efficacy, and Locus of Control - See notes above. Self Concept, Self Identity, and Social Identity - See notes above. Social Influences - See notes above. Locus of Control, Learned Helplessness, and the Tyranny of Choice - See notes above.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SIMILARITY

Similarity can help people stay together. Does it help them stay together? Research has shown yes. Couples can also stay together due to perceived similarity - because over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Become similar as time goes on. Perceived similarity can be just perceived - they think the other person is similar to them (but actually aren't similar to their partners at all). Could result in a similarity bias - implies we will not befriend people different from us. A projection bias is when we assume other share the same beliefs we do. False consensus is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

So does presence of others help or hinder performance? Depends. The Hawthorne effect (also referred to as the observer effect) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. (acronym: observe the THORNes). The Hawthorne effect occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due the awareness of being observed.

CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE

Social Anomie - breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community. A situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms. Can lead to uncertainty in social situations. Means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior. "Associated with functionalist theoretical paradigm in sociology. The concept of anomie describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak. Without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness, and aimlessness. Periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie."

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

Social Psychology - how individuals think, feel, and behave in social interactions. People act differently in groups than individually.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL FACILITATION & SOCIAL LOAFING

Social loafing is a tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when part of a group.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR:CROWDS, PUBLICS, & SOCIAL MOVEMENT

Social movements: A social movement is defined as collective behavior with the intention of promoting change. There are two main categories of social movements: active movements, which attempt to foster social change (for example, revolutions) and expressive movements which attempt to foster individual change (for example, support groups). There are numerous forms of social movements identified in sociological tradition: global or local (range), old or new (origin), peaceful or violent (method), et cetera. In contrast to other forms of collective behavior, social movements can become established and permanent social institutions.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

Societies reaction to and label for deviant behavior and person who committed the deviant behavior are important. Primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong. For example, all athletes of team use steroids, so the act of a player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: FADS, MASS HYSTERIA, & RIOTS

Sociologists have identified 3 types of collective behavior: fads, mass hysteria, and riots. Fad AKA craze- "fleeting behavior" is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Last for short period of time, but reach influence of large # of people in that time. Not necessarily in line with normal behavior. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people. For example, is a "cinnamon challenge" - person has to eat large spoonful of ground cinnamon in under a minute and posting video online. Different from trends which are longer-lived and often lead to permanent social changes; for example, the hippie movement created visible trends, such as peace signs, but is also prompted widespread social change.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-TYPES OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Somatosensory communication - Communicate through touch and movement. For example, mating dances. Movement can also convey food location (bees), pair/group bonding (ex. birds cuddle/prune mates), body language (facial expression/body language for emotion - ex. Dogs can show teeth when threatened, perk up ears if alarmed). Also seismic communication (ex. movement of bug in spider's web signals to spider to find it), electro-communication (fish) . Signals can be detected by predators as a way to find food.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-TYPES OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Sound - For example, dogs can bark, birds can sing. Sound can convey a lot of information event though they do not have language, ex. mating calls, warning'/alarm sounds, etc. Not always produced by mouth of an animal (ex. Crickets rub legs together to attract mate, rattlesnake gives a warning signal via shake of his tail). Sound as communication is useful because it's fast, can reach many members at once, but not very private and exposes the animal's location

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-STATUS

Status / Social Status is a person's social position in society. Used to classify a person broadly. Each person has many statuses. For example, one individual can be a Son, student, and friend, etc. They affect the type of interactions we have - some situations people are equal (For example, you and your friend, you feel comfortable talking things out) some not - you hold an inferior (For example, with professor - you are submissive/respectful, and less negotiate) or superior to the other (For example, president of an organization. You have control over your members. Your members respect you more so. In short: Friends are equal, but if you are interacting with professor they are superior to you. Of if you're president of school organization you can be superior over members.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

Symbolic Interactionism: society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance. Views of deviance include theory of differential association, labeling theory, and strain theory.

NORMATIVE & NON-NORMATIVE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS NORMAL? EXPLORING FOLKWAYS, MORES, & TABOOS

Taboos - behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. For example, incest (sexual relationships between family members) and cannibalism (eating human flesh).

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

Teacher instructed to continue by experimenter when teacher looked @ experimenter for guidance. Experimenter told teacher: "please continue (please go on)", "the experiment requires that you continue, "it is absolutely essential you continue", "you have no choice, you must go on". Experiment stopped when teacher had 4 verbal protests about the study or when they gave the 450V shock three times. Before experiment, Milgram asked professors/clinical psychologists if the teacher would obey the commands of the experimenter. They said that most teachers would stop once the learner protested and that very very few people would shock all the way. Those that did, were probably psychopaths.

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

Teacher than instructed to read a list of word pairs. Then were told to read first word of each pair and then offer four possible pair words. Leaner would indicate their answer by pressing a button which was displayed to the teacher. Whenever the learner made error, teacher was instructed to give shocks with increasing increments with each wrong answer (no actual shocks were given even though the teacher thought so). After giving some correct answers, the learner started giving incorrect answers (which were determined by the experimented beforehand). At the first coupe shocks, the learner would not elicit much of a reaction. After several increasing shocks, learner would cry out in pain/pound out on wall. Also after some shocks would start complaining about their heart condition. As shocks increased, continued to yell/scream they want to quit. Finally, all responses from learner would cease and only silence.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

The Theory of Differential Association states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm. Relationships a person forms are very important - if strong relationship to someone deviant (whom provides constant exposure to violated norms), the person is more likely to learn deviance than someone not. Converse is true as well, if they form relationships with someone who follows norms they are less likely to learn deviant behavior.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - ASPECTS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: CROWDS, PUBLICS, & SOCIAL MOVEMENT

The crowd is defined as a group that shares a purpose. Includes orchestras, theaters, and other performances. Thought to be emotional and contain a non-permanent loss of rational thought and the crowd influences individual behavior sometimes referred to as herd behavior. Not all crowd behavior is irrational. For example stampedes seem irrational but are not when threats or bombs occur. Acting crowds gather for specific cause or or goal (protesters or revolutionaries). casual crowds emerge spontaneously and include people who are not really interacting (people waiting in line for something), conventional crowds gather for planned event (football fans or religious congregants), and expressive crowds aggregate to express an emotion (for example funeral attenders or rock concert goers).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - CLOSER LOOK AT THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

The experiment shows us: the influence situation can have on our behavior - might be due to situational attribution (due to situation), not dispositional attribution (internal characteristics/personalities of people) It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization (loss of self) - In this case prisoners forced to dress same, and addressed as number. Bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it. They changed their cognition. Also role of internalization - participants internalized their prison roles. Prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviours.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

There are certain symptoms that are often clues to the presence of groupthink. The group is overly optimistic of its capabilities and has unquestioned belief in its stances-an overestimation of "might and right". The group becomes increasingly extreme by justifying its own decisions while demonizing those of opponents. Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the groups ( a process called mind guarding). There is pressure to conform, and so individuals censor their own opinions in favor of consensus, which created an illusion of unanimity.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE

There are four types of attachment: secure, ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized. Secure attachment refers to when a child has a constant caregiver and is therefore able to explore and learn about the world knowing he or she has a secure constant base to return to. Secure attachment is considered crucial to healthy social development.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY-WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM MILGRAM EXPERIMENT

Things we should avoid: Many participants really felt ashamed about what they had done, but even ashamed participants tended to speak poorly of the victims - he wouldn't have been shocked if he answered correctly/was smarter, the "just world phenomenon" - idea that universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - belief good things happen to good people, and vice versa (bad things happen to bad people). Some people use this to justify their actions. Assuming things had gone bad to the victim because he was deficient.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-ALTRUISM

Types of altruistic behavior: (Does altruism have an ulterior motive?) Kin selection - people act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/non-kin people. Same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names. Morphing face as increase trust we have in other person. Is this behavior altruistic if it gives us an evolutionary advantage, to pass on our genes (the genes of those closest to us)? Is it really altruism if we are helping select for genes of our kin?

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS DISCRIMINATION INDIVIDUAL vs. INSTITUTIONAL

Unintentional discrimination - how policies can discriminate unintentionally Side-effect discrimination - talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is an side effect). For example, a small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty because they didn't think they could get off on a fair verdict (so they take lesser crime). Then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of criminal record. Criminal justice reached unfair verdict, and potential employers are swayed too (employer is swayed and unjustly discriminates unintentional because of another institution - in this case the court system).

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-ORGANIZATIONS & BUREAUCRATIZATION

Utilitarian Organizations - members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, for example, Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time). Normative Organizations - members come together through shared goals, for example religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose. Coercive Organization - members don't have choice about membership, for example, people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave). Usually highly structured and have very strict rules

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-TYPES OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Visual cues - Overlap between visual cues and somatosensory communication. Visual cues to find a mate (ex. peacock extends feathers to attract a peahen). Visual communication through color (ex. A beak color on a certain bird allows it to communicate to young and assist in feeding young...frogs use color to signal they are toxic to other animals). Mimicry (ex. monarch butterflies are poisonous to birds and colored in a specific way, but viceroy butterflies that are not poisonous to birds use same pattern/colors (they mimic) the monarch butterfly and this provides the butterfly lots of protection). Camouflage (visual cues used to NOT communicate...ex. Frogs use this and shade its skin like leaves). More types: bioluminescent communication (ex. fireflies glow to attract mate), gaze following and social cues (ex. look where some1 else is looking...silent way to signal location of food or predator). More examples that were not included in video.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION, LABELLING THEORY, & STRAIN THEORY

When norm is violated, it's referred to as deviance. Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. Deviance is relative (just like norms are). Deviance is dependent on context, individuals, group, and country. Deviance standards can change based on these factors. For example, most Americans eat meat, but someone who's vegetarian is deviant in US (their behavior is different than what majority considers as normal)

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-HARLOW MONKEY EXPERIMENT

What causes attachment (a close bond) between mother and child? Scientists used to think it was food (mom has food). This is not true...mother provides more than that! Scientists conducted the Harlow monkey experiments Separated monkeys from mothers at young age (controversial today), then given choice between 2 substitute mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures) that were placed in cage with baby monkey. First option was wire mother - vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in cylinder. And in middle was feeding tube. This mother provides food. Second mother was the cloth mother - same shape/size as mother, but instead of chicken wire had soft cloth blanket around it, so this mother can provide comfort. Baby monkeys overwhelmingly preferred to cloth mother - spent a large majority of time clinging to her. If had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to cloth mother. Shows that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food! Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE ATTACHMENT

What causes this? What causes some to have secure attachment while others have insecure attachment? Parenting style - mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. Insensitive parenting does not mean child abuse/neglect. Difference in parenting style can be observed by a parent looking at phone while child calling for attention - do they continue to look at the phone when child is calling for attention or do they stop looking at their phone.

CONFORMITY & GROUPTHINK

When do people conform to group norms even when behaviours negative/wrong? For example, imagine you are part of a group asked to train a dog. Group decides to train it with a shock color and you agree. Why would you agree? There are two reasons why you would agree/conform with the group: 1) Informative influence: look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. For example, you have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it's an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct. 2) Normative influence: even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection. For example, you are an expert group trainer and you know it's easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast. You fear social rejection that can come with disagreement with the group, so you conform to even a wrongful act. Normative influence is associated with social comparison (evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others) extends far beyond high school.

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

When participants arrived at lab, participants were told the study they were participating in was going to be looking at effects of punishment on memory/learning (Do people learn best after being punished for making a mistake).

MILGRAM EXPERIMENT STUDIES ON OBEDIENCE

When results of study came out, the results were very disturbing - 65% of participants shocked all the way. The teachers had protested and were trembling, but still obeyed commander and shocked to 450V. In versions of experiment where the learner claimed to have a heart conditions and complained that the shocks were hurting their heart-compliance dropped very little - to 63%. Everyday Americans heard the cries of people they were tormenting and continued with the task. VERY FEW PEOPLE RESISTED AUTHORITY.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-MATING BEHAVIOR & INCLUSIVE FITNESS

Which strategy is best? Scientists think assortative mating, because despite dangers of inbreeding, help to increase inclusive fitness of an organism. Inclusive fitness - concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves. This inclusive fitness concept can solve problems with evolution which states that animals (including humans) can be predisposed to act selfishly. But people are kind to others/help others. We are helpful/altruistic of those who are similar to us!

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS-ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Who are animals communicating with? Members of same species Members of other species. Ex. Some frogs use bright colors to signal they are toxic so communicate with other animals that they should not eat them, cat communicates with a human when they are hungry Auto-communication - can give information to themselves. For example, bats and echolocation and this allows them to gain information about the environment

ASCH CONFORMITY STUDIES (ASCH LINE STUDIES)

Why did some of the participants not conform? After study non-conforming individuals were asked why they did not conform. Some were really confident, really sure their answers were correct and others were wrong. Others were not confident but stuck with their answers

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - CLOSER LOOK AT THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Why did the guards act so poorly towards the prisoners? The guards thought the prisoners were wimps, troublemakers, or faking distress. Many thought their behavior was not too extreme and placed blame of behavior on prisoners. None of the guards left the study and some were upset that the study ended early.

ASCH CONFORMITY STUDIES (ASCH LINE STUDIES)

Why did the individuals conform? After study they were asked why they conformed. Example of Normative social influence: Most participants said the answer they gave was incorrect but went along with it because they would otherwise feel ridiculed by the group. Altering behavior to of those around us. The people knew the correct answer, but went along with wrong answer regardless. Example of Informational Social Influence: Some study participants conformed because they doubted their own response. They reasoned that because all of the participants at the table were giving a certain answer that it must be correct. Change our behavior because others are better informed. Saw what they thought was the correct answer but then after hearing responses of the group, they changed their minds and thought they were wrong. They gave the same answer as the group - deferred to their judgement. Finally, some participants made a perceptual error - truly believed answer given by others were correct. They were never consciously aware of any dissonance of the judgements.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - BYSTANDER EFFECT

Why? One may be lack of medical knowledge, or limited experience in assistance and think someone else would do it (one might assume that with such a large group of people, someone must have more experience than I have with unconscious person). This is called the diffusion of responsibility theory. Diffusion of responsibility theory - explains bystander effect. When individuals are in presence of others where help is needed, feel less personal responsibility and less likely to take action when needed. In a small group you don't diffuse the responsibility. You are more likely to feel personal responsibility to intervene. For example, in a small group you might realize that you are only one who has practiced CPR.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Workplace - People typically spend a good portion of their time at work. The workplace influences behavior through written codes and rules as well as through informal norms, There is pressure to fit in at the workplace that often alters behavior; occupation can also be a large part of one's identity.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRACY

Written rules and regulations Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go). Con - stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization).

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR-SECURE & INSECURE ATTACHMENT

Young Babies are happy to be passed around, but then around 8 months: stranger anxiety (the fear of strangers) sets in. For example, if baby doesn't see grandma often, they might not want to be held by even her. Child ends up being wary of strangers and even people they know. Some don't have stranger anxiety though, and some babies don't have a strong bond with their caregiver.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-CULTURE AFFECTS ATTRIBUTIONS

There are cultural differences that influence how attributions are made. Western cultures tend to endorse an individualistic attitude: "You can do anything you put your mind to!" This influences people toward more internal attributions for success and failure. In Eastern Asian cultures, external attribution is more predominant. Thus, this system as a whole is scrutinized more than the individual. If an insider trading scandal occurs, this attitude would emphasize controlling the financial organization, rather than finding and prosecuting the guilty individuals.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY - ATTRIBUTION ERROR & CULTURE

There's also a cultural component: the fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achievement (NA and Europe - cultures). Cultures have different ways they explain success and failure. In individualistic cultures (Western -Europe/America), success is over attributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors. In collectivist cultures (Eastern - Africa/Asia), success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

2. Zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. For example, between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do. For example, puzzle example: Not being able to solve puzzle to being able to solve puzzle. The guidance in this zone which allowed for the transition from a set of skills you already had to a more expanded skills through learning.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - KOHLBERG MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Three Levels of Moral Reasoning. Each have 2 sub-parts. Three level Acronym = (PCP Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-Conventional). 1. Pre-Conventional (pre-adolescent) (ACRONYM: PREacher smacking oBEEdience with a Fish (self-interest) 1. Obedience vs. Punishment - reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment. Age: Children. 2. Individualism and Exchange or SELF-Interest - recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints. Doing what is right for personal gain

SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-EFFICACY, & LOCUS OF CONTROL

Two types of self-efficacy. Strong and weak. People with strong self-efficacy recover quickly from setbacks, have strong/deep interest, strong sense of commitment to activities, and enjoy challenging tasks (Acronym: RISE. R=Recover, I= Interest, S=Strong sense of commitment, E = Enjoy challenging tasks). People with weak self-efficacy focus on personal failures/negative outcomes, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities, and believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations (Acronym: FALL, F= failures, A= Avoid challenging tasks, L=lose confidence, L=Lack ability to take on complex tasks).

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky - Sociocultural Cognitive development theory. Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning. Child internalizes information w/ interactions with others. This social-interaction is important development of cognition.

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

We can use the social identity theory to develop self-concept further - has 2 parts: personal identity and social identity. Personal Identity: things unique to each person like personality traits. Social Identity: includes the groups you belong too in our community. Mental process involved in how we categorize ourselves/use social-identity theory. Process involved 3 steps. This process is used when we categorize ourselves, others, and look at the relationship between personal and social identities.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Freud - Proposed the psychosexual theory of development. Believed early childhood was the most important age/period in which personality developed. Most of personality developed by age of 5. Early experiences play a large role in personality development. This development influences behavior later in life. 5 stages - if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality. If issues aren't resolved at a certain stage, then fixation occurs.

SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-EFFICACY, & LOCUS OF CONTROL

Self-efficacy - belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation / to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation. Developed by Bandora due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem. Self-efficacy is a more specific than self-esteem. Can have an impact on everything from psychological states, to behavior and motivation. All people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they want to achieve. Most people realize that putting plans into action is not so simple. Self-efficacy plays a role in how individual goals, challenges are approached.

SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-EFFICACY, & LOCUS OF CONTROL

Self-esteem is the respect and regard one has for oneself. Self worth vs self esteem: greater than all of those things". It is a deep knowing that I am of value, that I am loveable, necessary to this life, and of incomprehensible worth. It is possible to feel "high self-esteem," or in other words, to think I'm good at something, yet still not feel convinced that I am loveable and worthy. Self-esteem doesn't last or "work" without self-worth.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STEREOTYPES: STEREOTYPE THREAT & SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES

Self-fulfilling prophecy - stereotypes can lead to behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes. "City dwellers are rude" (cognition, stereotyping) -> I don't like them (affective component, prejudice) -> I will avoid them (behavioural component, discrimination). They think I'm rude (cognition) -> They may not like me (affective)-> They avoid me (behavioural) -> City dwellers are rude. Continuous circle that positive feedbacks on itself. The city dwellers become ruder over time in response to our own behavior towards them.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STEREOTYPES: STEREOTYPE THREAT & SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES

Stereotyping is attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralizing. If prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes can be classified like attitude then prejudice would be affective, discrimination is emotional, and stereotype can be behavioral. Examples: People who wear glasses are smarter, people who live in cities are abrasive. Can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size. Disadvantages: it's inaccurate. Advantages: allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

Stigma can be studied by concentric circles. Let's imagine four circles from deep to superficial: First circle = self (individual who is stigmatized), second = family (close social group), third = wider society, fourth = media (important external society). Bidirectional relationships between all these groups.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT-FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Anal stage - age 1-3, centered around anus, for example toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive. Serve as basis for competent, productive, creative adults. If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: THE I AND ME

Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead both thought others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves, however, they differed in how they thought this would happen. Cooley thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity. Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life. Mead also thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan. In short: Cooley had a broader definition than Mead

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY -BASIC CO-VARIATION

Co-variation model - 3 cues of Kelley's co-variation model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people) For example, take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as a person as opposed to the world working against them in this situation. When consistency is high = attribution to internal factors For example, very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational. Distinctiveness of a situation = attribution to external factors Third factor in co-variation model - "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause. Consensus of people = attribution of external factors.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STEREOTYPES: STEREOTYPE THREAT & SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES

Contemptuous stereotype (or disgust) is marked by low competence and low warmth, meaning the group has low social status and is not competitive with the in-group. This target group is viewed with disdain, contempt, and is considered annoying. Envious stereotype (or envy) is marked by high competitive and low warmth, meaning the group has high social status and is competitive with the in-group. The target group is viewed with jealousy, distrust, and bitterness. Stigma is the extreme disapproval of a certain person or group based upon their perceived deviations from social norms. These deviations can often be unfair stereotypes. For example, at the onset of the HIV epidemic of the 1980s, the general public stigmatized people who had contracted the disease.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE JUST WORLD HYPOTHESIS

Ethnocentric: judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture. For example European imperialism began to terrorize and colonize territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Europeans tended to believe the people and societies in these place were primitive and that they ought to bring them up to speed, culturally and technologically. Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others. Can lead to cultural bias and prejudice. Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgements about another culture.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE JUST WORLD HYPOTHESIS

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism In-Group and Out-Group Ethnography: Study of particular people and places. It is a more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT-FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Genital stage - back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others. No adult fixation - person is mentally healthy. Leads to neurosis or functional mental disorder. Goal: establish balance between various life areas (well balanced, warm, caring).

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION BASED ON RACE, ETHNICITY, POWER, SOCIAL CLASS, & PRESTIGE

Institutional discrimination refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives. An example of institutional discrimination was the "don't ask, don't tell" policy of the U.S. military, which frowned upon openly gay men and women serving in the armed forces. In general, members of minority groups are much more likely to encounter institutional discrimination than members of majorities.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage 5 - age 12-20, adolescence. Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society - identity vs. role confusion (ACRONYM: Skydiver dents his head on the ground when falling and then has confusion). In this stage, the child has to learn rules he needs to occupy as an adult, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. Failure: Role-confusion ( I don't know what I want to be when I grow up). Can cause rebellion/unhappiness. Stage 6 - intimacy vs. isolation. (ACRONYM: : Sticks being intimate and one being isolated). Age 20-40. Try to find love and relationships. Virtue: Completion leads to comfortable relationships, love. Negative outcomes: avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness/depression.

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

Step 1: All humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. Categorize in order to understand objects/identify them. For example, categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like race (black, white)/job (student/accountant)/etc. If we assign categories to others, we can make pre-judgements about them.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE JUST WORLD HYPOTHESIS

"You got what you deserve". "you got what was coming to you". The "Just World Hypothesis" - Predictable result as a consequence for our actions. Noble actions performed/good deeds by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts/deeds are always punished. For example, our college Tom does a noble-act (helps an old lady cross the road. We would expect a predictable appropriate consequence such as a reward. For example, Tom performs an evil act, he gets punished. Suggests there is some kind of special force, "cosmic justice" at play. Reason people think in this way because it helps individuals rationalize their or others good/fortune or misfortune. Also allows people to feel like they can influence their world - easier to engage in goal oriented behavior and plan for the future. For example, if I go to school I will be rewarded in life. If I work hard, I will get what I want. If I do the right thing, I will get rewarded. However, just-world doesn't always hold true - people are not always rewarded for their actions and punished for their evil deeds. For example, using this just-world hypothesis we may blame people in poverty for being poor because they deserve it. Or victims of domestic violence for being victims because they deserved it.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - KOHLBERG MORAL DEVELOPMENT

2. Conventional (ACRONYM: CONvict named Norm (Societal Norms - Good Girl/Bad Girl) behind bars (Law-and-order). 3. Societal Norms /Acceptance- Good Boy and Good Girl - Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity. "to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval". 4. Law and Order / Law abidance - maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws. "to follow rules".

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: THE I AND ME

2. Play stage - more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. Focused on role-taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint. Way beyond immigration. They create social-interactions (not just mimicking). Children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviors of individuals closest to them. Associated with the theory of mind or the ability to perceive how another person thinks.

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: THE I AND ME

3. Game stage - Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Children start to realize that people perform in ways not only on what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them and they understand that people can take on multiple roles (people can be more than just moms, doctors, or teachers - they can be multiple things @ once). Also realize others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say. They begin to be influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (people with important relationships to individual, ex. parents/teachers/close peers.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

3. Language - the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. For example, private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development. Language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding. Those children who engage in lots of private speech are more socially competent. Language develops from social interactions for communication purposes. Language leads to (à) thought (inner speech) -think for ourselves/independence of executing skills.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - KOHLBERG MORAL DEVELOPMENT

3. Post-Conventional (moral) (ACRONYM: POSTman delivering a contract (social contract) and Universal today (Universal principles). Higher moral reasoning. 5. Social Contract - Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes. Sometimes law must be broken to reach these principles. 6. Universal Ethical Principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/disapproval/imprisonment. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King. "to promote social welfare"

CHARLES COOLEY-LOOKING GLASS SELF

A good example of the looking glass self is a person trying on clothes before going out with friends. Some people may not think much about how others will think about their clothing choices, but others can spend quite a bit of time considering what they are going to wear. While they are deciding, the dialogue taking place inside their mind is usually a dialogue between their "self" (that portion of their identity that calls itself "I") and that person's internalized understanding of their friends and society (a "generalized other"). An indicator of mature socialization is when an individual quite accurately predicts how other people think about him or her. Such an individual has incorporated the "social" into the "self. "

SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-EFFICACY, & LOCUS OF CONTROL

A person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. For example, a perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks). Competent at tasks with clear guidelines and lose confidence where there are no clear rules.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

A stigma is extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person. Typically, a culture (or sub-culture) will stigmatize a person based on overt physical deformations (physical disability), deviant personal traits (drug addiction), or deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic group (being a "loose" woman in a traditional Latino subculture).

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-EMOTION & COGNITION IN PREJUDICE

At the core of prejudice is often fear of frustration. Scapegoats are group of people towards whom the aggression is directed. For example, Jews during World War II. There are types of personality more subject to prejudice: One example (Which is controversial): the authoritarian personality - who are very prejudice: They're obedient to superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves - they are oppressive. And rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints. These people probably had a harsh bringing/lots of discipline growing up They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focussed on others. Personality types are hard to change. So intervention to reduce prejudice by targeting these authoritarian personality types is difficult. May involve 3 social factors such as class or one's socioeconomic status, power or one's ability to achieve goals ad control resources despite obstacles, and prestige or the level of respect given to a person by others.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE JUST WORLD HYPOTHESIS

Attribution Theory - how do we explain the behavior of other people? Split up into internal causes and external causes. JWH overemphasizes/attribute people's actions to personal/dispositional/internal factors and underemphasise situational factors that are at play. For example, poor person = personal miss-failings instead of recognizing the complex situational/environmental causes.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY -BASIC CO-VARIATION

Attribution theory - how we explain behaviours of others around us and our own behavior. Explain the behavior of other people by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviours to factors about them, and factors related to their environment/surroundings. Internal (dispositional attribution) - about them External (situational attribution) - environment Behavior of others often have a combination of internal and external factors. Attribution theory relates to the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events. Fundamental attribution error occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE JUST WORLD HYPOTHESIS

When the "just world hypothesis" is threatened (which occurs on a daily basis, we say "the world is not fair"....we see evil deeds being rewarded and good deeds being punished), we need to mentally make sense of them to keep just world hypothesis intact- we use rational techniques or irrational techniques. Rational Techniques: 1. Accept reality 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system Irrational techniques can also be used. 1. Denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation. 2. Reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim. For example, if a Victim of violence that was hurt, they were really hurt, we can reinterpret outcome(wasn't that bad, it was a trip, it could have happened to anyone), reinterpret cause (victim was working in a bad neighborhood), or reinterpret character of victim(I always thought she was a good human being but I now realize she probably isn't, she was hanging around with the wrong people, etc.)

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY - ATTRIBUTION ERROR & CULTURE

When we consider our own behaviours, we are more likely to blame our behaviour on external factors (ego-preservation). We consider ourselves victims of circumstance. No name for this attribution error. Bias - Cognitive bias is the tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment. Actor-Observer Bias: we are victims of, but others are wilful actors. (same thing as saying: circumstance (we attribute out personal behavior but others behavior on internal factors).

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: THE I AND ME

Believe this last stage led to development of the "I" and "me". Me = what we learn through interactions with others. How individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. Socialized and conforming aspect of self. Way to remember: The "Me", The conforming, socialized person, who tries to not do any dick moves. "Societies View" For example: me thinks about people go from high school to college in US I = the response of the individual to the "me". I thinks about what those things mean. aka attitudes of others. The spontaneous, less socialized component of the Self. Way to remember: The "I", the nonconforming, the nonsocialized person, the one who make dick moves all the time. "individual identity (personal response to what society thinks") For example I = is it best for me to go to college from HS, or work first or travel for a few years. Our actual self is the balance between the I and the me. Me = society's view (that's me!), the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, and I = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. The "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY - ATTRIBUTION ERROR & CULTURE

But often when we look at behaviour of others, we are NOT neutral, we're more likely to attribute their behaviour to their internal factors instead of considering complex external factors. We term this the fundamental attribution error - over attribution of others behavior to internal causes. Problematic when looking at complex patients (For example, obese patients who can't exercise because they are struggling with poverty) - we under-recognize the situational and social problems, and healthcare barriers they can have, blaming them for their own problems.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION BASED ON RACE, ETHNICITY, POWER, SOCIAL CLASS, & PRESTIGE

Can also be based on power, social class, or prestige. Power - political power, economic (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives/etc.). Social Class - status (social status) is relative (to have higher status you need a lower status). Social class often sets stage for prejudice (people on top maintain differences between themselves and lower class - the Just World Phenomenon -good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, contributes to prejudice). For example, of just world phenomena thinking: High social class people say they are there because they work harder and low social class people are there because they don't work hard. Prestige - often based on occupation (ex. Being a doctor, lawyer). Minority group members have lower paid jobs typically (ex. Janitor).

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

Carl Rogers (Humanistic Theory), believed self-concept had 3 different components. Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves. Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be. Who we ought to be. Real-self: Who you actually are. When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity. Explain actions through self-concept and incongruence.

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

Categorical self comes once baby realizes they're separate (comes after existential self)- becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties. For example, age and gender are the first categories first babies learn, then skills and size. Then, as we grow older, compare ourselves with others - traits, comparisons, careers (these are more developed categories.

CHARLES COOLEY-LOOKING GLASS SELF

Critical aspect of this theory is Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we imagine the opinions of other people to be. For example, say we have teacher grading paper harshly, and doing it because they think that student has a lot of potential. But student gets paper back, think the teacher did so because student is not very intelligent, and came to conclusion they're not very good at literary analysis. Might result in student putting less effort into the class. Student is acting on incorrect perception on what teacher believes. Since attitude influences behaviors, we can put less effort into this class instead of more. But can also be influenced by future interactions - student might talk to teacher, and student was able to revise their incorrect perceptions and develop a different self- perspective.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE JUST WORLD HYPOTHESIS

Cultural relativism: the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. Judge and understand another culture from within their culture. No absolute right or wrong, but we have different cultures which are themselves valid. Important to consider: Can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they're from. "Refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values, and other elements of culture". Xenocentrism: judging another culture as superior to one's own culture.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES (BRANCH OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY)

Culture and socialization - important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasises interaction between the people and culture in which we live. Everyone around us (teachers, coworkers) influence our social-identity development and on a larger scale the country which we live, communities, language, attitudes of groups we belong too.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions): 1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) - a person with a better understanding than the learner. The interaction with the learner + MKO à Learning + Higher M.F (Independence)

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Erikson - Psychosocial development theory. Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. 8 stages.

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

Existential self is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life (Ex: if someone says they are "tired" that isn't them All the time. This is NOT their self-concept because self-concept is Consistent. Child as young as 2-3 months realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship child as with the world. When someone smiles, someone smiles back. They have a relationship with objects and they are separate/distinct from that.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

Family - family can be shunned by society (if they have a family member with stigmatizing condition), or family might shun individual themselves. For example, isolate the individual who is stigmatized against in the family and keep isolate/as secret within family. May be detrimental to personal/intimate relationships, and interventions like education/therapy are important.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION PRIMACY & RECENCY BIAS

First impressions count! They're 1) long (lasts a long time) 2) strong (tough to overcome) and 3) easily built upon (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't....For example, you are a messy person, people will look at your messy room instead of your tidy desk). Called the primacy bias: first impression is more important than later data.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-EMOTION & COGNITION IN PREJUDICE

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis - not personality based, but more emotional. For example, someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression -and rechanneled it somewhere else. Often towards minorities. Display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT- ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was based on culture and society. Another key difference between his and Freud's theory was he suggested there was plenty of room for growth throughout one's life (not just childhood). Assumed a crisis can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful of 8 stages results in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality. Virtues are characteristic strengths that can be used by ego to resolve future conflicts. Failure in certain stage results in reduced ability to move on to further stages or unhealthy personality/sense of self. ACRONYM: 1 is bun , 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is dinosaur, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, 8 is plate.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION THE HALO EFFECT

Halo effect - as if someone has a halo over their head. If we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skills. They get an overall boost in each of their skills because of our impression. For example, now imagine, he has overall very good impression, even though he has the same actual skillset. We would perceive that the person is much better at other skills not demonstrated. Regardless of evidence, We may perceive he's actually pretty good at sales instead of below average, We may say he is extra-ordinary in leadership and accounting instead of just good. Halo effect often happens with celebrities, and greater attractiveness. For example, we think attractive people are kind, good leaders, hospitable without actual evidence.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY - ATTRIBUTION ERROR & CULTURE

How do we understand behavior? We look at behaviour as coming from two parts - a person's internal attributes, and secondly as being fuelled by situation/external factors (For example, weather, housing, finances). If in middle, we are a neutral judge and see a combination as both. Behaviors are often complex and involve a combination of internal and external factors. There is also correspondent inference theory which focuses on the intentionality of a person's behavior. When someone does something that either helps or hurts us, and especially when it is unexpected, we are most likely to form a dispositional attribution.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES (BRANCH OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY)

How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence. Looks at individual thoughts, actions and feelings are influenced by social groups. Imitation - a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and our self.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-EMOTION & COGNITION IN PREJUDICE

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation -upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to. Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get). Extent and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest - an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination. Linked to Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-EMOTION & COGNITION IN PREJUDICE

Illusory correlation is created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases. For example, all black people may be incorrectly considered good athletes based on examples of distinctive black athletes like Michael Jordan.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES (BRANCH OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY)

Imitation - a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and our self. In his experiment: A baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Baby imitating experimenter. Was it true imitation or something else? Picture you opening mouth, baby should also open mouth. Had to ensure it wasn't a reflex or conditioning either. When baby had pacified in mouth, and experimental stuck out tongue, baby imitated them after the pacifier was taken out. Condition: Experiments facial expressions had to be blank during this experiment. Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. Built in social mechanism which is critical for our species to learn through others. Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person. (Found in areas of brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe), and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe). Can be helpful in understanding Imitation further.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg - Moral development theory. Focussed on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong. Moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) - 6 levels total. Did research on groups of children and present children in moral dilemma situations and interview kids based on each of their conclusions in each dilemma. In general, Freud and Erikson were interested in how personality develops, and Vygotsky and Kohlberg were interested in how cognition develops.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT-FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Latent period - no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children. Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation.

SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-EFFICACY, & LOCUS OF CONTROL

Locus of control - the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives. Internal - when person believes he or she can influence events/outcomes. Events/Results come primarily from their own actions. [for example, If someone w/ internal locus of control did bad on a test; they attribute outcome to not studying or if they did well based on their ability to study). People w/ internal locus of control feel like they control their own destiny. Tend to be happier, less depressed, less stressed. External - attribute events to environmental events/causes (If someone with external locus of control does bad on a test they attribute to hard test questions, and if they do well on a test they attribute it to the teacher being lenient/they were lucky).

SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-EFFICACY, & LOCUS OF CONTROL

Look at 4 sources to determine if person has strong/weak sense of self-efficacy: 1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy 2. Social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy. 3. Social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt. 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self efficacy.

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: THE I AND ME

Mead developed the idea of social behaviourism, the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism). Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and see themselves as being the focus of their own world and don't care what others think of them. Lack ability to take perspective of another person - related to Piaget's concept of egocentrism. As we grow up, our belief on how others perceive us is more important, this happens through 3 stages: preparatory, play stage, and game stage. These occur overtime as a child grows.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

Media: outer circle. Major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, violent, moral-failings (For example, this occurs in media representation of mental illness) etc. Also creates stigma against: HIV/AIDS, Obesity, substance use problems. Social media is also huge component in creating stigma. We need to have guidelines for journalists to reduce the stigma in society.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - KOHLBERG MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral theory of development, different from previous 3, but based on cognitive development similar to Vygotsy. Looked at how people developed their morals, and the way moral reasoning changes as people grow (instead of emotional/physical development). Also looked at children (common). He told stories to children and gauged their response.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - KOHLBERG MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Most famous story was the Heinz Dilemma, his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered made my local chemist that could save her. Chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug, and more than Heinz could afford. After asking family, he only had half the money, and explained to chemist his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug for cheaper/pay the chemist at a later date. Chemist refused. Heinz, desperate to save his wife, then broke into chemist's office at night and stole the drug. Asked children questions like what if Heinz didn't love his wife, if person dying was a stranger, should he have stolen it, and should police arrest chemist for murder if woman died. After analyzing these, he came up with 3 moral stages, each split into 2 for a total of 6 stages.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION THE HALO EFFECT

Now imagine someone who we think is overall very poor. Even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower - the devil effect/reverse halo effect. Can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person. Happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative. For example, from being good at accounting we can perceive them as being mediocre, we can perceive someone as being awful at sales (even though they are great). We can see them as having terrible leadership (instead of being moderately good). The reduction of our perception depends on the situation. For example, Halo effect: Teacher sees kid who is good can't do no wrong. Reverse-halo/devil effect: Kid who is wrong that can do no right

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-ETHNOCENTRISM VERSUS CULTURAL RELATIVISM

On a broader level, when different cultures interact, there is often a tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture a phenomenon known as ethnocentrism. It is an example of favoritism for one's in-group over out-groups. For example, the tension that exists for those that live in the country versus those that live in the city due to judgements about each other's way of life. City dwellers may look down on people who live in the country due to their wealth and occupation. Those in the country may look down on city dwellers due to their morality, practicality, and quality of life. An alternative to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism or judging another culture base on its own standards. For example, in India child labor is common and is often seen as a way in which children can help their families. This may be a difficult viewpoint to accept for someone from a culture in which childhood is equated with a carefree time of play, and child labor is seen as abusive. However, practicing cultural relativism would involve judging this practice in the context of that culture's values.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT-FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Oral stage - age 0-1 yrs., libido/sense of interaction is centered around baby's mouth (rooting/sucking reflex), vital for sucking/eating. Infant derives pleasure via oral stimulation (tasting/sucking). Because infant completely dependent on parents/caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort. If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers/nails, suck their thumb, people who overeat.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STEREOTYPES: STEREOTYPE THREAT & SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES

Paternalistic stereotype (or pity) is marked by low competence and high warmth, meaning the target group has a low social status and is not competitive with the in-group. The target group is looked down upon. Admiration stereotype (or pride) is marked by high competence and high warmth, meaning the groups has a high social status and is not competitive with the in-group. This target group is respected and admired.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT-FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Phallic stage - age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage. Oedipus complex also develops - boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection. Describes feeling of wanting to possess the mother and replace the father. Electra complex (by Carl-Jung) is the equivalent for young girls to their fathers. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent. If fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION BASED ON RACE, ETHNICITY, POWER, SOCIAL CLASS, & PRESTIGE

Prejudice and discrimination usually talked about in relation to racial and ethnic groups. Discrimination is the active form of prejudice; it is acting in a particular, irrational way towards a particular group of people. Discrimination may lead to affirmative action or policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit those believed underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions) have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination. May lead to reverse discrimination. Physical characteristics with social significance - some have more meanings than others. Ex. skin color, but not eye color. Attached meaning to skin color. Ethnicity - Defined by national origin/distinct cultural patterns. ex. Puerto Rican, Irish, Japanese. Also include groups like Jews defined more by cultural practices than country of origin. Racism defined as prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another, are called racism.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-EMOTION & COGNITION IN PREJUDICE

Prejudice refers to the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience. May include race, age, gender, religion, or any other characteristic. Involves thinking a certain way. Prejudice is made up of 3 components: 1. Component#1: Cognition (Stereotype)- Fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) 2. Component#2: Affect - prejudice carries an emotional component Component #3: Discrimination (tendency for Prejudice to lead to behavior) - capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice (ABC model).

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT-FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and pleasure - the build-up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts. Fixation was due to concept of libido - a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. And when libido energy is fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development. First 5 years of life are crucial in development of personality. Mnemonic - OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES or OLD AGE PENSIONERS LOVE GRAPES/GENITALS or ORANGANTANGES ALWAYS PLAY with LITTLE GORILLAS Old = oral, age = anal, parrots = phallic, love = latent, grapes = genital Depending on what stage we're at, going to be different fixation of energy at certain body part. For oral stage - focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES (BRANCH OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY)

Reference groups - the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviours. Constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviours. These groups influences our social decisions - our own beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Reference groups are groups that people refer to when evaluating their [own] qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors. "any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior" "group that an individual compares himself or hearlself to for self-evaluation" For example, refer to a social-science student reference group when deciding what political party to vote for in an election. Or referring to feminist reference group when deciding whether to change name after marriage if we are female. Any person or group in formation of general/specific values influences are social decisions. You bring subconsciously beliefs of the group everywhere, and you wish to satisfy the expectations of others. These reference groups set some level of aspiration.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES (BRANCH OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY)

Roles - we have many different roles that define what we do and who we are. We adopt social norms - the accepted standards of behavior of a social group, use it to guide our behaviours (what behavior is appropriate). Norms provide order in society and we use them to conform to expectations of that role/expectations of others. We respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and we get disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them fit the role even more when roles are stereotyped. For example, Stanford Prison experiment - being in a prison environment caused guards to be more authoritative, sadistic, and power to do what they wanted with the prisoners. Prisoners: felt they were powerless to the guards. They would suck up to the guards. These were expectations of the prisoners for approval by the guards. Prison environment created these characteristics. The guards before the study did not have these characteristics

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions: Attention, sensation, perception, and memory (acronym: elementary mental babies have crAMPS). These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes - higher mental functions. Most develop from skillful "tutor" - a model, ex. parent/teacher/someone older. Tutor = model, and child tries to understand instructions/actions provided by tutor and they internalize it. Higher Mental Functions: Independent learning and thinking. For example, solving a puzzle as a kid. You have a hard time as a kid, but a parent gives tips and strategies to solve the puzzle and the second time you can internalize these ideas and do it on your own. Higher mental functions cultivated by tutor from who we model our behavior.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

Self - core circle - media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. Useful interventions include educating, access to support groups/resources.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

Self-Stigma: Self-stigma is when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society. For example, someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the social-stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffer from depression (negative mental health), and display behaviours that isolate themselves from society and stop them from taking part in vocation/education/other social activities for example (further isolating them).

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

Self-concept as known as self identity - is how someone thinks about/perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self awareness. Based upon self-schemas. For example: female, African-American, student, smart, funny, future doctor. Different from self-consciousness which is an awareness of oneself. Derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy. Ways to remember one's identity include the addressing framework or age, disability status, religion, ethnicity/race, sexual orientation, socioeconomic class, indigenous background, national origin, and gender. Development of self-concept has 2 parts: first, an existential self and then a categorical self.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY - ATTRIBUTION ERROR & CULTURE

Self-serving bias: mechanism of preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed it's due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control. Individualistic societies tend to demonstrate a great degree of self-serving bias. More important in individual societies because of their emphasis on achievements and success. Optimism bias is belief bad things happen to others, but not to us. Just world phenomenon states indicates a tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

Social Sigma - Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society - comes in 2 forms: 1. social stigma and 2. self-stigma 1. Social Stigma: Social stigma can be fuelled or associated with several other key concepts: stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination. Relationship/overlap between stigma and these is unclear and is variable depending on source. Derived from symbolic interactionist perspective. Calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval. Often, the social disapproval is associated with a behavior, identity, or other attribute that is considered deviant by others" Associated with an attribute that is devalued Social stigma against mental health is big problem - ex. stereotype is mentally ill are violent (cognition), I become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice), so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination) Social-stigma and components can vary a great deal by sociopolitical context (sexual orientation for example).

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SELF PERCEPTIONS SHAPE OUR PERCEPTIONS OF OTHERS

Social perception involves the understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions. Social cognition is the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception. Using social perception, we try to figure out what others are thinking. A false consensus occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not). A projection bias happens when we assume others have the same beliefs we do. Since people have a tendency to look for similarities between themselves and others, they often assume them even when this is unfounded.

CHARLES COOLEY-LOOKING GLASS SELF

Socialization also shapes our self-image and self-concept, and Charles Cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process - idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others. Thought this happened in 3 steps 1) How do I appear to others? 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations).

CHARLES COOLEY-LOOKING GLASS SELF

Socialization describes the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviours, and values expected by their culture/community. Socialization learning occurs through observation of/interaction with people who we are surrounded by - those close to us and everyone else (ex. parents, peers, person at supermarket, celebrity, etc.). Everyone has something to teach us on how we should act in our community.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STIGMA SOCIAL & SELF

Society - interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job (earning an income), in healthcare (to get appropriate level of healthcare, follow-up care, getting a screening), etc. A great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage 1 - 0-1 yrs., crisis is trust vs. mistrust. (ACRONYM: BUN IS RUSTed) If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. Virtue is hope And failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust. Stage 2 - 1-3 yrs., autonomy vs. shame/doubt. (ACRONYM: Shoe shaped Car driven by doubtful SHA[N]E). Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtue achieved is will (independence). Negative outcome: If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame/doubt in abilities.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage 3 - 3-6 yrs., initiative vs. guilt. (ACRONYM: Tree with an INN in it and a [Q]uilt around it). Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. Negative outcome: If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt - as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy. Some guilt is necessary so child can have self-control. Stage 4 - age 6-12. Where teachers take an important role in a child's life, and child works towards competence. Crisis is industry vs. inferiority (ACRONYM: Dinosaur with dust on him feeling inferior). Virtue: Child will gain greater significance and greater self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Competence. Will feel industrious. Negative outcome: but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior (don't have competence). Some failure is necessary/ good though, so child has modesty.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage 7 - age 40-65 (Middle adult-hood), established career, so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture. Generativity vs. stagnation (ACRONYM: GENERator powering heaven, a STAG powering the generator for the NATIONS heaven). Positive virtue: Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities/organizations, so develop sense of care for others. Negative outcome: is they feel stagnate and unproductive. Stage 8 - 65+, slowing in productivity. Crisis is integrity vs. despair. (ACRONYM: plate with inteGRIT and a pear). Stage where people contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilty about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is wisdom -look back on life with sense of closure/completeness and accept death wthout fear. But if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death. Each of stages involve culture and society of which we develop in and occurs throughout life.

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

Step 2: Next is identification. When we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to. For example, a student. (ex. Act and behave like a student if we identify as students. The role starts to feel like a norm). Emotional significance to identification - our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging.

SELF-IDENTITY - SELF CONCEPT, SELF IDENTITY, & SOCIAL IDENTITY

Step 3: social comparison - how we comparing ourselves with other groups (or two different groups). We do this to maintain our self-esteem. Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STEREOTYPES: STEREOTYPE THREAT & SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES

Stereotype threat - (negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. For example, blue and red students, both perform equally. Next time, implement negative stereotype about blue students, blue students perform worse. What stereotype threat is - exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual performing task. Stereotype threatens performance.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT - VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Studied the role social interaction plays in development of cognition. Focussed on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of cognition-higher order learning. Passed away early (38 y/o), so much of his theory was left unfinished.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION THE HALO EFFECT

The halo effect is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. For example, the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits. For example, Jim, our initial overall impression is in the middle. His accounting rating/skills is very high, sales are negative, and leadership is moderately good.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS - ATTRIBUTION THEORY - ATTRIBUTION ERROR & CULTURE

The halo effect or the halo error is a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Our impress overall of a person is influenced by how we feel or think about his or her character. For example, your overall impression of your neighbor might be "he is nice", therefore, you make other assumptions about him ("he must be a good dad"). The physical attractiveness stereotype is a specific type of halo effect; people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive. Attribute substitution refers to when a person must make a judgement or answer a question that is complex and substitutes a simple solution or heuristic for the actual solution. In this way, when someone tries to answer a difficult question, they may actually be answering a related but simpler question without knowing it.

CHARLES COOLEY-LOOKING GLASS SELF

The looking-glass self suggests that the self-concept is influenced by how we perceive that others are viewing us. Based on the looking-glass self, a person who acquires a stigmatized illness is likely to internalize the stigmatization directed against him or her. "Symbolic interactionist paradigm in sociology. The looking glass self suggests that the self-concept is more than the product of self-reflection. Instead, the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions" The looking-glass self is the notion that we construct our identity out of our interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others. This is not something that one can necessarily avoid - it is simply one sociological construct for understanding how we build our sense of self.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-STEREOTYPES: STEREOTYPE THREAT & SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES

The stereotype content model is a psychological theory that posits that stereotypes possess two primary dimensions, competence and warmth. The model centers around a hypothetical in-group that makes judgements about people. Competent groups are those held in high esteem by society and the in-group, and vice versa for incompetent groups. Warm groups are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group, and vice versa for low-warmth groups.

OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

The theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another. Develop capacity through these stages. We pass stages in order.

PERCEPTION, PREJUDICE, & BIAS-SOCIAL PERCEPTION PRIMACY & RECENCY BIAS

Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before - the recency bias. For example, you're only as good as your last game, last match. Information retention (memory) relates to primacy and recency bias. Primacy and recency events are more important to developing memory. In Variable duration (in between primacy/recency - you might remember some actions a bit more if an action is unusual or elicits an unusual response in you.