Soc 101 Exam 2 Ch. 5-8 Lindley

Characteristics of Wealth Base of Stratification

-- is cumulative. It increases over time, especially through investment, whereas income is usually spent on everyday expenses. Because -- is accumulated over time, much of it can be passed on to the next generation. Inheritances and other monetary gifts offer opportunities to start a business, buy a first (or vacation) home, pursue college without debt, and increase assets (e.g., savings and stocks). Passing on -- to the next generation preserves privilege. -- people tend to have the greatest amount of economic capital (income and other monetary assets like property), cultural capital (advanced degrees and assets such as style of speech, table manners, and physical appearance), and social capital (networks comprised of influential people). Differential access to all three types of capital reinforces and reproduces the existing class structure and inequality.

Robert Merton's Strain Theory and Conformity

-- posits that people may engage in deviant behavior when they experience a conflict between goals and the means available to obtain the goals. Not all people turn to deviance to resolve social strain. Most of us -- by working harder and longer to become successful.

Wealth Base of Stratification

-- refers to the economic assets that a person or family owns. It includes money, property (e.g., real estate), stocks and bonds, retirement and savings accounts, personal possessions (e.g., cars and jewelry), and income. US -- and income inequality is staggering. Over the past three decades, the racial -- divide has increased. Regardless of how the economy is doing, the rich keep getting richer.

Feminist Theory Perspectives on Deviance (Gender Roles)

-- reinforce inequality. Internalization of the belief that female victimization is normal. "Girls are rewarded for passivity and feminine behavior, whereas boys are rewarded for aggressiveness and masculine behavior." As early as middle school, girls experience physical and sexual harassment in hallways, classrooms, and gym classes. Although the incidents are upsetting, girls often dismiss the boys' unwanted behavior as "only joking." In effect, then, both sexes internalize the belief that female victimization is normal. Because patriarchal societies rarely punish men who victimize women, or give them light sentences, many female victims feel trapped. Explanation for female victimization.

Feminist Theory on Organizations

Across all social classes, women consistently fare worse than men. Glass ceiling: Attitudes or biases that prevent women from advancing to leadership positions. Critical evaluation: Much of the emphasis is on white and black women. Tends to gloss over stereotypes that affect men and how female supervisors reinforce glass ceilings and escalators. -- scholars point out that across all social classes, women (and especially minority women) consistently fare worse than men, especially in leadership roles. Women have enjoyed increased success in organizations since the 1980s, but rarely at the highest levels. Companies benefit from female leadership. Female CEOs are more likely than their male counterparts to mentor women workers, to match people to job skills, and to pay wages that reward productivity. On average, female managers are more engaged than male managers, more likely to encourage their subordinates' development, to recognize and praise their accomplishments, and to make them feel valued Why, then, does the gender gap in top positions persist? Large numbers of women still hit a glass ceiling —workplace attitudes or organizational biases that prevent them from advancing to leadership positions. Examples of obstacles include men's negative attitudes about women in the workplace, women's placement in staff positions that aren't on the career track to the top, a lack of mentoring, biased evaluations by male supervisors, and little or no access to highly visible committees or task forces In contrast, many men who enter female-dominated occupations (e.g., nursing and teaching) receive higher wages and faster promotions, a phenomenon known as a glass escalator. Men on glass escalators also move up to supervisory positions more quickly than do females Critical Evaluation: -- show that groups and organizations treat many talented women like outsiders. One weakness, however, is that much of the emphasis is still on white and black women even though Latinas and Asian American women comprise a large segment of the labor force. A second limitation is that even when -- say that both sexes suffer from organizational stereotypes, they tend to gloss over stereotypes that affect men and how female supervisors reinforce glass ceilings and escalators. Many women experience a double standard, but they fail for some of the same reasons as men: Female managers and executives make mistakes, may not network within and outside a company, avoid lateral moves (that can lead to a promotion), or turn down promotions and job offers that involve risk-taking, long hours, and work-related stress.

Organized Crime

Activities of people and groups that supply illegal goods and services for profit. -- refers to activities of individuals and groups that supply illegal goods and services for profit. -- includes human and drug trafficking, loan-sharking (lending money at unlawful rates), illegal gambling, pornography, theft rings, hijacking cargo, and laundering money obtained from illicit activities (e.g., prostitution) by depositing the money in legitimate enterprises (e.g., banks). One of the most profitable activities, -- retail crime, involves stealing billions of dollars in merchandise that is then sold online, a practice known as "e-fencing." -- costs the retail industry approximately $30 billion each year. Criminal organizations employ highly sophisticated staff who circumvent bank security systems. Russia and China are especially likely to sponsor organized cybercrime, which makes money by stealing other countries' intellectual property and government secrets.

Functional Deviance (Functionalist)

Affirms cultural norms and values, Provides temporary safety valves, Bolsters the economy, and Triggers social change. Deviance can also be -- because it provides a number of societal benefits (Durkheim, 1893/1964; Erikson, 1966; Sagarin, 1975).

Open Stratification System

Allows movement up or down because people's achievements affect mobility. Consists of class system and social class.

Feminist Theory Perspectives on Deviance

Analysis of female offenders. Socialization explains some of the gender gaps in arrest rates. Compared with males, females: have more responsibilities from an earlier age, are supervised more closely, are expected to behave, are discouraged from risk-taking behavior. Critical evaluation: Doesn't show, specifically, how patriarchy victimizes women, Focuses primarily on male but not female violence and crime, Doesn't address the interdependent effects of gender, age, social class, and race/ethnicity. Until recently, most sociological research on deviance focused almost entirely on males. Nearly all sociologists were men who saw women as not worthy of much analytical attention or assumed that explanations of male behavior were equally applicable to females. -- analyses of female offenders and victims have greatly enriched our understanding of deviance.

Status Inconsistency

Arises from occupying social positions that are ranked differently. Since we hold many statuses, some clash. -- refers to the conflict that arises from occupying social positions that are ranked differently. Examples include a teacher who works as a bartender or a skilled welder who stocks shelves at a grocery store because neither can find a better job in a stagnant economy.

Corporate (Organizational) Crimes

Committed by executives to benefit themselves and their companies. Are illegal acts committed by executives to benefit themselves and their companies. -- include a vast array of illicit activities such as conspiracies to stifle free market competition, price-fixing, tax evasion, and false advertising. The target of the crime can be the general public, the environment, or even a company's own workers. Often, -- offenders commit multiple crimes (fraud, insider trading, and perjury). -- is common. It is common because it is profitable.

Relative Poverty

Not having enough money to maintain an average standard of living. (What I Want).

Conflict Theorist Perspective on Deviance

Capitalism produces crime because: Greed and self-interest perpetuate deviance, It encourages corporate crime, It creates considerable social inequality. Criminal laws serve the interests of the capitalist ruling class. Critical evaluation: Exaggerates the importance of capitalism, Downplays street crimes, Overlooks the fact that some affluent people don't always get away with crimes, Ignores the ways that crime is functional for the society, Focuses almost entirely on men as victims and offenders. Ask, "Why are some acts defined as criminal while others aren't?"

Status Set

Collection of social statuses a person occupies at a given time. It changes throughout the life course. It is relational--connected to other statuses. It influences behavior and relationship. Every person has many statuses. Together, they form her or his status set, a collection of social statuses that a person occupies at a given time. These change throughout the course of life. Statuses are relational, or complementary, because they are connected to other statuses: husband has wife, real estate agent has customers, teacher has student, etc. No matter how many statuses you occupy, every status is linked to those of other people. These connections between statuses influence our behavior and relationships.

White-Collar Crimes

Committed by high-status people in the course of their occupations. -- refers to illegal activities committed by high-status people in the course of their occupations. The offenses don't involve violence because --criminals use their status and powerful positions to enrich themselves or others. Typical -- include embezzlement (stealing an employer's or client's money); identity theft; bribery; insider trading (illegal stock manipulation); and mass marketing, mortgage, and investment fraud Bank tellers, who have low salaries and easy access to customer information, are particularly susceptible to -- -- are lucrative because most offenders aren't caught. Thus, the odds of being arrested are very small Even when -- criminals are arrested and convicted, few are incarcerated. Because so few of the most affluent -- offenders are punished, they enjoy lavish lifestyles that include yachts, private jets, and $2 million birthday parties.

Formal Organizations

Complex and structured secondary group designed to achieve specific goals in an efficient manner. Characteristics: Social statuses and roles are organized around shared expectations and goals. Norms governing social relationships specify rights, duties, and sanctions. Formal hierarchy includes leaders or individuals who are in charge. A -- is a complex and structured secondary group designed to achieve specific goals in an efficient manner. We depend on a variety of -- to provide goods and services in a stable and predictable way. Examples include water departments, food producers and grocery chains that stock our favorite items, and garment industries and retailers that manufacture and sell the clothes we wear. Modern, complex societies rely on --, including businesses and schools, to accomplish complex tasks. Organizations differ, however, in their goals, membership, and degree of hierarchy. Three types: utilitarian, normative, and coercive.

Emile Durkheim's Concept of Anomie (Functionalist)

Condition in which people are unsure how to behave because of absent, conflicting, or confusing social norms. -- introduced the term -- to describe the condition in which people are unsure how to behave because of absent, conflicting, or confusing social norms. During periods of rapid social change, such as industrialization in -- time, societal rules may break down. As many young people moved to the city to look for jobs in the nineteenth century, norms about proper behavior that existed in the countryside crumbled. Even today, many urban newcomers experience -- and miss the neighborliness that was common at home.

Dysfunctional Deviance (Functionalist)

Creates tension and insecurity, Erodes trust in personal and formal relationships, Decreases confidence in institutions, and Is costly. -- are the negative consequences of behavior, but what's dysfunctional for one group or individual may be functional for another. For example, gangs are functional because they provide members with a sense of belonging, identity, and protection. Gangs are also -- because they commit violent and property crimes. -- offer many explanations of deviance, but two of the most influential are anomie and strain theories. Both analyze why so many people engage in deviant behavior even though they share many of the same goals and values as those who conform to social norms.

Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, and Rebellion.

Robert Merton's 4 Modes of Adaptation that Signify Deviance

Solomon Asch's Study

Demonstrated the power of groups over individuals. In a now classic study of group influence, social psychologist -- told subjects that they were taking part in an experiment on visual judgment. After seating six to eight male undergraduates around a table, -- showed them the line drawn on card 1 and asked them to match the line to one of three lines on card 2. The correct answer, clearly, is line C. All but one of the subjects—who usually sat in the last chair—were -- confederates, or accomplices. In the first test, all the confederates selected the correct matching line. In the other tests, each of them, one by one, deliberately chose an incorrect line. Thus, the nonconfederates faced a situation in which seven other group members had unanimously agreed on a wrong answer. -- research demonstrated the power of groups over individuals. Even when we know that something is wrong, we may go along with the group to avoid ridicule or exclusion. Remember that these experiments were done in a laboratory and with people who didn't know each other. A group's influence on a person's attitudes and behavior can be even stronger when it's a real-life situation.

Philip Zimbardo's Research

Demonstrated the powerful effect of group conformity. People exercise authority or submit to authority if there is group pressure to conform. The Stanford Prison Experiment conducted by social psychologist -- also underscores the influence of groups on behavior. -- recruited volunteers through a local California newspaper for an experiment on prison life. He then selected 24 young men, most of them college students. On a Sunday morning, nine of the men were "arrested" at their homes as neighbors watched. The men were booked and transported to a mock prison that -- and his colleagues had constructed in the basement of the psychology building at Stanford University. The "prisoners" were searched, issued an identification number, and outfitted in a dresslike shirt and heavy ankle chains. Those assigned to be "guards" were given uniforms, billy clubs, whistles, and reflective sunglasses. The guards were told that their job was to maintain control of the prisoners but not to use violence. All the young men quickly assumed the roles of either obedient and docile prisoners or autocratic and controlling guards. The guards became increasingly more cruel and demanding. The prisoners complied with dehumanizing demands (such as eating filthy sausages) to gain the guards' approval and bowed to their authority. -- study was scheduled to run for 2 weeks but was stopped after 6 days because the guards became increasingly aggressive. Among other things, they forced the prisoners to clean out toilet bowls with their bare hands, locked them in a closet, and made them stand at attention for hours. Instead of simply walking out or rebelling, the prisoners became withdrawn and depressed. -- ended the experiment because of the prisoners' stressed-out reactions. The experiment raised numerous ethical questions about the harmful treatment of participants. It demonstrated, however, the powerful effect of group conformity: People exercise authority, even to the point of hurting others, or submit to authority if there's group pressure to conform.

The Medicalization of Deviance (Symbolic Interactionist on Deviance)

Diagnosing and treating a violation of social norms as a medical disorder. In 1952, the American Psychiatric Association published the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), which describes mental health disorders. The DSM's ever-changing diagnoses and labels are an example of the --, diagnosing and treating a violation of social norms as a medical disorder.

Feminist Theory Perspective on Deviance (Rape Culture)

Environment in which sexual violence is prevalent, pervasive, and perpetuated by the media and popular culture. Explanation for female victimization. An environment in which sexual violence is prevalent, pervasive, and perpetuated by the media and popular culture. The actual number of attacks is much higher because only 15 percent of service members and 33 percent of other victims report -- to police. -- statistics vary considerably depending on the legal definition, recording practices, and other factors. Nonetheless, the variation across countries shows that -- is preventable.

Symbolic Interaction Perspectives on Deviance

For --, deviance is socially constructed because it's in the eye of the beholder. -- offer many explanations of deviance, but two of the best known are differential association theory and labeling theory. Critical evaluation: Differential association theory doesn't explain: Impulsive crimes, Crimes committed by people who have grown up in law-abiding families, Why only a minority of children who grow up in disadvantaged communities commit crimes, Why only one sibling may commit juvenile or adult crime. Critics have faulted labeling theory for not explaining why: (1) people are deviant before labeling occurs; (2) crime rates are higher in some parts of the country or at particular times of the year (as before holidays); and (3) labeling doesn't necessarily increase deviant behavior. Conflict theorists, in particular, criticize -- for ignoring structural factors—like poverty and low-paid jobs—that create or reinforce deviance and crime.

Bureaucracies

Formal organization designed to accomplish goals and tasks in an efficient and rational method. Characteristics: (Max Weber) Division of labor and specialization. Hierarchy of authority. Explicit written rules and regulations. Impersonality. Qualifications-based employment. Separation of work and ownership. A -- is a formal organization designed to accomplish goals and tasks in an efficient and rational way. -- aren't a modern invention but existed thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt, China, and Africa. Some -- function more smoothly than others, and some formal organizations are more -- than others. Whether they're relatively small (a 100-bed hospital) or huge (the Social Security Administration), -- have some common characteristics. A "rational matter-of-factness," Weber maintained, makes -- more productive by "eliminating from official business love, hatred, and all purely personal, irrational, and emotional elements." Weber viewed -- as superior to other forms of organization because they're more efficient and predictable. He worried, however, that -- could become "iron cages" because people become trapped in them, "their basic humanity denied."

Social Class (Open Stratification System)

Group of people who have a similar standing or rank in society based on wealth, education, power, prestige, and other valued resources.

Who Decides What is Deviant

Groups with authority or power. Public attitudes and behavior. Laws. An important group is those who have authority or power. As we get older, laws also define what is --. Lawmakers pass numerous laws that people must obey, but often exempt themselves. Public attitudes and behavior also affect definitions of --. On the other hand, there has been considerable normalization of deviance, the gradual process through which unacceptable practices or standards become acceptable. Normalizing some types of -- generates considerable income, particularly at the state level.

Cybercrimes (Computer Crimes)

Illegal activities that are conducted online. Refers to illegal activities that are conducted online. These high-tech crimes include defrauding consumers with bogus financial investments, embezzling, sabotaging computer systems, hacking, and stealing confidential business and personal information. Since 2007, the leading reasons for data breaches have been hacking (illegal access to a computer), phishing (masquerading as a legitimate person or group to obtain a login name and password), and skimming (stealing credit card information). Criminals can use stolen information (e.g., social security numbers, addresses, and names) to file false tax returns, order credit cards, and drain people's bank accounts.

Victimless (Public Order) Crime

Illegal acts that have no direct victim. Are illegal acts that have no direct victim. Because crimes such as illicit drug use, prostitution, illegal gambling, and pornography are voluntary, the people involved don't consider themselves victims or report the offenses. Prostitutes argue, for instance, that they're simply providing services that people want, and drug users claim that they're hurting only themselves. Some contend that this term is misleading because -- often lead to property and violent crimes, as when addicts commit burglary, rob people at gunpoint, and engage in identity theft to get money for drugs.

Status Inconsistency

In many cases, however, there's -- if a person ranks differently on stratification factors. Consider funeral directors. Their prestige is relatively low, but most have higher incomes than college professors, who are among the most educated people in U.S. society and have relatively high prestige.

Street Crimes

Includes violent and property crimes. They're usually referring to violent crimes (e.g., murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault) that use force or the threat of force against others. Property crimes (e.g., burglary, motor-vehicle theft, arson) involve the destruction or theft of property, but offenders don't use force or the threat of force. Intellectual property theft—which includes offenses like software piracy, bootlegging musical recordings and movies, selling company trade secrets, and copyright violations—is primarily a middle-class crime, but the offenders are difficult to catch.

Explanations for Poverty

Individual failings: Culture of poverty perspective: Poor do not succeed because they are "deficient" or "inadequate." Effective remedy to poverty is to change people's attitudes and behavior. Structural characteristics: Macro-level factors create and sustain poverty. Effective remedy is changing structural forces.

Symbolic Interaction on Organizations

Individual's perception and definition of a situation shape group dynamics and organizations. Individuals make choices, change rules, and mold their own identities. Critical evaluation: Ignores macro-level factors that affect workers and consumers. Most people can't shape or change their situations. Whereas functionalist, conflict, and (some) feminist theorists examine groups and organizations on a macro level, -- focus on micro-level behavior. They emphasize that an individual's perception and definition of a situation shape group dynamics and, consequently, organizations. Group leaders or members can create or reinforce conformity (as shown in the Asch and Milgram studies). Informal groups can also determine what goes on in an organization by refusing to obey the rules and implementing their own (as in the Hawthorne studies). Thus, according to --, individuals make choices, change rules, and mold their own identities instead of being manipulated. -- also note that people's outcomes depend on how coworkers and bosses interpret the same behavior. Critical Evaluation: -- explains how members of groups and organizations interpret the world around them and, as a result, affect what goes on. However, --, a micro-level theory, ignores macro-level factors that affect workers and consumers. In contrast to -- claims, most people can't shape or change their situations. Formal organizations (the U.S. government and large companies) often invade the privacy of citizens, workers, or consumers by collecting information and monitoring people's behavior. Knowledge workers must share large, noisy, open office spaces and do much of their work when they get home at night.

Primary Deviance (Edwin Lemert View--Symbolic Interactionist on Deviance)

Initial act of breaking a rule. Can range from relatively minor offenses, like not attending a family member's funeral, to serious offenses, like rape and murder. Even if people aren't guilty of --, labeling can lead to secondary deviance, rule-breaking behavior that people adopt in response to others' reactions.

How Social Institutions Are Interconnected

Institutions are --. Consider the -- among seven institutions that affect obesity, a serious health problem. Medicine tells us that obesity is a major (and preventable) reason for disease, disability, and death, and for steadily rising health care costs. The mass media publicizes such information and medical advice about prevention. It also promotes unhealthy food through persuasive marketing techniques (e.g., free gifts, celebrity endorsements, false nutrition claims) on television and other electronic devices. In education, many schools now offer healthier meals, but school vending machines still sell high-fat snacks and sugary drinks. When state and local governments slash education budgets, schools decrease physical education and sports programs. At the federal level, the most recent food guidelines advise Americans to consume less saturated and trans fats and sugar, but don't tell people to avoid sodas, sugary drinks, and processed meat. Families contribute to the growing obesity problem. By the time children enter school, their parents have already shaped their eating habits and preferences. Parents and other family members can encourage physical activity, restrict certain foods, and limit exposure to mass media marketing that promotes unhealthy eating habits. The economy has far-reaching effects on obesity through its linkages to other institutions.

Secondary Groups

Large, usually formal, impersonal, temporary group of people who pursue a specific goal or activity. A -- is a large, usually formal, impersonal, and temporary collection of people who pursue a specific goal or activity. Your sociology class is a good example of a --. Other examples of -- include sports teams, labor unions, and a company's employees. -- are usually highly structured: There are many rules and regulations, people know (or care) little about each other personally, relationships are formal, and members are expected to accomplish specific tasks. They fulfill instrumental (task-oriented) needs. Once that is completed, they split up and become members of other --.

Effects of Social Class

Life chances: Opportunities to access social and economic resources that improve one's quality of life. --, more than any other single variable, affects practically all aspects of our lives. Max Weber referred to the consequences of social stratification as life chances—opportunities to access social and economic resources that improve one's quality of life (e.g., food, housing, education). People's life chances vary across institutions.

In-Groups

Members share a sense of identity and belonging that typically excludes and devalues outsiders. The "we." Make distinctions based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, social class, and other social and biological characteristics. These can promote -- solidarity and cohesion.

Poverty Line (Poverty Threshold)

Minimal income level that the federal government considers necessary for basic subsistence: Estimated based on annual cost of food that meets nutritional guidelines. Criticism—Does not include: Value of noncash benefits, child care, or cost-of-living expenses, particularly housing. Millions of Americans above the poverty line but rely on food banks, soup kitchens, and thrift stores.

Hate Crimes

Motivated by the fact or perception that the victims differ from the perpetrator. --, also known as a bias crime, is a criminal offense motivated by the fact or perception that the victims differ from the perpetrator. The attacks, often violent, are based on prejudice toward race, ethnicity, ancestry, religion, disability, sexual orientation, gender, or gender identity. Why do people commit --? In thrill --, the offenders are "just having fun" by attacking minorities, bashing gays, or destroying property. Perpetrators of defensive -- feel justified, even obligated, to protect their neighborhood against outsiders who are the "wrong" race, ethnicity, and so on. Retaliatory -- are motivated by revenge for a real or imagined incident (e.g., attacking Muslims after the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing).

Closed Stratification Systems

Movement from one social position to another is limited by ascribed status. They are considerably more fixed than open ones. Two exist today, slavery and castes.

Functionalist Perspectives on Deviance

Normal part of society. For --, deviance is a normal part of society. They don't endorse undesirable behavior, but view deviance as both functional and dysfunctional. Critical evaluation: Anomie and strain theory are limited. Fails to explain why: Women's crime rates are lower than men's. Crime rates have declined despite poverty and unemployment. People commit crimes that have nothing to do with being successful. Focuses on lower-class deviance and crime.

Labeling Theory by Howard Becker (Symbolic Interactionist on Deviance)

Not an act that determines deviance, but whether and how other's react. According to --, "The deviant is one to whom that -- has successfully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label" (emphasis in original). That is, it's not an act that determines deviance, but whether and how others react. Some people are never caught or prosecuted for crimes they commit, and thus aren't -- deviant. In other cases, people may be falsely accused (e.g., cheating on taxes) and stigmatized. In effect, then, deviance is in the eye of the beholder because societal reaction, rather than an act, -- people as law-abiding or deviant. Moreover, -- can lead to secondary deviance.

Absolute Poverty

Not having enough money to afford basic necessities of life. (What I Need).

Innovation (Robert Merton)

Occurs when people endorse the cultural goal of economic success but turn to illegitimate means, especially crime, to achieve the goal. Resorting to crime is functional for people who believe that they can't achieve success through hard work, education, and deferred gratification.

Conflict Theory on Organizations

Organizations Promote inequality that benefits the top of the hierarchy, not workers. Inequality means that owners and managers can easily exploit workers. Critical evaluation: Assumes that equality leads to a more successful and productive organization. Rarely credits organizations' support of controversial social issues. May focus too much on organizational deficiency. -- contend that organizations promote inequality that benefits the top of the hierarchy, not workers. Inequality in income, status, and other rewards means that owners and managers can easily exploit workers. Those at the top dictate to those at the middle and the bottom. Because organizations serve elites, -- argue, they routinely ignore workers' needs and interests. There's also considerable incompetence, waste, and corruption in many government agencies and big business. Besides wasting billions of taxpayer dollars, according to many federal employees, government agencies hire and promote incompetent people, offer few advancement opportunities and rewards for good performance, and keep increasing the layers of unnecessary executives and managers. Compared with government agencies, privately owned organizations have more freedom, authority, and control over activities and decision making, but at what cost? Because of these and similar problems, many Americans are disillusioned with a number of institutions and organizations. Critical Evaluation: -- has several weaknesses. First, it assumes that greater equality leads to a more successful and productive organization. However, self-managing work teams can fail because of ineffective team leaders or management interference. Employee-owned companies have bankrupted because of inexperienced management, competition, and low worker morale Second, -- rarely credit many organizations' supporting controversial social issues that promote greater equality. Third, do -- focus too much on organizational deficiencies? There are, after all, many organizations that are efficient, profitable, and that don't exploit their workers.

Social Institutions

Organized and established social system that meets one or more of a society's basic needs. Ensure a society's survival. Five major -- worldwide: Family Economy Government Education Religion A -- (or simply, institution) is an organized and established social system that meets one or more of a society's basic needs. There are five major social institutions, worldwide, that ensure a society's survival: The family replaces a society's members through procreation, socializes children, and legitimizes sexual activity between adults. The economy determines how a society produces, distributes, and consumes goods and services. The government (which includes police, military, and courts) maintains law and order, creates and enforces laws, regulates elections, and protects people's civil liberties. Education helps to socialize children, transmits values and knowledge, and teaches work-related skills. Religion offers meaning and purpose through shared beliefs, values, and practices related to the supernatural. Besides these core institutions, people develop new institutions in response to cultural changes. In the past, for example, the family and religion addressed most health problems. Only in relatively recent times have medicine and health care systems emerged as distinct institutions that diagnose, treat, and try to prevent illness and disease. Because of technological and economic changes, the mass media is another relatively recent institution. It disseminates information to a large audience, creates desires for goods and services, influences our attitudes about social issues, and reinforces a society's values and beliefs.

Social Structure

Organized pattern of behavior that governs relationships. An organized pattern of behavior that governs people's relationships. Since they shape our actions, life is typically orderly and predictable rather than chaotic or random. We're often not aware of the impact of them until we violate cultural rules, formal or informal, that dictate our daily behavior—whether in class, at home, at work, or in an airplane. Every society has a one that encompasses statuses, roles, groups, organizations, and institutions.

Socioeconomic Status (SES) (Social Class)

Overall ranking of a person's position in a society. Based on income, education, and occupation. Social classes differ in values, power, prestige, social networks, and lifestyles.

Master Status

Overrides other statuses. It forms an important part of one's social identity. A -- status overrides other statuses and forms an important part of a person's social identity. It is usually immediately apparent, makes the biggest impression, affects others' perceptions, and, consequently, often shapes a person's entire life. Some -- statuses (sex, age, race) are ascribed. Whatever you do, for example, people will see you as male or female and react accordingly. Other -- statuses are achieved. For many people, their occupation is their -- status" occupation tends to be the first thing we think about when we meet someone; conveys much information about income, education, skills, and achievements; and lingers after we have left our jobs. Other achieved -- statuses can be based on religion, community leadership, family wealth, or deviant behavior.

Why Social Institutions Are Important

People create -- to address basic needs or problems. Institutions have an organized purpose, weave together norms and values, and, consequently, guide behavior. They may differ across countries, but each institution carries out certain tasks in a particular society that contribute to its overall functioning and stability. No two families are exactly alike, but the family institution affirms broadly shared cultural agreements about what a family should be and do. In the same vein, no two grocery stores are exactly alike, but the economy establishes and maintains a variety of rules that make food shopping predictable. Institutions aren't just "somewhere out there." We create, live inside, change, resist, and reproduce them, and participate simultaneously in multiple institutions. Understanding institutions, and how they're interconnected, can tell us a lot about how a society functions. Address basic needs or problems. Guide behavior through norms and values. Contribute to overall functioning and stability of society.

Rebellion (Robert Merton)

People feel so alienated that they want to change the social structure entirely by substituting new goals and means for the current ones. Contemporary examples are terrorists and U.S. militia groups that oppose the federal government

Ritualism (Robert Merton)

People have modest aspirations, but follow customs and rules because they enjoy doing so or they want to keep their jobs. -- aren't criminals, but they're deviant because they've given up on becoming financially successful. Instead, they do what they're told and "go along to get along."

Differential Association Theory by Edwin Sutherland (Symbolic Interactionist on Deviance)

People learn deviance through interaction, especially with significant others. We're products of our socialization. -- asserts that people learn deviance through interaction, especially with significant others like family members and friends. People become deviant, according to sociologist --, if they have more contact with significant others who violate laws than with those who are law-abiding. In effect, people learn techniques for committing criminal behavior, along with the values, motives, rationalizations, and attitudes that reinforce such behavior. That is, deviance isn't inherent but learned through interaction with others. -- emphasized that -- doesn't occur overnight. Instead, people are most likely to engage in crime if they're exposed to deviant values (1) early in life, (2) frequently, (3) over a long period of time, and (4) by significant others and reference groups (e.g., parents, siblings, close friends, and business associates). Considerable research supports --. Thus, according to --, we are products of our socialization.

Robert Merton's Strain Theory (Functionalist)

People may engage in deviant behavior when they experience a conflict between goals and the means available to obtain the goals. -- expanded the concept of anomie to explain how social structure helps to create deviance. According to --, Americans are socialized to believe that anyone can realize the American dream of accumulating wealth and being successful economically. To achieve the cultural goal of economic success, society emphasizes legitimate and institutionalized means such as education, hard work, saving, starting at the bottom and working one's way up, and making sacrifices instead of seeking instant gratification. -- posits that people may engage in deviant behavior when they experience a conflict between goals and the means available to obtain the goals. Not all people turn to deviance to resolve --. Most of us conform by working harder and longer to become successful. -- other four modes of adaptation signify deviance. • Innovation occurs when people endorse the cultural goal of economic success but turn to illegitimate means, especially crime, to achieve the goal. • Resorting to crime is functional for people who believe that they can't achieve success through hard work, education, and deferred gratification. • In ritualism, people have modest aspirations, but follow customs and rules because they enjoy doing so or they want to keep their jobs. Ritualists aren't criminals, but they're deviant because they've given up on becoming financially successful. Instead, they do what they're told and "go along to get along." • In retreatism, people reject both the goals and the means for success. They try to escape their failure by withdrawing—mentally, physically, or both—through alcohol and other drugs, becoming drifters, living in the streets, or otherwise dropping out of society. • In rebellion, people feel so alienated that they want to change the social structure entirely by substituting new goals and means for the current ones. Contemporary examples are terrorists and U.S. militia groups that oppose the federal government.

Slavery System (Closed Stratification)

People own others as property and have almost total control over their lives. The -- have been kidnapped, inherited, or given as gifts to pay a debt. They're bought and sold as commodities, sometimes multiple times.

Retreatism (Robert Merton)

People reject both the goals and the means for success. They try to escape their failure by withdrawing—mentally, physically, or both—through alcohol and other drugs, becoming drifters, living in the streets, or otherwise dropping out of society.

Out-Groups

People who are viewed and treated negatively because they are seen as having different characteristics. -- members are people who are viewed and treated negatively because they're seen as having values, beliefs, and other characteristics different from those of an in-group. The "they." Make distinctions based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, social class, and other social and biological characteristics. These can create conflict and provoke inhumane actions including wars, massacres of -- members, and civil wars.

Status Consistency

People who experience -- are about equal in terms of wealth, prestige, and power. A Supreme Court justice, for instance, is usually affluent, enjoys a great deal of prestige, and wields considerable power.

Reference Groups

People who shape our behavior, values, and attitudes. An in-group or an out-group can become a --, people who shape our behavior, values, and attitudes. -- influence who we are, what we do, and who we'd like to be in the future. Unlike primary groups, however, -- rarely provide personal support or face-to-face interaction over time. -- might be people with whom we already associate (a college club or an athletic team). They can also be groups that we admire and want to be part of (teachers or doctors). Each person has many --. Identification with each of these groups influences her or his everyday attitudes and actions. Like in-groups and primary groups, -- can have a strong impact on our self-identity, self-esteem, and sense of belonging because they shape our current and future attitudes and behavior. We typically add or drop -- throughout the life course. If you aspire to move up the occupational ladder, your -- may change from entry-level employees to managers, vice presidents, and CEOs.

Caste System (Closed Stratification System)

People's positions are ascribed at birth and largely fixed. People's places in the hierarchy are determined by inherited characteristics. A second type of closed stratification system, people's positions are ascribed at birth and largely fixed. Their places in the hierarchy are primarily determined by inherited characteristics such as race, skin color, gender, family background, or nationality. People must marry within their --; there are severe restrictions in their choice of occupation, residence, and social relationships; and people rarely move from one -- to another.

Class System (Open Stratification System)

People's positions are based on both birth and achievement. A relatively open stratification structure—people's positions are based on both birth and achievement. Because achieved characteristics (e.g., education, work skills, occupation) can change, people in open stratification systems can move from one social class to another.

Labeling Theory by Edwin Lemert (Symbolic Interactionist on Deviance)

Primary deviance: Initial act of breaking a rule. Secondary deviance: Rule-breaking behavior adopted in response to others' reactions. -- developed-- by differentiating between primary and secondary deviance. Primary Deviance is the initial act of breaking a rule. Primary deviance can range from relatively minor offenses, like not attending a family member's funeral, to serious offenses, like rape and murder. Even if people aren't guilty of primary deviance, -- can lead to secondary deviance, rule-breaking behavior that people adopt in response to others' reactions. According to --, a single deviant act will rarely result in secondary deviance. The more times a person is --, however, the higher the probability that she or he will accept the -- and engage in deviant behavior. There is considerable evidence that -- affects people's lives.

Social Interaction

Process of acting toward and reacting to people around us. Central to all human activity, can be cooperative or competitive, and can be interpreted in various ways across cultures and groups over time. The process of acting toward and reacting to people around us. Verbal, nonverbal, face-to-face, or on social media. It is central to all human activity, can be cooperative or competitive, and can be interpreted in various ways across cultures and groups over time. As people interact, they create social structure.

Primary Groups

Relatively small group of people who engage in face-to-face interaction over an extended period. A -- is a relatively small group of people who engage in intimate face-to-face interaction over an extended period. --, such as families and close friends, are our emotional glue. They have a powerful influence on our social identity because we interact with them on a regular basis over many years, usually throughout our lives. Because -- members genuinely care about each other, they contribute to one another's personal development, security, and well-being. They meet our expressive (emotional) needs.

Prestige Base of Stratification

Respect or recognition attached to social positions. -- is based on many criteria, including wealth, family background, power, and accomplishments. We typically evaluate people according to the kind of work they do. Higher -- occupations include physicians, lawyers, pharmacists, college professors, architects, dentists, and teachers. Legislators, police officers, actors, librarians, realtors, and firefighters are examples of jobs at a medium -- level. Occupations at the lower -- level consist of janitors, carpenters, bartenders, garbage collectors, truck drivers, and food servers.

Secondary Deviance (Edwin Lemert View--Symbolic Interactionist on Deviance)

Rule-breaking behavior adopted in response to others' reactions. Even if people aren't guilty of primary deviance, labeling can lead to --, rule-breaking behavior that people adopt in response to others' reactions. According to --, a single deviant act will rarely result in --. The more times a person is labeled, however, the higher the probability that she or he will accept the label and engage in deviant behavior.

Functionalism on Organizations

Social groups and organizations are composed of interrelated, mutually dependent parts. Groups and organizations may be dysfunctional. Critical evaluation: Exaggerate cooperation and tend to gloss over worker dissatisfaction and alienation. Issue whether informal social networks improve worker morale and control as much as claimed. From a --, however, investing more in equipment than workers is a rational bureaucratic response to the rising costs of health care benefits and economic competition from other countries Critical Evaluation: For critics, especially conflict theorists, -- exaggerate cooperation and tend to gloss over dysfunctions like worker dissatisfaction and alienation. Another issue is whether informal social networks improve worker morale and control as much as -- claim. After all, a tedious and monotonous job is tedious and monotonous regardless of the degree of informal coworker interaction.

Achieved Status

Social position attained by personal effort or assumed voluntarily. An -- status, in contrast, is a social position that a person attains through personal effort or assumes voluntarily. Your -- statuses might include college graduate, mother, and employee. Unlike ascribed statuses, our -- statuses can be controlled and changed. Religion and social class are -- because people can convert religions and can grow wealthy or poor.

Status

Social position occupied by a person in a society. Determines social identity. For most people, the word signifies prestige. For sociologists, it is a social position that a person occupies in a society. Thus, executive, secretary, physician, and nurse are all social --. Other examples are musician, voter, sister, parent, police officer, and friend. Sociologists do not assume that one position is more important than another. Instead, all are significant because they determine social identity, or who we are.

Ascribed Status

Social position that a person is born into. An -- status is a social position that a person in born into. We cannot control, change, or choose our -- statuses, which include sex, age, race, ethnicity, and family relationships. Examples are male, Latino, and brother.

Feminist Theory Perspectives on Deviance (Patriarchy)

Social system in which men control cultural, political, and economic structures. Explanation for female victimization. A social system in which men control cultural, political, and economic structures—produces violence against women. In -- societies, including the United States, because women have less access to power, they're at a disadvantage in creating and implementing laws that protect females. Such inequity diminishes women's control over their lives and increases their invisibility as victims.

Social Stratification

Society's ranking of people based on their access to valued resources such as: wealth, power, and prestige. -- is a society's ranking of people based on their access to valued resources such as wealth, power, and prestige. All societies are --, but some more than others. Sociologists distinguish among -- systems based on the extent to which they're open or closed.

Labeling Theories by Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert (Symbolic Interactionist on Deviance)

Society's reaction to behavior is a major factor in defining oneself or others as deviant. -- Not an act that determines deviance, but whether and how other's react. The reactions of others are the crux of -- , which holds that society's reaction to behavior is a major factor in defining oneself or others as deviant. Some of the earliest sociological studies found that teenagers who misbehaved were tagged as delinquents. Such -- changed the child's self-concept and resulted in more deviance and criminal behavior. During the 1950s and 1960s, two influential sociologists—--—extended --.

Criminal Deviance

Sociologists are especially interested in --, behavior that violates laws, because most of the transgressions are visible, publicized by the media, and threaten people's lives or property. Includes street, hate, white-collar, corporate (organizational), cyber, organized, and victimless (public order) crimes.

Measuring Crime (UCR-FBI's Uniform Crime Report)

Sources of crime statistics. Consists of crimes reported to the police and arrests made each year. The -- data are crimes reported to the police and arrests made each year. The statistics are useful in examining trends over time, but the -- doesn't include offenses such as corporate crime, kidnapping, and Internet crimes; simple assaults (those not involving weapons or serious injury); nor the 53 percent of all violent crimes (e.g., rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) and 65 percent of property crimes (e.g., burglary and motor vehicle theft) that aren't reported to the police. Because of such limitations, many sociologists also use victimization surveys to measure the extent of crime.

Noncriminal Deviance

Such as suicide, alcoholism, lying, mental illness, and adult pornography—is common.

Power Base of Stratification

The ability to influence or control the behavior of others despite opposition. Wealthy people generally have more -- than others in dominating top government and economic positions. Even if they don't hold a political office or a corporate position, the most -- people make the nation's important decisions.

Characteristics of Prestige Base of Stratification

They require more formal education (college or postgraduate degrees) and/or extensive training. Physicians, for example, must fulfill internship and residency requirements after receiving a medical degree. They're primarily nonmanual and require more abstract thought. All jobs have some physical activity, but an architect must use more imagination in designing a building than a carpenter, who usually performs very specific tasks. They are paid more, even though there are some exceptions. A realtor or a truck driver may earn more than a registered nurse, but registered nurses are likely to earn more over a lifetime because they have steady employment, health benefits, and retirement programs. They're seen as socially more important. An elementary school teacher may earn less than the school's janitor, but the teacher's job is more -- because teachers contribute more to a society's well-being. They involve greater self-expression, autonomy, and freedom from supervision. A dentist has considerably more freedom in performing her or his job than a dental hygienist. In effect, then, higher -- occupations provide more privileges.

Social Groups

Two or more people who share some attribute and interact with one another. Includes a sense of belonging. A -- is two or more people who share some attribute and interact with one another. They have a sense of belonging or "we-ness." Friends, families, work groups, religious congregations, clubs, athletic teams, and Vietnam veterans are all examples. Each of us is a member of many --, but we identify more closely with some -- than others. Some are small and personal (families); others are large and impersonal (financial organizations). Some are highly organized and stable (political parties); others are fluid and temporary (high school classmates). The most basic types of -- are primary and secondary groups.

Deviance

Violation of social norms. Characteristics: Can be a trait, a belief, or a behavior. Accompanied by social stigmas. Varies across and within societies. Varies across situations. Formal or informal. Perceptions of deviance change over time. All are examples of -- —violations of social norms. Unlike the general public, sociologists use the concept -- nonjudgmentally: They're interested in understanding and explaining why all of us violate norms from time to time, and why people judge some acts (hacking) more negatively than others (subscribing to an infidelity site). -- becomes crime , a violation of society's formal laws, when it breaks rules that have been written into law and enforced by a political authority. -- is universal because it exists in every society. Still, deviance can vary quite a bit over time, from situation to situation, from group to group, and from culture to culture.

Crime

Violation of society's formal laws. Deviance becomes -- , a violation of society's formal laws, when it breaks rules that have been written into law and enforced by a political authority.

Bureaucratic Dysfunctions

Weak reward systems, rigid rules, goal displacement, alienation, communication problems, iron law of oligarchy, and dehumanization. Weak reward systems reduce the motivation to do a good job and are thus a major source of inefficiency and lack of innovation. Besides low wages or salaries, weak reward systems include few or no health benefits, little recognition, unsafe equipment and work environments, and few incentives to be creative. Rigid rules squelch creativity and can lead to goal displacement , a preoccupation with rules and regulations rather than achieving the organization's objectives. A global management consultant criticizes companies for creating numerous "dumb rules" that hobble the best and most talented workers: "The more rules, the less passion, which means less motivation." Rigid rules and goal displacement often lead to alienation, a feeling of isolation, meaninglessness, and powerlessness. Alienation—at all levels—may result in high turnover, tardiness, absenteeism, stealing, sabotage, stress, health problems, and in some cases, whistle-blowing (reporting organizational misconduct to legal authorities). Communication problems are common in bureaucracies. Because communication typically flows down rather than up the hierarchy, employees (and many managers below the highest echelons) rarely know what's going on. Supervisors and their subordinates may be reluctant to discuss problems or offer suggestions because they fear being criticized, demoted, or fired. Communication problems also waste time and resources. An employee prepared a monthly report for nearly three years because no one ever mentioned that the company no longer needed it (Harnish, 2014). The iron law of oligarchy is the tendency of a bureaucracy to become increasingly dominated by a small group of people. A handful of people can control and rule a -- because the top officials and leaders monopolize information and resources. As a result, those at the top maintain their power and privilege. The cumulative effect of these and other -- can result in a dehumanization that stifles organizational creativity and freedom. As a result, work becomes more automated and impersonal.

Patriarchy, Gender Roles, and Rape Culture

What are the 3 explanations for women's victimization by Feminist Theory?

Wealth, Prestige, and Power.

What are the bases of stratification?

Age: children under 18 are 34% of poor population. Gender and Family Structure: women's poverty rates are higher than men's. Feminization of poverty is the disproportionate number of the poor who are women. Race and Ethnicity: there are more poor whites than poor Latinos, blacks, or Asians. Whites and Asian Americans are less likely to be poor than other racial ethnic groups. Education: increasingly, education separates the poor from the non-poor.

What are the major groups that are poor?

Slavery and Castes

What are the two closed stratification systems?

Differential Association Theory and Labeling Theory

What are the two symbolic interactionist explanations for deviance?

Class System and Social Class

What are the two types of open stratification systems?

Absolute and Relative

What are the two ways of defining poverty?

Upper, Middle, Working, and Lower Classes.

What is the American Class Structure?

Global Stratification

Worldwide inequality patterns: Result from differences in wealth, power, and prestige. Varies across regions and is pervasive. Women and children face the greatest inequality across all nations. Infant mortality rate: Number of babies under age 1 who die per 1,000 live births in a year. Linked with women's low education level. All societies are --, but more than 75 percent of the world's population lives in countries where economic inequality has widened, increasing the possibility of social class tension and conflict.