SOC 200 Ch. 9

field jottings

Brief quotes, phrases, and key words that are recorded by field researchers while in the field.

Interviews (feature of qualitative research)

"observation is primarily the researcher's take on social action, whereas the interview is the participant's take." most interviewing in field research occurs informally, in ordinary convos and as a natural extension of observation (Field interviewing may begin with questions that orient the researcher to the setting or group, such as: "Where can I find this?" "What is that?" "Who is she?" "What does she do?" Eventually, questions are aimed at expanding information about specific actions and events as well as probing their deeper meanings) - field researches devote much of their time to asking questions such as: what are they supposed to do? why did she do that? why is that done? After researchers have been in the field for a while and have begun to develop an un- derstanding of the setting, they may conduct formal interviews to secure more detailed information on individuals and to round out and check information already obtained. (researchers schedule and prepare q's in advance of formal interviews) - generates qualitative data consisting of what interviewees said and in some cases HOW they said it Formal qualitative interviews, particularly when used as a *stand-alone method*, are synonymous with in-depth interviews, sometimes called "intensive" interviews

in-depth interviews: share 3 characteristics

(1) they are intended to yield rich and detailed information on participants' experiences and interpretations; (2) they primarily make use of open- ended questions, which require interviewees to answer in their own words (see Chapter 8); and (3) they are generally flexible. [def.] type of formal interview intended to yield deep responses through open-ended questions and a flexible format. in order to yield deep responses, rapport (trust) must be established w/ the interviewee the interviewer and interviewee are said to be "conversational partners", responsible for the "co-generation of data" = this also makes face- to face interviewing by far the primary mode of data collection final reports produce data that take the form of interviewees' verbatim statements, sometimes vividly describing their thoughts or experiences

reflexivity (feature of qualitative research)

*qualitative research relies on a different way of knowing than quantitative research. The qualitative researcher is an "instrument" of the research itself* researcher's understandings are greatly shaped by his/her relationships with the people being studied, which themselves are a product of the researcher's experiences and personal characteristics, such as race, class, gender, and sexuality. *Reflexivity* refers to the researcher's reflections on how these factors influence his or her knowledge of what is being studied. Reflexivity occurs throughout the research process, and in final reports of the study, researchers' reflections are intended to promote transparency and help the reader evaluate findings

The process of conducting field research

*the general process for answering qualitative research questions IS DIFF than the process for answering quantitative research questions* the research questions themselves tend to be broader, sometimes called *guiding questions* than those posed in surveys and experiments

major steps to conducting field research

1. select a research setting/ group 2. gain access 3. establish roles and relationships 4. decide what to observe/ whom to interview 5. gather and analyze data 6. leave the field 7. write the report (the steps are interrelated; they may not be completed in the same order; and the researcher may move back and forth b/w them) [ex] a researcher may select a setting or group to study and then gain access; alternatively, he or she may gain access first and then choose to conduct a study

covert observation

A form of observation in which the researcher conceals his or her identity as a researcher. major strength of covert observation is that it overcomes the problem of reactivity effects in overt observation. When people do not know they are being observed, they may act more "naturally." This strength, however, can be offset by a serious ethical weak- ness: covert observations may invade privacy and, by definition, prevent the observed from providing their informed consent. the extent to which this is ethically questionable depends on the nature of the research setting and the researcher's role in the setting. For example, nonparticipant, covert observation in public settings such as a restaurant or waiting room rarely is a problem. However, when the researcher gains access to a private setting such as home, private office, or closed meeting, without divulging his or her role as a researcher, this is clearly an invasion of privacy. it may not be possible to completely conceal one's identity, for practical and ethical reasons

overt observation

A form of observation in which the researcher identifies himself or herself as a researcher to those who are being observed. most field research involves this kind of observation In many cases, assuming an overt observer role may be a prerequisite for gaining access to a setting or group (Lofland et al. 2006). It also may be necessary to let participants know they are being observed when the researcher's presence would elicit questions or arouse suspicion. A limitation of overt observation is that participants may change their behavior when they know they are being observed, just as in laboratory experiments Even under the most overt form of observation, the emergent and flexible nature of field research often results in the researcher being in settings, situations, or groups when not all participants know they are being observed.

interview guide

A list of topics and specific questions to be asked in a qualitative interview.

guiding questions

A relatively broad research question that guides the initial stages of qualitative research. are usually accompanied by a set of more focused research questions which may emerge during the course of research (ex.) Smith's guiding question concerned the meaning of transnationalization processes in migrants' lives, while his more focused questions concentrated on the intersections among transnationalization, politics, gender, and migrant status. Because preconceived images can be very misleading, researchers may attempt to avoid preset hypotheses and instead let their observations and interviews guide the course of the research. With time, however, hypotheses may emerge, as they did in Smith's field research.

analytic memo

An adjunct (supplement) to field notes in field research that consists of recorded analyses that come to mind in going over notes and observations.

field notes

Detailed written accounts of field observations, which may also include a researcher's reflections and preliminary analyses.

select and recruit interviewees (step 1/ in-depth interviews)

Her identification of potential interviewees began with her research question, which focused on first-, second-, and third-generation Mexican Americans. (pg. 274) - Previous research had examined the experiences of the first and second generation, but had largely neglected the third. The third generation also was of personal interest..... - Finally, she selected the Santa Barbara/ Los Angeles counties and San Francisco Bay area as sites for her research because the former have historically been a major immigrant destination and the sites have large Hispanic populations To recruit interviewees who met the research profile, Vasquez began by contacting several organizations. At first she "sent letters of inquiry"; then she "followed up with phone calls to the principals of twenty-one high schools, heads of thirteen Hispanic chambers of commerce, and twelve priests of Catholic churches" Just as personal characteristics shape access in field research, they also shape recruit- ment efforts in interview research. Like Smith, Vasquez was reflexive about this. For example, she notes that her part-Latina identity and research topic "facilitated a bond with the people involved with the Hispanic chambers of commerce that allowed me to be quickly embraced" As you embark on your own in-depth interview study, your research question will likely provide general guidance about whom to interview. For reasons of convenience and accessibility, however, you may need to limit your focus.

gather data (step 3/ in-depth interviews)

In qualitative interviews, the quality and depth of the data partly depend on the rapport that the interviewer establishes with the interviewee. Prior to beginning the formal interview, you should explain the nature of the study and acquire verbal or written consent; you also should ask permission to use an audio or tape recorder if that is part of the research. The rest of the interview process largely depends on the type of interview being con- ducted—its focus, level of structure, and the number of participants. As is typical w/ in-depth interviews, Vasquez's questions were not rigid and each interview was "unique." (Depending on interviewer-interviewee dynamic and rapport, an interviewee's life history, and personal style, the interview takes on its own form") Regardless of the type of interview, the interview typically ends with the researcher thanking the participant, exchanging contact information, and assessing the participant's feelings. researchers need to be particularly sensitive to potential risks to inter- viewees such as discomfort; they also should remind interviewees that they are not therapists and provide them with necessary resources after the interview is completed like observational data, interview data may be recorded in jottings and more detailed notes, but it is recommended to use audio or video devices, either alone or in combination w/ jottings and notes (Recall, for example, that Vasquez recorded her interviews in addition to taking notes. This gave her a complete verbatim record to which she could return again and again)

strengths and limitations of qualitative research

Many social scientists favor qualitative research because they believe it addresses some of the limitations of experiments, surveys, and other quantitative methods. strengths: - naturalistic approach: field research involves observing people in their natural settings - in their homes, their places of work, where they volunteer, etc.; allows people to describe their feelings and experiences in their own words, similar to everyday conversation = captures the naturally occurring elements of social life - subjective & contextual understandings: can provide an in-depth understand- ing of socialcultural meanings, processes, and contexts; this understanding is achieved through the development of relationships and interactions (you see social processes that may otherwise be hidden); By participating in the activities of people being studied, field researchers especially can gain an insider's view of people's worlds that quantitative methods do not allow; Qualitative interviews can provide in-depth insights into people's thoughts, feelings, and experiences that may not be pos- sible without establishing the kind of rapport and trust with participants characteristic of this method. -flexible research design: Because of its flexibility, qualitative research lends itself well to studies of dynamic situations and settings as well as to studies of populations that otherwise may be difficult to access; the non- probability sampling techniques characteristic of qualitative research design afford researchers the flexibility to find these populations "where they are." (pg. 283) - We can add new pieces to the research puzzle or conjure entire new puzzles—while we gather data—and that can even occur late in the analysis." (quantitative researchers are fairly locked into their design) ////////////////////////////////// weaknesses: - generalizability: inability to generalize findings to a specific population. Qualitative research is particularly adept at providing theoreti- cal generalizations, but the strength of these inferences is contingent upon the care and judgment of researchers in selecting cases; One way to improve theoretical generalizations is to select cases based on their similarities with and differences from other cases. Another strategy is to sample in a way that maximizes variation in the settings and groups observed - reliability and validity: most qualitative research is carried out by a single observer or interviewer. The reliability and validity of the data, therefore, are highly dependent on the observational, interactive, and interpretive skills of the researcher; without the usual controls found in experiments and surveys, findings may be influenced more by the researcher's personal biases; and it is easy to imagine how another observer may see things quite differently. Furthermore, despite investigators' best efforts to blend into the setting and establish rapport as a way of encouraging partic- ipants to act and speak as they would "naturally," qualitative research may still be susceptible to reactive measurement effects. (One of the simplest ways to enhance reliability is to conduct team research with two or more investigators) *just as surveys may not yield honest and accurate answers to questions, in-depth interviews may not either* Qualitative researchers may also improve the quality of their data by comparing findings across different data sources: observations, interviews, and supplementary archival data. Cross-checking interviewees' accounts with other data, for instance, can assess the presence of reactiv- ity effects as well as the tendency for interviewees to forget or misremember. - efficiency: qualitative research can be labor-intensive and very time-consuming. To gain the kind of in-depth understanding that field research seeks to achieve, researchers must establish an accepted presence and develop relationships in the field, which can take a great deal of time and effort. And while in-depth interviews take considerably less time than field research to conduct, they tend to take longer than surveys because of the greater difficulty in selecting and recruiting interviewees and because of the greater investment made in each interview. (Moreover, the amount and the form of the data often make qualitative analysis far more time-consuming than the analysis of quantitative data) - pg. 284

ultimate goal of qualitative scientific research

NOT personal, but scientific - to build a general abstract understanding of social phenomena *methodological approaches* designed to address qualitative research questions, which focus on social context, cultural meanings, and processes. In this chapter, we discuss two of these approaches: *field research and in-depth interviews.*

non probability sampling (feature of qualitative research)

Qualitative research is also characterized by nonprobability sampling. It frequently in- volves the nonrandom (people are picked intentionally) selection of settings or groups of people. Furthermore, the time required to carry out observations and interviews tends to *restrict the possible sample size to a small number of cases* - Like much of field research, Smith's research represents a case study, where the "case" is the Ticuani community. (cases may be selected b/c (1) are conveniently located, (2) fit the research topic, (3) represent extreme or deviant instances of phenomena, and/or (4) provide relevant theoretical comparisons (pg. 253) Beyond the selection of a setting or group of people, qualitative researchers must decide what to observe. (nonrandom) To select her interviewees, Vasquez used multiple forms of nonprobability sampling. Using theoretical sampling, she intentionally selected people based on characteristics— namely, race/ethnicity and immigration status—that were relevant to her research. Furthermore, Vasquez made use of snowball sampling, whereby her interviewees re- ferred others to her. (nonrandom selection)

supplementary archival and other data (feature of qualitative research)

Qualitative researchers may also make use of a variety of other supplementary data, such as archival records and documents While some of these data—for example, time diaries and logs—may be generated by participants, researchers tend to use publicly accessible information When studying a group or organization, for example, researchers may examine organizational charts, brochures, electronic communications, and official records. the usefulness and choice of supplementary data depend on the understanding that the researcher wants to achieve and the setting, group, or participants being studied Documents and archival records may further establish the context of a study and serve as a cross-check of other data. one common source is govt. records (ex. Smith used a variety of statistics compiled by the U.S. and Mexican governments, New York City Planning Department, and Emergency Immigrant Census. He used these data to provide an overview of Mexican immigration and to document the educational and occupational outcomes of Mexicans in the United States) there are a variety of other supplementary data that researchers may use (ex. international telephone records) pg. 253 [photos/ videos/ visual materials]

establish roles & relationships

When field research involves a degree of participation, the researcher must balance the requirements of the roles of scientific observer and participant in a group or community, as a participant, the researcher must work out how he or she will relate to those in the field, which often amounts to assuming a particular role in the group or setting being observed forming relationships & rapport is essential to the type of info. that can be gathered you might assume a functional role in the setting (pg. 271) - At times, Smith also could relate more easily to others because of the functional role he assumed in the setting. For example, when he attended meetings of the Committee, he was seen as an "unofficial historian," as described earlier. In general, the more immersed you are in the setting and the closer you are to attaining full-member status, the greater the acceptance by others, and the more likely the opportunity to gather data on the most personal and intimate matters. - also allows researchers to supplement the data they gather w/ the greatest degree of their own subjective insight [full membership is intense and time consuming/ may have profound personal consequences/ can create conflict b/w the member and researcher roles]

key informant

a person from whom field researchers acquire info who is selected on the basis of knowledge, expertise/ or status within the group

ethnography

an alternate word, derived from cultural anthropology, to describe field research, esp. when it focuses on the culture of a group of people

overt vs. covert observation

another variation in field observation concerns whether the researcher reveals or conceals his or her identity as a researcher to those who are being observed. *overt observation*: the researchers status as a researcher is made known to others *covert observation*: opp. of overt observation *think (o)vert = open; (c)overt = closed*

general features of *qualitative research*

best to understanding the social context of people's lives, people's interpretations of their experiences, and social processes. 6 common features to qualitative research: - observation - interviews - supplementary archival and other data - nonprobability sampling - qualitative data analysis - reflexivity

grand tour q.

broad opening question in in-depth interviews that asks for a general description of the people, processes, or events being studied. Also called tour question. *great way to refine a guide is by posing the q. "Is there anything I did not ask but that I should have" at the end of the interview

field research

can be conducted on a variety of topics and settings - has 1 distinguishing feature: it is carried out in the field -> in a social setting familiar to the people being observed - w/ the goal of NOT disturbing the naturalness of the setting when it focuses on the culture of a group of people, whether near or afar, field research is referred to as an *ethnography* (term derived from cultural anthropology)

this chapter

captures the essence of *qualitative research* to make sense of our sociocultural surroundings by keenly observing others, interacting with them, posing questions, and analyzing people's experiences, including our own. This is not to say that everyone is a researcher or that common sense is all there is to it.

reflexivity (def.)

common practice in qualitative research, whereby a researcher reflects on how his or her characteristics and presence shape the research process

qualitative data analysis (feature of qualitative research)

data generally consist of written text from field notes and interview transcriptions, which require qualitative methods of analysis. Unlike researchers conducting experiments or surveys, qualitative researchers do not necessarily wait until all of the data have been collected to begin analysis. Rather, the hallmark of qualitative data analysis is an ongoing, iterative process in which data are compared across cases, time, and other relevant dimensions. (pg. 254) *inductive logic of inquiry, typical of qual- itative research*

gather and analyze data (step 4)

data that a field researcher gathers are vast and varied consisting of direct observations and experiences, interviews, and supplementary archival data *observations - primary data in field research, are recorded in a variety of ways* : to begin, a researcher may make an effort to remember sig. details of what is observed ----- Although these "mental notes" may serve as one source of the "record," memory is a poor substitute for a written record. During the course of observation, therefore, field researchers usually take *field jottings*—"little phrases, quotes, key words, and the like" [general rule: jottings should be made as inconspicuously (not clearly visible or attacking attention) as poss., which may req. that the researcher wait until participants are out of sight] Based on these jottings, field researchers then write a more complete set of *field notes*—that is, detailed written accounts of field observations—at the end of each day or as soon after the observations as possible (these notes are intended to be descriptive of what the researcher observed; may include what the researcher felt at the time as well as some preliminary analysis of the situation or setting) analysis usually begins in field notes, and it may also be carried out by writing *analytic memos* - is intended to help the researcher identify emergent (in the process of becoming prominent) empirical patterns and concepts in the data *qualitative analytic techniques are used throughout the process of field research, both during and after one has left the field*

develop interview guide (step 2 /in-depth interviews)

developing research questions We suggest that novice interviewers begin with semi-structured interviews, making use of an interview guide. An *interview guide*, sometimes called an interview protocol, includes at least a list of topics and, depending on the planned structure of the interview, specific questions. To the extent that the interview guide includes specific questions, this requires writing out the questions beforehand. - organized by broad topics but with specific questions. To draft an interview guide, first consider the two primary types of questions asked in in-depth interviews: main questions and probes. [main q's - most directly related to the research q.] - shaped by the researchers knowledge or experience/ the literature/ or preliminary research [probes - follow up q's used to gather additional detail and clarify responses] - they may be written into an interview guide or/ and asked spontaneously - An example of a probe in Vasquez's interview guide is the question asking for more information about experiences of discrimination: "What happened and how did you react?" (pg. 276) good example of a spontaneous probe: "If a respondent says, 'We got along fine,' the interviewer should ask something like, 'When you say that, what are you thinking of?' *As you write drafts of questions, you should carefully consider their wording* (q's should be clear and unbiased & should contain familiar words and avoid technical jargon) Yet, in-depth interviews allow researchers greater freedom in constructing questions because you need not specify response options, as in closed-ended questions, and you can make liberal use of probes to clarify and amplify the meaning of answers. Ordinarily, for example, it is not a good idea to ask too many either/or questions or questions that elicit one-word or brief responses; however, these can effectively set up probing follow-up questions. - q. order is also impt. However, the more flexible nature of in-depth interviews makes the exact placement of questions less important than the overall "rhythm" of the interview: *Ideally, the interview should begin with questions that are easy to answer and end on a neutral or positive note* opening q's may include a few background q's or a *grand tour* (or simple tour) q. - A tour question asks interviewees for a broad description of the people, processes, or events being studied - As the name implies, a tour question gives the interviewee an opportunity to "walk the interviewer around"

gain access (2nd step)

impt consideration in selecting a setting or group factors that shape a researchers ability to gain access: - personal characteristics (gender/ class/ race/ ethnicity/ religion/ sexuality/ disability status) [the most obvious instance of this is when a setting or group is explicitly closed to certain people] *these characteristics do not nec. determine access, - just b/c you do not share certain characteristics w/ the persons you wish to study, you should not automatically conclude that such research is impossible or even unusually difficult -nature of the study: whether the setting is public/ private/ or something in b/w (a public setting = free and open to everyone such as a park, entry is relatively easy) - typically do not need formal permission, although it can be a good idea to inform relevant authorities of the study [semi-public settings]- movie theaters/ stores/ and bars; is open to the public but there is gen. an expectation that people in these settings will purchase an item or "do" something - may be accused of loitering; formal permission may also be req. [private settings] - persons home; private club deny access all to but members and invited guests - others may be considered intruders - these settings typically req. formal permissions and may be the most challenging to access gaining access is a process that req's negotiation and renegotiation throughout the time one spends in the field (gatekeepers and other actors change; so do you and your research)

write the report (step 6)

in final reports of field research, data take the form of vivid descriptions and verbatim statements as well as analytic summaries The former are intended to provide the reader with an understanding of what it feels like to be in the setting or among the people being studied. (pg. 273) analytic summaries include discussions of themes/ patterns/ and anomalies (oddity) in the data - Smith's theme that the Ticuanenses were united in a search for recognition and respect is one such example. Another example is his analysis of Don Emiliano and Don Gerardo, which he calls a "paired comparison" because their similarities and differences aid in understanding the reasons for their different gender ideologies *As you embark on field research, don't underestimate the power of writing at all stages of your study* (clarifies analysis and deepens thoughts)

focus group

interview method in which a researcher collects data from a group by moderating a group discussion on a particular topic the researcher plays the role of the "facilitator" or "moderator" by posing q's and encouraging discussion from members of the group are conducted w/ people who may or may not know each other, and may range in size from as few as 4 or 5 participants to as many as 10 or 12 participants respond not only to the interviewers q's, but also to one another's responses (data is recorded in notes/ audio files/ and/ or on video) can be used as the only data collection method or in combo w/ other methods such as individual, in depth- interviews advantage: allows the researcher to observe social interaction among participants/ a researcher can gather info. from a greater # of participants at one time disadvantage: added extra layer of reactivity - Interviewees may provide responses that are not only socially desirable to the interviewer, but also to the other participants in the interview; similarly, participants may tend to go along with what others say. // ethics: they do not protect participants confidentiality (a researcher needs to ask participants to sign a disclosure statement asking them to protect one another's confidentiality)

individual and group interviews

interviews also vary in the # of participants one special type of group interview is a focus group - defined as "a research technique that collects data through group interaction on a topic determined by the researcher"

observation (feature of qualitative research)

is direct (usually w/ the naked eye rather than the sort of indirect observation that characterizes respondent's reports in questionnaires or interviews) takes place in a natural setting NOT a laboratory or other contrived situation *Field researchers, for whom observation is the primary method of data collection, record their observations in notes* (pg. 250) direct experience: integral part of field research and other qualitative research designs. (pg. 250) [wedding confrontation] - you understand the "emotional work" Observation and direct experience may also enrich the interpretation of data drawn mainly from interviews. (ex. Vasquez was given a tour of their house, which she describes as being "immaculately decorated, boasting art on the walls from Spain, Mexico, and Ecuador, as well as southwestern art hand crafted by Melissa's [the host's] father" (2011, 64). She took these observations as further evidence of "cultural maintenance" tendencies of the Benavides family - strong attachment to Mexican heritage

select a research setting/ group (step 1)

it SHOULD speak to the research question at hand and should allow the researcher to better understand meaning, process, and/ or actors' points of views researchers have diff. opinions on where to start in selecting a group or setting - "starting where you are"—that is, in a setting with which you are familiar. The advantage of starting where you are is that it facilitates entry. (ex. David Karp's (1996) study of depression as a "sufferer of depression" himself) On the other hand, Saldaña advises against "starting where you are," at least for novices who want to study their friends. - you may lose valuable insight into the process of "gaining entry" - in familiar settings, researchers may also experience prob's in overcoming in their own particular views of reality and of holding their feelings in abeyance (in state of suspension) wherever you start, you need to evaluate sites for their appropriateness/ access/ risks/ and ethics *you should also document WHY you selected a particular setting or group"

in depth- interviewing

may be used to complement observations in field research or as a stand alone method of data collection in contrast to survey interviews, they provide a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of interviewees' experiences and interpretations, as reported in their own words

qualitative researchers

often reflect on their status as an insider or outsider in the setting or group being studied and how this shapes what they know An insider is someone who, by virtue of their personal characteristics or experiences, is similar to the people being studied; an outsider is dissimilar (ex. Vasquez's part-Mexican heritage provided her with insider status, which, she acknowledges, shaped her research)

analyze data (step 4/ in-depth interviews)

once interview data are transcribed, they need to be analyzed primary means of analysis is coding, or sorting data into categories *qualitative interview data are sorted into categories represented by words, NOT NUMBERS as in survey research" moreover, codes are not usually predefined as in survey research, but rather emerge through an inductive analytic process (the analyst often attempts to identify broader themes and patterns and discern how they relate to one another) [ATLAS.ti] - pg. 280 (qualitative data analysis software program - to code and analyze data) In the final research reports, the product of data analysis can take the form of rich description, as in field research, and theoretical conclusions.

interview structure

one of the ways qualitative interviews vary is in their structure Surveys use structured interviews, whereas interviews in qualitative research are usually unstructured or semi-structured. An unstructured interview is guided by broad objectives in which questions are developed as the interview proceeds; a semi-structured interview has more specific objectives, but permits the researcher flexibility in whether and how they are pursued. In both types of interviews, rather than follow a pre-established script, the interviewer is free to adapt the interview to capitalize on the special knowledge, experience, or insights of respondents. the informal, casual conversations typical of field research are examples of unstructured interviews. *In-depth interviews* tend to be unstructured or semi-structured. Vasquez describes her in-depth interviews as semi-structured. Each interview was guided by a list of topics with specific, open-ended questions. At the beginning, she asked "for a narrative about the individual's biography, and then asked about his or her family's history" (2011, 27). Other parts of her interview "focused on issues of family and racial identity"

process of conducting in-depth interviews

parallels field research and involves the following steps: - select and recruit interviewees - develop interview guide - gather data - analyze data (The process may also be nonlinear, with the researcher moving back and forth between steps)

participant observation

participant observer is actively and intention- ally involved in the phenomena being observed; (def.) A form of observation in which the field researcher participates to some degree in the activity or group being studied. may req. that the observer live or work in an area (to gain an insider's view of reality) - clearly assumes that the observer will become an accepted member of the group or community, able to speak informally with the people—to "joke with them, empathize with them, and share their concerns and experiences" carries some risks: can be an emotionally stressful experience (likely to experience awkward and embarrassing encounters/ may also become sensitive to suspicious or hostile challenges to their intentions and "observer") - as Smith did when he first ran in the Antorcha and in his near confrontation with a local Ticuani youth. In fact, it is not unusual for fieldworkers to witness and to be pressured to participate in physically dangerous or morally and legally questionable activities. (to gain rapport for an insiders view)

decide what observe/ whom to interview (3rd step)

partly influenced by practical considerations It can be challenging to locate suitable observation sites, make fruitful contacts, and access records. Convenience, accessibility, and happenstance shape where researchers can begin to make observations, whom they will meet there, and whom they will find most informative. Research questions also influence what field researchers observe. Broader, guiding questions may lead researchers to simply observe as much as they can, - more focused q's may direct researchers to particular types of observation Traditionally, field researchers also have relied on information provided by *key informants*—also called key actors or insiders (Bailey 1996)—who are selected on the basis of their knowledge, expertise, or status within the group. --- For Smith, it was important to gather information from people with knowledge of the local and transnational processes in which he was interested.

variations in qualitative research methods

the most significant variations involve the *primary methods of data collection*: observation and interviews. Observation differs in the extent to which the researcher (1) participates in the social setting and (2) reveals his or her identity as a researcher. In addition to the level of formality, qualitative interviews vary in (1) structure and (2) whether research participants are interviewed individually or as a group.

nonparticipant observation

the nonparticipant is a passive and intentionally unobtrusive observer. *It is more accurate, however, to think of the two types of observation as poles of a continuum* (def) A form of observation in which the field researcher does not participate in the activity or group being studied. observing people typically without their knowing that they are being observed. (no interaction) As a separate, inclusive method, *nonparticipant observation is comparatively little used in research to address qualitative research questions.* Rather, it is often combined with some degree of participation.

gatekeepers and other permissions

the process of gaining access, according to Peregrine Schwartz-Shea and Dvora Yanow (2012, 58), is like negotiating passage through "gates of various sorts." gates = authorities in charge of a setting or group - traditionally called *gatekeepers* in field research - who can grant or deny permissions for entry concept of "gates" also refers to institutions or organizations from which permission may be needed to gain access (ex. legal permissions may be req.) (def.) relevant authority whose permission is needed to gain access to a setting or group obtaining formal permission from gatekeepers does NOT GUARANTEE interpersonal access - In Smith's study, the authority of the New York-based Committee over Ticuani affairs was contested, and in some cases resented, making interpersonal access to local Ticuani politicians more challenging.

leave the field (step 5)

the researcher must leave the field at some point given that field researchers often develop close relationships, this can be an emotionally difficult step

intro field research ex. "Mexican New York"

we live in an increasingly globalized society: (def.) - Globalization refers to the cultural, political, and economic interconnectedness of nations and people. - one driving force of globalization is the migration of people across national borders (as people move from one country to live in another, they have to negotiate at least 2 cultural worlds: their home country & their host country = currently living) = this is a response of assimilation or *transnationalism* (process by which migrants and their children remain linked to their home countries through regularly observed rituals and practices) Wanting to gain an insider's perspective on globalization and transnationalization, political scientist Robert Courtney Smith (2006, 3) asked what these "processes mean in people's everyday lives," why migrants and their children are interested in "maintaining relations with their home towns and countries," and how participation in these processes affects migrants' "experiences of assimilation in the United States. To address these questions, Smith drew on 15 years of field research in the com- munity of "Ticuani," a pseudonym for a 2,000-person town in southern Puebla, Mexico, near Mexico City - he studied the Ticuanenses—that is, people from Ticuani—about half of the population left for the United States, with New York the most common destination. Smith's research was carried out in Ticuani, Mexico, and New York began in 1988 in Ticuani and a neighboring town, El Ganado; continued in New York while inter- spersed with "five- or six-week trips [to Ticuani] from 1991 to 1993"; focused on women and the second generation (that is, the children of people born abroad) as part of another research project between 1994 and 1997; and concluded with a second round of intensive field work Smith focused on transnational life "in politics in the first generation, in gender relations in the first and second generations, and in the assimilation experiences of teenage students and gang members (drew a variety of data collected over a long period of time) Smith found that living in New York is not easy for the Ticuanense, nor for other Mexicans. Not only do they face discrimination similar to that encountered by other racial/ethnic minority and immigrant groups, but they also are forced to compete with these groups for jobs, education, housing, and other resources. (more info - pg. 245)