SFL 210 Final Exam
How does learned helplessness relate to peer rejection?
They conclude, after repeated rebuffs, that they will never be liked no matter what. Do not relate peer difficulties to internal, changeable factors.
What are some interventions that tend to repel peer attacks on victimized children?
Change victimized children's negative opinions of themselves Help them acquire social skills needed to form and maintain friendships - close friends help Change youth environments: school, sports programs, recreation centers, neighborhoods
What is some cross-cultural research regarding instrumental-expressive dichotomy
"Cross-cultural research conducted in 30 nations reveals that the instrumental-expressive dichotomy is a widely held stereotype around the world."
Neglected children
seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively
Gender consistency
sex is biologically based and remains the same even if a person dresses in "cross-gender" clothes or engages in nontraditional activities
What are gender stereotypes?
widely held beliefs about characteristics deemed appropriate for males and females
Sternberg's theory: Practical intelligence
Application of intellectual skills in everyday behavior. Adapt to, shape, and select environments to meet personal goals/demands of everyday world.
What are some effects of television viewing on children?
Canadian sample: Two years after getting cable, school-age children declined in reading ability and creative thinking. A rise in gender-stereotyped beliefs, increase in verbal and physical aggression during play. In adolescents: Sharp drop in community participation. Extensive TV viewing is linked to family, peer, health difficulties
What are some consequences of a child's difficulty connecting separate TV scenes into a coherent storyline?
Less elaborate make-believe play. Cannot recall program content.
How do peers react to rejected-withdrawn kids?
Passive and socially awkward Hold negative expectations for peers, fearful. "Feel like retaliating rather than compromising in peer conflicts, although they less often act on those feelings." Excluded as early as kindergarten Impairs their biased social info processing. Classroom participation declines, academics falter, avoid school. At risk for peer harassment
Gender labeling
can label own sex and that of others correctly
What is peer victimization?
certain children become targets of verbal and physical attacks or other forms of abuse
Spearman's theory: Fluid intelligence
depends heavily on basic info-processing skills - ability to detect relationships among stimuli. Influenced by the brain.
What are the uses and limitations of Bayley Scales of Infant Development?
USED to test early language, cognition, social behavior. For children between 1 month and 3 1/2 years. Gets a parental report of cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, and adaptive behavior scales. LIMITATIONS: Predicts later intelligence poorly Kids become bored and distracted during testing and scores do not reflect their true ability. They had different skills than older kids. The cognitive and language scales are better predictors of preschool mental test performance.
How do good teachers affect a child's academic performance?
Caring, helpful, stimulating = gains in motivation, achievement, favorable peer relations. More likely to have sensitive support from teachers when child is high-achieving and well-behaved, typically higher SES. Teacher expectations can have a profound impact on low-achieving students (teachers believing in them)
What are contributors to positive sibling interaction?
Children treat older siblings as attachment figures when parents are unavailable Predict favorable adjustment Maternal warmth toward both or all children "Mothers who frequently play with children and head off potential conflicts by explaining the toddler's wants and needs to the preschool sibling foster sibling cooperation" Good marriage/communication between parents
Sternbergs theory: Analytical intelligence
Info-processing skills. Apply strategies, self-regulation, acquire task-relevant and metacognitive knowledge
What are instrumental vs. expressive traits?
Instrumental traits: reflect competence, rationality, and assertiveness. Regarded as masculine. Expressive traits: emphasize warmth, caring, sensitivity. Regarded as feminine
Why is it sometimes difficult for professionals to identify abuse?
It is not always reported. Many cases (45-90%) involve multiple types of maltreatment. On average, 3 kinds. Hard to prove. Only witnesses often are children or other family members. Hesitate to remove child from family.
Define androgyny
scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics
What are some average parenting styles and practices for parents of lower-SES?
skilled/semiskilled professions: Construction workers, truck drivers, custodians Emphasize external characteristics, such as obedience, politeness, neatness, cleanliness Commands, criticism, physical punishment more often here High levels of stress Coercive discipline Less control of lives outside the home
How does peer acceptance contribute to psychological adjustment?
"Better-accepted children tend to have more friends and more positive relationships with them." Rejected children: anxious, unhappy, disruptive, poorly achieving, low self-esteem. Wide range of social/emotional problems. Also linked to dropping out, substance use, depression, anti-social behavior
Sternbergs theory: Creative intelligence
Capacity to solve novel problems. Make processing skills automatic to free working memory for complex thinking.
Gender constancy
full understanding of the biologically based permanence of their gender, which combines three understandings: gender labeling, stability, and consistency. Use this knowledge to guide behavior.
Gender intensification
increased gender stereotyping of attitudes and behavior, and movement toward a more traditional gender identity (adolescence)
What is gender typing?
refers broadly to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with biological sex in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes
Spearman's theory: Crystallized intelligence?
refers to skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgment, mastery of social customs - abilities acquired because they are valued by culture (vocab, general info, arithmetic problems)
What are gender roles?
reflection of these stereotypes in everyday behavior
Does parenting really matter?
• Yes! Different effects on different children but transcends social, emotional, academic and developmental life • Combines with many other factors, including heredity and peers • Warm parents provide rich and varied experiences which foster children's positive capacities
Rejected children
Many negative votes
How do transracial adoptions affect child IQ?
"Findings consistently reveal that when young children are adopted into caring, stimulating homes, their IQs rise substantially compared with the IQs of nonadopted children who remain in economically deprived families." "Parent-child correlations revealed that as the children grew older, they became more similar in IQ to their biological mothers and less similar to their adoptive parents." "Still, the black adoptees remained above the IQ average for low-SES african americans. The IQ gains of children "reared in the culture of the tests and schools" are consistent with a wealth of evidence that poverty severely depresses the scores of many ethnic minority children." BOTH environment and heredity matter. In adolescents these adoptees can dip in IQ because of pressures of blending their identity with their adoptive background.
What is the overall nature of peer conformity in adolescence?
"It is not a period in which young people blindly do what their peers ask." Varies by age, current situation, need for social approval, and culture They feel greatest pressure to conform to dress, grooming, participation in social activities. "Peer pressure to engage in proadult behavior, such as cooperating with parents and getting good grades, was also strong." Peer pressure actually tends to be positive! Resistance to peer pressure strengthens with age
What can intelligence tests actually tell us?
"Predicts diverse life success indicators, but does so imperfectly."
Developmental trends in how peers (especially boys) reinforce gender boundaries and discourage "gender- inappropriate" play
"Same-sex peers positively reinforce one another for gender-typed play by praising, imitating, or joining in. In contrast, when children engage in cross-gender activities, peers criticize, pressure them to change their behavior, and in extreme cases harass and physically attack them."
What are some findings from studies that have examined correlational stability of IQ?
1. The older the child is at the time of their first testing, the better the prediction of later IQ. Preschool cannot predict well. After age 6, stability improves with correlations between .70 and .80. BASICALLY, with age test items focus less on concrete knowledge and more on complex reasoning and problem solving, which require different skills. 2. The closer in time the two testings are, the stronger the relationship between the scores.
Define "crowds"
A larger, more loosely organized group. Often several cliques with similar values. Membership is based on reputation and stereotype, granting the adolescent an identity within the larger social structure of the school. Like a high school drama group. Other examples might be the "jocks", "brains", "populars", "partyers", etc.
What is Spearman's theory of intelligence?
All test items he examined correlated with one another - theory of general and specific intelligences that work together. Focus on general intelligences.
What are some reasons for underlying differences in math achievement across cultures?
America: Instruction in USA is less challenging, more focused on absorbing facts, less focused on high-level reasoning and critical thinking than in other countries. May be because USA focuses so much on targeted goals on achievement tests. Does not provide great education to low-income and ethnic minority students. Focuses on native ability as key to success Finland: Got rid of standardized testing. Teachers are highly trained at government expense. Equal opportunity for all (eliminated gaps in SES differences) Asian nations: Social forces foster student learning. Cultural valuing of effort. Parents devote more time to helping with homework. Well-prepared teachers. Better paid teachers, highly respected
What are distinct child outcomes of sexual abuse?
Anxiety and depression, low self-esteem, mistrust of adults, anger and hostility Sleep difficulties, loss of appetite, fearfulness CNS damage Precocious sexual behavior, increased arrest rates for sex crimes and prostitution Choose partners who abuse them Irresponsible and coercive parenting
What are some overlapping outcomes of various forms of child abuse?
Attachment Emotional self-regulation Empathy and sympathy Self-concept Social skills Academic motivation More extreme: School failure, depression, aggressive behavior, peer difficulties, substance abuse, violent crime
What are key features of authoritarian parenting?
Authoritarian: low in acceptance and involvement. High in coercive behavioral control, low in autonomy granting. Cold and rejecting Makes excessive demands for mature behavior. Uses force and punishment Psychological control Makes decisions for child Rarely listens to their point of view What we use to describe North Korea
What are parenting styles in relation to adolescent resistence to unfavorable peer pressure?
Authoritative parenting - supporting, exert appropriate oversight - teenagers respect them. "An attitude that acts as an antidote to unfavorable peer pressure." Adolescents whose parents exert too much/too little control tend to be highly peer-oriented. Bend easily to influence
What are the key features of authoritative parenting?
Authoritative: the most successful approach. Involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, appropriate autonomy granting. Firm and reasonable Allow child to make decisions Reasonable demands for mature behavior Express thoughts/feelings/desires Joint decision making when they disagree with child
Gender-stereotype flexibility: developmental trends and the impact of engaging in "cross-gender" behaviors for boys and girls
Begin to develop basic stereotypes. Early childhood: These stereotypes become blanket rules instead of flexible guidelines. As kids age into adolescence, their flexibility increases. Higher SES tend to hold more flexible views.
What is some research regarding play styles of boys and girls and preference for same-sex peers?
Boys are rough, noisy, have larger play groups. Girls are calm with gentle actions. Play in pairs/cooperative roles. "Experiments with animals reveal that prenatally administered androgens (male sex hormones) increase active play in both male and female mammals... also promote male-typical sexual behavior and aggression and suppress maternal caregiving..." Hormones affect play styles, which affects the partners they choose that are compatible.
What are factors that are associated with peer victimization?
Bullies tend to target already-rejected children, whom children are unlikely to defend. Happens more in schools where teachers are viewed as unfair and uncaring and where many students judge bullying behaviors as "OK". Bullies have overly-high self-esteem, pride in their acts, indifference to harm done to victims. Victims tend to be passive when active behavior is expected. Take the defense when bullied. Inhibited temperament and frail physical appearance
Controversial points of Arthur Jensen's 1969 article, entitled "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement"
Claims that heredity is largely responsible for individual, ethnic, SES differences in IQ. Does NOT think it can be boosted. "Imagine planting a handful of flower seeds in a pot of soil generously enriched with fertilizer and another handful in a pot with very little fertilizer. The plants in each pot vary in height, but those in the first pot grow much taller than those in the second. Within each group, individual differences in plant height are largely due to heredity because the growth environments of all plants were about the same. But the average difference in height between the two groups is probably environmental because the second group got less fertilizer"
What is factor analysis?
Complicated correlational procedure which identifies sets of test items that cluster together, meaning that test-takers who do well on one item in a cluster tend to do well on the others. Distinct clusters are called "factors".
What do "g" and "s" mean in Spearman's theory of intelligence?
G = General intelligence. Believed to influence all aspects of intelligence. Abstract reasoning capacity. S = Specific intelligence. A mental ability that is unique to a task.
What is Gardners view on multiple intelligences?
Get from slides
Popular children
Get many positive votes
What is some research differential treatment of boys and girls by their parents?
Girl: Warmth, ladylike behavior. Closely supervised activities. Closeness and dependency. Parents provide help, encourage participation in household tasks, engage in conversation. Parents likely to help them right away. More likely to get negative comments about performance. Directive speech ("practice right after dinner"). In-home chores. BOYS: Achievement, competition, control of emotion. Reinforce independence. Parents are likely to not help right away to promote independence. Parents pair control with autonomy granting (When do you think is a good time to practice?) Out-of-home chores.
How do boys and girls differentiate in social strategies when it comes to getting their way with peers?
Girls: Greater concerns for partners needs, so they use polite requests, persuasion, and acceptance. Boys rely on commands, threats, and physical force.
What are some factors relating to positive outcomes of maternal employment?
Good quality of child care during working hours Positive parent-child relationship Positive father participation in caregiving Positive work satisfaction from mom Remain committed to parenting Leads fathers to take on greater child-care responsibilities
Define "clique"
Groups of about five to eight members who are friends and, therefore, usually resemble one another in family background, attitudes, values, and interests
What are some findings from studies regarding home environment (HOME assessment) and IQ?
HOME - Checklist for gathering info about the quality of children's home living through observation and parental interview. Stimulation provided by parents is moderately linked to mental development. HOME-IQ relationship declines in middle childhood, because they spend more time away from home. HOME-IQ correlation is stronger for biological than for adopted children. The more education a parent expects the child to receive, the higher IQ/school performance.
How do peers respond to rejected-aggressive children?
High rates of conflict, physical and relational aggression, hyperactive, inattentive, impulsive behavior Misinterpret innocent acts as hostile Antagonistic. "Rather than using aggression skillfully to attain status, rejected-aggressive children display blatantly hostile, acting-out behavior, which triggers scorn and avoidance in their peers."
What are some influences of noncustodial fathers in a mother-child relationship in families of divorce?
Higher maternal stress, depression, anxiety, less stability (meals, bedtimes, chores, activities) Discipline could become harsh and inconsistent as children react with distress and anger Noncustodial fathers tend to be permissive and indulgent, making it harder for mother to manage the child
What are some factors that contribute to positive child adjustment following a divorce?
How well custodial parent handles stress/shields child from family conflict The extent to which they use authoritative child rearing Paternal contact along with warm father-child relationship Occurs more often in families where mother-child relationship is positive and divorced parents are courteous and cooperative
What factors contribute to IQ test biases against ethnic minority groups?
IQ and achievement tests draw on same pool of culturally specific info. Certain groups may have fewer opportunities to acquire skills/knowledge needed. Ethnicity and SES account for only 1/4 of variation in IQ. Lack of exposure to certain communication styles. Knowledge as a part of majority-culture upbringing. Effects of stereotypes on children. Trying to succeed at something you are expected to be bad at.
What are the characteristics and impact of prosocial television shows?
Includes acts of cooperating, helping, and comforting. Promote kind/helpful acts only when they are free of violent content
What are some strategies when teaching students with special needs?
Inclusive classrooms - students learn alongside typical students in the regular educational setting for part or all of the school day. Cooperative learning and peer-tutoring experiences
What is the definition of Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?
Indicates the extent to which the raw score (number of items passed) deviates from typical performances of same-age individuals
What are some factors relating to negative outcomes of maternal employment?
Ineffective parenting Inconsistent discipline Opposite of all the positives, basically Father not willing to help out with kids
What are the eight independent intelligences in Gardner's view?
Linguistics Logico-mathematical Musical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Naturalist Interpersonal (social skills) Intrapersonal (Self-reflective)
What impact does Sesame Street have on child development?
Lively visual and sound effects stress basic literacy and number concepts an puppet and human interactions to teach general knowledge, social and emotional understanding. Gains in early literacy and math skills. Higher grades, reading more books, placing more value on achievement in high school. More easy-to-follow narratives promote make-believe play and greater recall of program content and gains in vocab and reading skills.
What is the importance of rough-and-tumble play in child development?
Many children continue interacting after playing (shows that it is not aggressive) Originates in parents' physical play with babies (fathers with sons) Boys engage in wrestling, restraining, hitting Girls engage in running and chasing, brief physical contact Helps children develop a DOMINANCE HIERARCHY: a stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises Hostility is rare after it is established Declines in adolescence. When it does happen, it is usually linked to aggression.
How do authoritative parents adapt their child rearing to their child's phase of development?
Middle Childhood: Coregulation: a form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making Adolescence: Begin to use autonomy and parental monitoring. They can make decisions independently and rely less on parents support.
What effects can a transition between schools (such as middle to high) have on adolescent adjustment?
Move from intimate, self-contained elementary school classroom to a larger, impersonal secondary school where they shift between classes. Grades decline with each school change. Less personal attention/chance to participate in classroom decision making. Teachers care less about them, grade less fairly, like school less. Must readjust their feelings of self-confidence and self-worth as they encounter revised academic expectations. Girls fare less well than boys. Transition coincides with other changes: puberty and dating. "They disrupt close relationships with teachers at a time when they need adult support. They emphasize competition during a period of heightened self-focusing. They reduce decision making and choice as the desire for autonomy is increasing. And they interfere with peer networks as young people become more concerned about peer acceptance."
Be familiar with the conversion of raw scores on most intelligence tests (how IQ tests are standardized and therefore comparable)
Normal distribution. Most scores cluster around the mean with progressively fewer falling toward each extreme. The mean IQ is set at 100.
How does age and gender play into how well a child adjusts to blended family situations?
Older children and girls have a harder time "Boys tend to adjust quickly, welcoming a stepfather who is warm, refrains from exerting authority too quickly, offers relief from cycles of mother-son interaction" "Girls however often have difficulty with their mother's remarriage... stepfathers disrupt the close ties many girls have established with their mothers, and girls often react with sulky, resistant behaviors" "Older school-age children and adolescents of both sexes display more irresponsible, acting-out behavior than their peers..." Threat to freedom Girls with stepmothers: loyalty between two mother figures
How do children receive different messages about gender? How does family configuration and siblings affect that?
One parent: Less gender-typed. Fewer opportunities to observe traditional gender roles. More likely to have at least one other-sex friend. Two-parent: When both parents help in the home, there is more gender flexibility. Siblings: Depends on birth order and amount of siblings. Older siblings have more of an impact on younger siblings. Same-sex siblings tend to be more gender typed. Differentiation: Siblings from larger families try to be different from one another.
How is IQ a predictor of psychological adjustment?
Only moderately correlated. Higher-IQ children tend to be better-liked by agemates, but could also just be their personality. Kids who engage in lawbreaking acts tend to score about 8 points lower than non-delinquents. Deficient in verbal ability. Of course, other factors could be contributing to both.
What are key features of permissive parenting?
Permissive: warm and accepting but uninvolved. Overindulgent or inattentive. Engage in little behavioral control. Allow children to make decisions for themselves at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so. Kids do not have good manners Kids just do whatever they want basically Often is because they don't think they can do anything about their kids' behavior
How do peers respond to popular children?
Popular-prosocial kids combine academic and social competence. Communicate in friendly/cooperative ways. Popular-antisocial kids are "tough kids" who defy authority. Relationally aggressive girls. Viewed as cool because of athletic/social skills. With age, peers like these high-status, aggressive youths less and less. "The more socially prominent and controlling these girls become, the more they engage in relational aggression. Eventually peers may condemn their nasty tactics and reject them."
What is the importance of practical intelligence?
Practical intelligence: Mental abilities that are apparent in real world but not in testing situations. Predicts job performance just as well as, if not better than, IQ. "Whereas test items are formulated by others, provide complete info, are often detached from real life, and have only one solution, practical problems are not clearly defined, are embedded in everyday experiences, and generally have several appropriate solutions, each with strengths and limitations. Practical intelligence is evident in the assembly-line worker who discovers the fewest moves need to complete a product or the business manager who increases productivity by making her subordinates feel valued"
What are some characteristics of children who are more at risk for child maltreatment?
Premature or very sick baby Difficult temperament Inattentiveness and overactivity Other developmental problems ` Characteristics make them more challenging to rear
What are some findings regarding studies done about Head Start?
Provides children with a year or two of preschool. GOAL to offset the declines in IQ and achievement common among low-SES children. Early intervention: Does help. Stay head of control groups. Led to warmer, stimulating parenting, reduction in harsh discipline, gains in cognitive/language development, lessening of aggression. Parental involvement is KEY. However, these kids enter inferior public schools. Important qualities of intervention: Starts early. Well-educated, well-compensated teachers. Small class sizes. Parental involvement. Focusing on whole child.
What are common characteristics of child abusers?
Psychological disturbance Alcohol and drug abuse History of abuse as a child Belief in harsh physical discipline Desire to satisfy unmet emotional needs through the child Unreasonable expectations for child behavior Young age (most under 30) Low educational level Biased thinking about child (evaluate transgressions as worse than they are, powerless in parenting, etc.) Seldom interact with children, harshness increases Unmanageable parental stress
Controversial children
Receive many votes, both positive and negative
How do bad teachers affect a child's academic performance?
Repetitive drill over high-level thinking Often once a teachers' attitudes toward students are established, they are more extreme than is warranted. Self-fulfilling prophecies: children may adopt teachers' positive or negative views and start to live up to them Comparing children publicly
What is some evidence of hormonal effects on gender roles?
Sex differences in behavior exist in 97% of mammalian species. Varies in different countries, but for the most part boys are instrumental and girls are expressive. Experience has something to do with it.
What are key contributors to a child's academic success?
Smaller classroom size/school size Extracurricular activities Recess
What are cons of computers?
Social risks like exposure to porn, theft, hackers Extensive game-playing. Blur between real life and virtual world
What developmental problems are more common among boys?
Speech/lang disorders Reading disabilities Behavior problems Genetic disorders
What are some factors related to violence in TV shows?
TV violence increases the likelihood of hostile thoughts and emotions and of verbally, physically, and relationally aggressive behavior "15 minutes of mildly violent programming heightened aggression in at least ¼ of viewers" Violent content is 9% above average in children's programming "Preschool and young school-age children are especially likely to imitate TV violence because they believe that much TV fiction is real..." Aggressive children and adolescents have a greater appetite for TV and other media violence. "Boys devote more time... than girls in part because of male-oriented themes of conquest and adventure and use of males as lead characters." "Hardens" children to aggression, making them more willing to tolerate it in others. Heavy viewers believe that there is much more violence in society than there actually is
What are average parenting styles and practices for higher-SES parents?
Technical / professional occupations Psychological traits: curiosity, happiness, self-direction, maturity Talk to, read to, otherwise stimulate their babies and preschoolers more Warmth, explanations, inductive discipline, verbal praise Set higher academic/developmental goals Let kids make decisions Enables more time/energy to be with kids More control over lives outside the home
What is Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence?
There are three broad, interacting intelligences. 1. Analytical intelligence 2. Creative intelligence 3. Practical intelligence Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three intelligences to achieve success in life, according to personal goals and requirements of one's cultural community. Shows that mental tests can easily underestimate the intellectual strengths of some children.
What are developmental trends in the amount of TV viewing in children?
Today, kids devote an average of 7 ½ hours a day to entertainment media (53 a week) American children become first viewers in early infancy. 40% of 3-month olds regularly watch TV or videos. Rises to 90% by age two. Between 2-6 years, typical preschooler watches from 1 ½ - 2/ ⅔ hours a day. Increases to 3 ½ hours a day in middle childhood. Rises in adolescents to 5 hours. Diminishes in late adolescence to 3-4 hours. Preschoolers: 10-18 hours School-age: 24 hours Adolescents: 32 hours Boys tend to watch more than girls Low SES, African-american, hispanic children watch more If parents watch a lot, then their children probably do, too. Used as an escape.
How can siblings influence children's social competence?
Toddlers imitate and join in play with siblings Close in age means can relate to each other Contribute to understanding of emotions and other mental states, perspective taking, moral maturity, competence in relating to peers
What are possible negative consequences of joint custody?
Transitions between schools and peer groups
What are key features of uninvolved parenting?
Uninvolved: combines low acceptance and involvement with little behavioral control and general indifference to issues of autonomy. Emotionally detached/withdrawn Lax in behavioral control. Few or no demands for mature behavior Indifferent to child's decision making and point of view Little time or energy for children Satisfy immediate demands, not long-term ones
What are some factors that influence the transition from school to work?
Whether or not you have a college degree. Poorly prepared for skilled business. Most kids with jobs are looking to spend money rather than get training, or they need to contribute to family finances. "Participation in work-study programs or other jobs that provide academic and vocational learning opportunities is related to positive school and work attitudes." Yet high-quality vocational prep for non-college-bound US teens is scarce. Many training programs are too brief to make a difference and serve a small minority.
What are pros to computers?
Wide range of learning. Literary progress in non-game computer use Don't have to struggle with handwriting, can experiment Worry less about mistakes made - writing products are longer and of higher quality Information gathering
What are contributors to negative sibling interaction?
Young kids act out when they share parents attention Certain temperamental traits (high reactivity or activity level) Maternal harshness and lack of involvement Parents comparing siblings' traits and accomplishments
What is gender identity?
private face of gender - perception of the self as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics
Gender stability
partial understanding of permanence of sex, in that they grasp its stability over time
